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32X 


1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

INDUSTRIAL  HISTORY 


CF    THE 


4 


UNITED   STATES, 

J?iam  tijc  IZarlicst  Srttlrmcnts  to  tijc  ^Jrcscnt  JCitUf: 

IIUING 

A  COMTLirrE  SURVEY  OF  AMERICAN  INDUSTRIES, 

EMIlKACING 

AGklCLI/l'URE  AND  IlORTICUl/rUUK;    INCLUDING  TilK  CULTIVATION 

UK  COITON,  TOIiACCO,  WIILAT;    TIIL   RAISING  OF   IK  )kSKS,  NLAT- 

CATII-K,    KTC;     ALL    TIIK     LMl'ORTANr     MANUFACTURES, 

SIIIITINCJ    AND    FISIILRIKS,    RAILROADS,    MINKS    AND 

MININ(;,    AND    OIL;     ALSO    A     IIISTORV    OF    THE 

COAL-.MINKRS  AND  TIIK   MOLIA'    MAGUIRKS; 

HANKS.    IXSURANCK,    AND    CO.MMKRCK; 

TRADK-UNIoNS,    SIRIKKS,    AND 

KU;HT-1I0UR    MOVKMKNT; 

TOOKTIIKK    WITH    A    DESCMI'TION    OF 

CANADIAN    INDUSTRIES. 


In  .Sfbfu  Boohp. 


COFIOUSLV  ILLUSTRATED    Wiril  AliOUT  THREE  HUNDRED  ENGRAVINGS  BY 

THE  MOST  EMINENT  ARTISTS. 


BY 

ALBERT    S.    BOLLES, 

LECTURER   IN    I'OLITK  AI.    FCDNOMY    IN    HOSTON    UNIVERSITV,   AND  AUTHOR 
OF    "the   (ONI- LICT    IlKTWEEN    LABOR    AND  CAPITAL,"   AND 
"CliArTEKS    IN    I'OLITICAL    ECONOMY." 


NOIJWKII,   CONN.  : 
Tlii-:    IIKNIIV    HILL    I'rnLISIIING    COMPANY. 

1SS1. 


0)i'YKic;iir,  1S78,  iiY 
The  Hknry  Bill  PuuLisiiiN(i  Comi-any. 


Franklin  Press: 

dlectroty/>{ti  and  Printed  I']/ 

Kami,  Avery,  dr"  Co., 

lioitOtt. 


PREFACE. 


Till' jircsent  work  was  projected  by  tlie  author  several  years  ago,  and  is 
now  given  to  the  i)iil)lic  in  tlie  belief  tliat  it  will  prove  really  iiseful, 
inasmuch  as  nothing  wordiy  of  the  name  has  appeared,  whilu  the  field  itself  is 
quite  as  deserving  of  study  as  any  other  portion  or  pha>e  of  American  history, 

A  great  variety  of  materials  have  been  collected  and  used  in  the  i)rescnt 
..ndertaking :  many  facts,  also,  have  been  gathered  from  conversation  with 
persons  who  were  more  or  less  familiar  with  some  special  bran(  h  of  American 
industry.  The  author  has  sought  to  make  jirojier  acknowledgment  for  all 
facts  and  incidents  herein  related,  though  doubtless  he  has  failed  to  do 
justice  to  every  work  and  author  from  whom  special  information  has  been 
drawn.  On  page  56  he  omitted  to  state  that  the  statistics  relating  to  ship- 
ments of  cotton  were  taken  from  Mr.  Dana's  valuable  work  entitled  "Cotton 
from  Seed  to  Loom  ;"  while  ought  to  be  mentioned,  that,  in  the  introductory 
chapter,  tree  use  has  been  made  of  the  short  but  excellent  sketches  of  Hen  : 
Perley  I'oore  ami  ("harles  T,.  I'lint  of  the  History  of  Agriculture  contained  in 
the  United-States  .\gricultural  Reports,  as  well  as  the  paper  of  the  latter  on 
Ann  rican  Horses  which  is  to  be  found  in  the  same  publication.  Likcwis<\ 
in  <lcs(  ribing  the  Pittsburgh  riots  of  1.S77,  liberal  use  was  made  of  the  mes- 
sage of  ( Icjv.  Hartranft,  which  contained  a  very  concise  and  truthful  account 
of  that  shocking  affair. 

\or  would  I  fail  to  express  my  very  great  inilebtedness  to  Henry  Hall  of 
"The  Xew-\'ork  Tribune,"  and  James  Hall  of  Norwich,  Conn.,  without  whose 
assistance  the  preparation  of  this  work  for  the  press  would  have  been  much 
longer  delayed. 

To  Mr.  C.  .\.  Cutter,  Librarian  of  the  Boston  Athenceum,  my  sincerest 

iii 


iv 


rKEl-ACE, 


thanks  ;iir  diu'.  and  au'  lnMiliv  li'mlrii'd,  r.)r  llic  cM'i'idiiiL'lv  liluTal 


usr  III   llic 


l)()iiks  ot  tlial  iiislitiition  ;  and  aKo  to  tlu'  l.ilnariaii  ol  tlir  IIdsIoh  I'lililic 
lahrary  lor  s]ie'(  ial  |ni\  ili-j^c  •  of  a  similar  cliaraittr.  I  wnuld  rmllirr  aild  my 
ol)Iigati()ns  to  \\w  Librarian  of  tlu'  A-^lor  l.il>rary  lor  ihr  privili'gf  of  (onsniling 
to  my  !)i'st  advanlai^i-  tlic  tri'asnp.'s  of  that  tolk-ction.     'I'lu'  ai»ls  llins  oltiaincd 


t'i'(.,  witlioiit   them,  il 


from  tlu'so  tliri'i'  noMi-  instiiulions  wen.-  iinalna'jK'  :   ind 

would  lia\r  Ih'iii  inipo^->ilil(.'  for  llii.'  author  to  have  (.'Xfi  iitiil  iIk'  juscnt  wori 

NokWK  II,  CnNN.,  (  l(t.  I  ;,  iS-S. 


PRiaAci-:  ic)  rill-:  tiiird  j:i)irioN. 


I  ^ilA  r  two  (.'ihlions  of  this  work  should  ho  exhausted  within  a  k-w  months 

-^     stroni;ly  \erilies  the  author's  lielief.  whi'n  writin,:;  it,  that  such  a  work  was 

needed.     Since  the  lirst  edition  was  i'.^ued.  i  hani^es  and  im])r(>veinents  in  the 

text  and   illu'lrations  ha\i'  hi'cn  made,  which,  it  is  believed,  will  render  the 

work  still  more  valuable  to  the  reader. 

Till';   AUriloK. 


M 


TABLE    OF    CONTENTS. 


HOOK   I. 

AGRICULTUIil-:  AND  HORTICULTURE. 
cii.\i'ri;i<  I. 

GlCNEKAl,    IFlSTOKV I-3I 

Introdiii  lory. —  Iiicllaii  AKrliMiltiire.  —  CulDiii.il  .\);rii:iilliirc  in  the  Southern  Colonics.  —  C^olo- 
nial  Agriculture  in  the  Ncw-KnKl.ind  ColoiiicN.  —  Krcncli  Colonial  AKfi'^i'lHirc.  —  FCKccts 
of  American  Kcvoliilion.  —  Causes  of  I'rogrcss  in  A(;riciiltiire.  —  Iloniestc.ul  Laws. — 
Agriciiltiir.il  Societies.  —  flranger  Movement.  —  Agricultur.il  I'.ducation  and  Literature. 
—  listablishnient  of  Stale  Hoards  of  Ayriculture. 

CII.MTI'.R    II. 
Agricultural  Impluments J2-45 

CliAI'TKR   III. 
Cotton 46-61 

CHAPTER   IV. 
Wheat 62-72 

CHAPTER   V. 
t;oRN 73-79 

CHAPTER  VI. 
Sugar  and  Molasses 80-89 

*                         CHAPTER   VII. 
Tobacco 90-98 

CHAPTER  VIII. 
Grass  and  Hay 99-iot 


VI 


cox  TENTS. 


CIIAPTKR   IX. 


Minor  Crops  , 


102-113 


CHAPTER  X. 


NeaT'Catti.e  .... 


•  •  •  •  • 


.    114-1:6 


CIIAPTKR   XI. 


l!liri:K    \Nt.  CllKKSE 


•  • 


•  • 


.    127-1^6 


'I'lii    IIdrsk 


ciiAPT  ;r  \ti. 


•  •  •  • 


i37-'»'i 


The  Trotiing-Horse.  —  The  Paunu-Horie. 

CIIAPTKR    XIII. 
SlIKEP 149-156 

CIIAPTKR    XIV. 
^«INK 57-163 


CIIAPTKR    W. 

Ilouin  I'l  iruK,  Ni'RsKKii-s,  and  Kri;it-K.m.iI.\.; 


.        .        .        .     164-181 


BOOK    II. 


Ar.Lvrr.iricRns. 


t 


CIKM'TIIR     I. 
M.\\iir.\r riiur  m    Ikon  and  Siir.i 

F.arly  Histnry.  —  Forty  Ycais  of  Roiircssioii  and  Striic^lc. — The  F.flcct  nf  T.irifTs. — The 
F.ra  of  AniliraritL-  Fuel  ami  ihc  Hot  I'.l  i^l.  —  Tin.'  ('■rowtli  of  Ivol'iii^Mllls.  —  Influence 
of  Paris  I'.xpo.ition  on  American  Iron-MannfaLtnrc.  —  The  Mannficlnrc  of  Sled. 


I.S5-216 


CIIAPTKR    n. 


Iron  and  Stkf.f.  MANrFAcrrKKs 


-17-315 


Nails.  —  Cnllcry.  —  Clocks  ami  Wati  hcs.  —  Iron  Piiios  and  Tubes.  —  I.oconiotlvcs.  — Scwing- 
Mai'hincs.  —  Fire-Arm-;.  —  Iron- working  M.u  liincn,'.  —  A\o>  and  Saws.  —  Stoves.  —  Safes. 
—  Iron  IJridges.  —  "riming- Presses.  —  Wire.  —  W.alcr-Wheels.  —  Locks.  —  Pumps. 


CIIAPTKR    III. 

Manui'actukks  ok  r>ni,n,  .Sii.vf.u,  and  Oniiu  Mktai.s 316-36S 

Coinage.  —Jewelry.  —  (Jold  and  S'her  Leaf.  —  Silver  T-dile-Warc.  — Copper  and  Prass  f'tcn- 
sils.  —  Bronze  W.'.ro  and  Statuary.  —  P.ells.  —  I.ead-Maniificturcs.  —  Stereotyping.  — 
Tin -Ware.  —Toys.  —  .\pplic.itions  of  7.u\c. 


.   I02-II3 

.  114-126 

.  127-136 

.  149-156 
■  '57-1^3 
.  164-181 


1S5-216 


:  1 7-3' 5 


3.6-368 


p. 


CONT/iNTS. 
CIIAPTKR    fV. 


Vii 


'Vnv.  M.\NiM-,\rri'KK  ok  Wooi 369-402 

(icm;r.il  lli>ii>ry  of  the  WrM.llcn.M.iniif.utiirc.  —  Spinning  and  Weaving.  —  Ham.  —  CarpeW, — 
ShoUUy.  —  Cloihiiig.  —  llii»icry. 


Till.   M.VNUKACnui..  ()!•    Col  ION 


Sll.K-M,\Nir|-.\<rijRK  . 


<   HA  I'll;  K    V. 


CIIM'lI'.k    VI. 


•  •  •  ■ 


403-426 


•  « 


•     427-tU 


CIIAI'TKR    VII. 

SllMl,    AND    f,I-.\ril|-.U    M.\Nll-,\(Tl!Rr.S     . 


I'MI.K    AM)    I'AI'KR-IIaNC.INCS 


(JlNl'OWDKU    ANI>    FlKKWOUKS 


CIIAI'TKR    VIII. 


CIIAITKR    l.\. 


•  ■  • 


CI  I  APT  I  ;r  X. 


Im>i  \-Rui!i;kk  Manuka 'M'urks 


•  •  • 


•    444-4  S^J 

4S7-4(.S 

469-47S 
.    47?-4^7 


«  •  • 


CIIAI'Tl.R    XI. 


Cll  KM  IC  A  I.    M  A  N  I  ■  KAC  ru  RKS 


488-4<.j6 


CIIAITKR    XII. 
WdiPi)  AND  oiiiKR  Manupactukks 497-559 

Liiniliir.  —  W  ol-Workiiit;  M;ii  Iiiiu:r>'.  —  Kiiniltiin;.  —  St.inh.  —Wine,  Spirits,  ,ind  Hccr. — 
Cord.iL;<;  ;mil  liTg.{in;4. — So.ip.  — Kliiiir.--  Mii'-icil  I ii>triimi;ms.  —  iMalclics. — Gl.iss- 
Ware  and  I'uUcry.  —  Ulue.  —  Vciiccriiii;.  —  C.irri.i^cs  and  Cars. 


CIIAI'TKR    XIII. 


Conclusion 


•  • 


560-565 


VVooDRN  Ships 


Steamboats 


BOOK    III. 

SHIPPIXG  .l.vn   R.\n. ROADS, 
CIIAI'TKR    I. 

CIIAPTKR    II. 


.    569-582 
•    583-595 


VIM  coA  //:x/s. 

CIIAI'TIK    III. 
Iron  Steamsmips 5</^r«2 

CII.M'TKK   IV. 
Canals ooj-fxjS 

CIIAI'TI'.K   V. 
TiiK  FisiiKRiES 009-618 

CIIAI'TKk   VI. 
Railkuads 619-664 

BOOK    IV. 

MLXES  AXD  M/MXG,   AM)   OIL. 

CIIAI'TKK    I. 
^I'N'NO 667-672 

General  History. 

CIIAITER   II. 
Go'-D 673-6S5 

CIIAI'TKR   III. 

S'l-VER 686-692 

CHAPTER  IV. 
L^AD 653.656 

CIIAPTKR  V. 
^""■''•'^ 697-703 

CHAPTER   VI. 

^"^^ 704-734 

Coal-Miners.  —  The  Molly  Maguires.  —  Later  History.  —  Bituminous-coal  Mining. 

CHAPTER  VII. 
^'^^'^ •.        .        .    735-747 

CHAPTER  VIII. 
Minor  Metals 748-70 


Ooj  -60.S 
609-618 
619-664 


.    667-67: 


673-685 


686-692 


COA'IEATS.  ix 

CHAI'TKK   IX. 
()lJARRYINO 754-759 

CIIAl'IKK   X. 
Sah 760-767 

cii.\i'ri.:<  XI. 

rKlRUI.Kt'M 768-780 

HOOK    V. 

BANKING,  /NSC/A\1NC/':,   AND   COMMERCE. 

CIIAITKR    I. 

Bankinc. 783-Sij 

Early  Colonial  Period.  —  First  fianU  of  the  United  Slates.  —  Second  Hank  of  the  United  States. 
—  St.itc  li.iiiks.  —  MassacliiiNetls.  —  New  York.  —  Oliio.  —  Indiana.  —  Illinois.  —  Ken- 
.iicky.  —  'Icnnessce.  —  Mississippi. 

CIIAITKR    II. 
Insurance S13-S49 

Marine.  —  I'ire.  —  Life.  —  Accident. 

ClIAITKU    III. 
Commerce S50-878 

Ante-Revolutionary  Period.  —  l'i)st-Rcvoluiiunary  Period. 


693-696 
697-703 


BOOK    VI. 


TRADE  UNIONS  AND  EIGHT- II OUR  MOVEMENT 


704-734 


CIIAITKR    I. 


Trade-Unions 


8S1-SS8 


735-747 


CHAPTKR   II. 


Eight-Hour  Movkment 


•  « 


SS9-S90 


748-753 


CIIAITKR    III. 
Later  History  of  Trade-Unions 


891-903 


CONSENTS. 


BOOK    VII. 

THE  INDUSTRIES  OE  CANADA. 
The  Industries  of  Canada        ....  907-936 

The  Fisheries.  —  The  L  unibcr-Tradi!.  —  Mining.  —  F.jrniing.  —  Manufacturing. 


t   I 


I 


'    I 


907-936 


BOOK  I. 


AGRICULTURE  AND  HORTICULTURE. 


!1 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY   OF   THE 
UNITED    STATES. 


CHAPTER   I. 


GENERAL   HISTORY. 


INTRODUCTORY. 

FOR  ages  historians  have  been  busy  in  writing  about  political  and  military 
events,  leaving  quite  out  of  sight  the  social  and  industrial  life  of  nations, 
as  unworthy  of  notice.     To  recent  historians  a  truer  historic  instinct  has  been 
given  ;  and,  by  uniting  with  it  a  broader  and  more  profound  cul-   uiff^gn^ 
ture,  they  are  setting  before  the  world   juster,  more  varied,  and   methods  of 
more  complete  pictures  of  the  civilization  of  the  past.     Other  his-   ^^'*'"e  his- 
torians there  are  who  exhibit  only  a  single  side  or  phase  of  material 
life,  but,  unlike  their  predecessors,  are  concerned  not  less  with  political  or 
military  events  than  with  social  and  industrial  characteristics. 

It  is  true  that  a  history  of  agriculture  is  free  from  those  startling  f,ensations 
which  spring  from  the  vivid  description  of  battles  and  other  operations  of  war, 
the  intrigues  of  diplomacy,  the  uncertain  and  checkered  course  of  importance 
legislation,  the  wild  freaks  of  rulers,  or  the  tragedies  and  comedies  of  history  of 
of  social  life.  But  agriculture  possesses  an  interest  for  us  as  deep  *s''"^"  *""■'* 
and  abiding  as  any  other  phase  of  history.  It  is  a  healthy  study  ;  for  we  arc 
taken  out  of  doors,  are  brought  into  intimate  relationship  with  Nature,  and 
learn  of  her  boundless  generosity  and  rewards  for  well-doing.  Moreover,  it  is 
a  history  of  some  of  man's  greatest  triumphs,  won,  not  by  striking  down  his 
brother,  but  by  conquest  over  Nature  through  accident  or  experiment. 

No  wonder,  then,  that  the  cultivation  of  the  soil  has  proved  so  attractive  to 
the  world's  greatest  men.  When  the  Roman  patrician,  Cincinnatus,  left  his 
farm  to  assume  the  dictatorship  of  Rome,  he  betook  himself  to   ^^ 

'  '  The  greatest 

his  gentle  occupation  as  soon  as  he  had   delivered   his    country   men  have 
from  the  enemy.      And  likewise  Washington,  when  retiring;  from   ''^^"  ^^"' 

I  r  r,     ■,  f^         '  t^  culturists. 

the    cares    of    state,    fled    to    Mount   Vernon,   where,  amid    his 
rich  and  numerous  acres,  he  daily  drank  heavy  draughts  of  pure  enjoyment, 

iirin.u:  an  anxious  civil    career  and  the  still 


longei. 


2  INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 

more  troubled  days  of  the  Revolution.  Kven  of  Webster  it  maybe  questioned, 
whether,  with  all  his  fitness  and  fondness  for  the  national  Senate,  he  did  not 
derive  greater  hajipiness  from  his  farm  in  Marshfield ;  for  what  fact  can  more 
touchingly  attest  his  attachment  to  it  than  his  dying  recjuest  for  his  cattle  to 
be  driven  one  by  one  i)ast  the  window  of  the  room  where  he  lay,  that  he  niiglit 
look  once  more  upon  them  before  his  eyes  were  forever  closed  ? 

Remembering  how  vast  is  the  sjjace  filled  by  agriculture  in  the  industries  of 

our  country,  no  further  jOstificatiun  is  recjuiretl  for  writing  its  histoiy.     For  a 

^.^^    long  period,  agricultural  products  have  led  the  list  of  exports  to 

for  writing  a   Other  countries,  and  will  lead  them  for  years  and  centuries  to  come. 

history  of        jj-  ,^  iij^tyry  of  the    efforts  to   destroy  life   be  worth  i)reservinir. 

agriculture.  ■'  j  v  a 

surely  a  history  of  those  means  in  which  so  many  are  engaged  to  s>is- 
tain  life  is  not  less  worthy  of  jjreservation.  The  famous  minister  of  Henry  IV. 
of  France,  Sully,  called  agriculture,  including  both  tillage  and  pasturage,  "  the 
two  breasts  of  the  state."  Strikingly  true  as  the  figure  is,  will  not  a  review  of 
the  subject,  by  showing  what  has  been  already  accomplished,  e.xcite  the  farmer 
to  new  experiments  and  incjuiry? 


I 

\i 

ij 

t         ! 

liji 
\ 

! 
1' 


INDIAN'    Ar.l<ICri,TURE. 

The  North-.Vmerican  Indian  was  not  an  agriculturist :  he  regarded  the  cul- 
tivation of  the  soil  as  degrading.  Vet,  as  it  was  necessary  for  some  one  to 
Indians  Cultivate    it  in  order  to  obtain  a  living,  the  task  fell  to   the    old 

raised  corn,  women  and  children.  Though  the  Indian  was  slack,  careless,  and 
lazy,  he  exercised  more  forethought  and  care  about  his  corn-crop  than  any 
thing  else.  When  Capt.  John  Smith  visited  Virginia  in  i6oy,  in  writing  of  the 
Indians  he  says,  "  The  greatest  labor  they  take  is  in  planting  their  corn  ;  for 
the  country  is  naturally  overgrown  with  wood.  To  prepare  the  ground,  they 
bruise  the  bark  of  trees  near  the  roots ;  then  do  they  scorch  the  roots  with  fire, 
that  they  grow  no  more."  Very  likely  from  them  our  ancestors  learned  the 
process  of  belting  or  girdling  trees  by  cutting  through  the  sap-wood  ;  thus 
causing  the  fall  of  the  spray  and  the  decay  of  the  smaller  branches,  and  admit- 
ting the  sun  and  air  in  sufficient  quantities  for  corn  to  grow  and  bear  fruit. 

The  mode  of  planting  and  cultivating  corn  was  rude  enough,  and  betokens 
as  clearly  as  any  other  trace  of  their  civilization  how  simple  and  low  it  was. 
Mode  of  Every  spring-time,  the  dead  wood  on  the   ground,  and  perhaps 

planting.  other  branches  and  brush,  were  collected  and  burned  to  obtain 
ashes  to  enrich  the  soil  ;  after  which  the  surface  of  the  ground  was  scratched 
with  the  flat  shoulder-blade  of  the  moos  ,  or  with  crooked  pieces  of  wood. 
Then  hills  were  made  with  the  rudest  sort  of  wooden  hoes  or  clam-shells, 
about  four  feet  apart,  in  each  of  which  was  placetl  an  alewife  caught  from  the 
adjoining  stream,  or  a  horseshoe  crab  picked  up  from  the  seashore.  Upon 
this  stimulant  were  dropped  half  a  dozen  grains  of  corn,  which  were  covered ; 


I 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


;stioned, 
(lid  not 
in  more 
L-attle  to 
:ie  niiglit 

istrics  of 
'.  For  a 
<])orts  to 
to  come, 
•escrving. 
lmI  to  sus- 
k-nry  IV. 
:ige,  "  the 
review  of 
he  farmer 


d  tlie  cul- 
le  one  to 
)  the   old 
•eless,  and 
than  any 
Ing  of  the 
corn  ;  for 
\\\\v.\,  they 
with  fire, 
tuned  the 
l)od  ;   thus 
lid  admit- 
I  fruit, 
betokens 
)w  it  was. 
perhaps 
Ito  obtain 
scratched 
I  of  wood, 
im-shells, 
I  from  the 
Upon 
Icovered ; 


^i 


ft 


INUIAN    IIOKS. 


and  a  hut  was  then  built  in  the  middle  of  the  field,  wherein  lived  the  police  to 
protect  their  work  from  the  ravages  of  birds.  One  can  very  easily  imagine, 
in  those  times,  when  the  forests  were  alive  with  birds,  what 
would  be  the  fate  of  a  cornfield  if  left  to  itself.  While  the 
smaller  birds  and  animals  were  prevented  from  eating  up 
the  tender  blade  only  by  constant  watchfiilness,  the  stronger 
stalk  anil  fiiU-grown  corn  were  preserved  by  the  exercise  of 
the  same  ceaseless  vigilance. 

As  the  corn  grew  the  earth  was  scraped  around  it,  until 
the  hills  were  two   feet  high,  —  a  custom  still  followed  in 
many  parts  of  the  country.     Before  the  corn  was  fully  rii)e, 
it  was  plucked  ;  and  the  seed  for  the  next  year  was  selected  from  those  stalks 
containing  the  largest  number  of  ears,  and   hung  up  in  the  wigwam.     The 
remainiler  was  dried  in  the  husk,  over  smouldering  fires,  or  in  the   Harvesting 
sun  ,  after  which  process  it  was  husked,  shelled,  jxicked  in  birch-   and  storing 
bark  boxes,  and  buried  in  holes  in  the  earth,  which  were  lined 
with  bark  to  protect  the  grain  more  perfectly  from  frost  and  moisture.    A  -.vriter 
says  these  excavated  barns  were  carefully  concealed  by  the  women  from  their 
lazy  hu.sbands  and  sons,  lest  they  should  discover  and  eat  up  their  contents ; 
yet,  with  all  the  care  they  could  take,  the  hogs  of  the  colonists  often  unhinged 
their  barn-doors,  and  helped  themselves  to  the  golden  treasure.     History  says 
that  one  of  these  Indian  barns  was  discovered  by  the  Pilgrims  at  Truro,  at  a 
time  when  their  store  of  provisions  was  so  reduced  as  to  contain  but  five 
kernels  of  corn  to  each  individual. 

Corn  thus  dried,  cracked  in  a  stone-mortar  and  boiled,  was  called  "  o-mo- 
nee  ; "  and  "  sup-paun,"  when  pounded  into  meal  and  sifted  through  a  basket 
for  ash-cakes.  When  on  the  war-path,  the  Indian  warrior  li\ed  ^^^  i„. 
upon  parched  corn  called  "  no-kake."  When  Roger  Williams  dians  cooked 
journeyed  through  the  forests  on  the  way  to  his  fiiture  home,  near  *^°'^"' 
Narragansett  IJay,  accompanied  by  the  Indians  whom  he  loved,  and  who 
never  proved  treacherous  to  him,  he  says  that  each  man  carried  a  little  basket 
of  this  kind  of  food,  —  enough  to  last  for  several  days.  The  Indians  also  ])re- 
pared  c-orn  in  another  way,  which  has  jjecome  well  known,  and  will  jjrobably 
be  long  continued.  AVe  allude  to  the  mode  of  mixing  corn  with  beans,  and 
preparing  a  dish  known  among  them  as  "  mu-si-quatash,"  which  in  these  days 
has  been  abbreviated  to  succotash.  The  original  dish,  however,  according  to 
Gordkin,  was  not  composed  simply  of  corn  and  beans  :  several  other  ingredients 
were  includetl,  "fish  and  flesh  of  all  sorts,  either  new-taken  or  dried,  venison, 
bear's-flesh,  beaver,  moose,  otter,  or  raccoon,  cut  into  small  pieces,  Jerusalem 
artichokes,  ground-nuts,  acorns,  i)umpkins,  and  squashes." 

While  corn  was  the  chief  product  raised  by  the  Indian,  he  cultivated  or 
collected  several  other  fruits  and  vegetables.  Among  their  corn  were  planted 
peas  and  !)eaiis,  the  vines  climbing  up  the  corn-stalks ;  thus  economizing  the 


'■!■■■ 


il 


I 


.      I: 


dishes  and 
beverages. 


4  INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 

use  of  pea-brush  and  bean-poles.  Surely  this  was  an  exhibition  of  econonny 
in  labor  and  material  worthy  of  a  savage.  During  the  month  of  May  they 
Other  fruits  also  planted  "  pumpkins  "  among  their  corn,  "  and  a  fruit  like  unto 
raised.  ^  musk-melou,  but  less  and  worse,  which  they  called  *  macocks.'  " 

The  bold  and  unblushing  sunflower  was  also  cultivated ;  but  instead  of  putting- 
its  seeds  to  the  ignoble  use  of  hen-fodder,  as  the  moderns  ilo,  tiiey  were  made 
into  bread.  In  some  parts  of  the  country  wild  rice  was  gathered  and  kept 
or  winter  use;  and  Harlowe,  who  visited  North  Carolina  in  1584,  aftirms  that 
le  saw  there  "  both  wheat  and  oats."  Tobacco  was  everywhere  cultivated. 
Huge  grape-vines  intwined  many  a  forest-tree,  and  the  woods  abounded  with 
jther  wild  fruits  and  berries,  (iourds  were  raised,  of  all  sizes,  from  the  huge 
•'  cal-a-bash-es,"  holding  two  or  three  gallons  apiece,  to  the  "  tiny  receptacles 
of  pigments  used  in  painting  for  war."  Cherries  and  jjlums  also  abounded, 
large  quantities  of  which  were  dried  for  winter  use.  Concerning  the  cultiva- 
tion of  the  apple,  something  will  be  said  in  another  place. 

Although  the  Indians  knew  nothing  about  sugar-cane,  they  were  not  without 
sugar;  for  they  extracted  it  from  the  maple,  just  as  we  do  :.ow.  Mixed  with 
Dainty  freshly-pounded  "  sup-paun,"  and   seasoned  with   dried   whortle- 

berries, a  dainty  dish  was  baked  for  high  festivals ;  and,  for  an 
accompanying  beverage,  the  dried  meats  of  oil-nuts  were  pounded, 
and  boiled  in  the  juice  of  sassafras.  For  lights  on  such  occasions,  candles 
were  made  from  the  green  wax  of  the  bayberry,  with  rush  wicks,  which  burned 
brightly,  and  yielded  a  pleasant  odor. 

Their  provisions  were  stored  in  boxes  made  of  birch-bark  ;  and  their  cutting 
instrumen  s  and  sharp  weapons  were  pointed  with  flint-stone,  shells,  or  bones. 
Instruments  "^  '*-'^^  earthen  vessels  were  used  ;  but  the  superiority  of  our  civili- 
and  domestic  zatiou,  in  its  material  characteristics,  over  the  aboriginal,  presents 
animals.  ^^^^  more  striking  contrast  than  in  the  variety  and  improvement  of 
means  for  cultivating  the  soil.  It  may  also  be  added,  that  the  Indian  possessed 
no  domestic  animals  except  a  few  small  dogs,  antl  no  poultry. 

Such  is  a  brief  picture  of  the  agricultural  life  of  the  Indian.  Long  ago  the 
cheerless  wigwam  was  supplanted  by  the  jileasant  home,  the  crabbed  orchard 
Fate  of  In-  ^^X  large  and  more  luscious  fruit,  and  the  ill-tilled,  scanty  corn- 
dian  agricui-  patch  by  more  careful  tillage  and  abundant  crops.  .Mthough 
*""■  cattle-shows   and   agricultural    aimiversaries   were    unknown,    the 

Indians  celebrated  their  "  green-corn  dance  "  and  the  feast  of  the  "harvest- 
moon."     But, 

"  Alas  for  thciii !  their  day  is  o'er ; 
Their  fires  arc  out  from  liill  to  shore . 
No  more  for  tlieiii  the  red  deer  bounds; 
The  plough  is  in  their  hunting-grounds; 
The  jiale  man's  axe  rings  through  their  woods, 
The  jiale  man's  sail  skims  o'er  tlieir  floods  ; 
Their  pleasant  springs  are  dry." 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


economy 
.lay  they 
like  unto 
cocks.'  •• 
f  putting 
.•re  made 
mil  kept 
inns  that 
ultivatcd. 
idcd  with 
the  huye 
'ce|)tacles 
bounded, 
c  cultiva- 

ot  without 
lixetl  with 
whortle- 
id,  for  an 
pounded, 
s,  canilles 
:h  burned 

ir  cutting 
or  bones, 
our  civili- 
:,  presents 
lenient  of 
possessed 

ig  ago  the 
ll  orchard 
[nty  corn- 
]  Although 
)wn,  the 
I"  harvest- 


COLONIAL    AGRICLILTURK    IN    TIIK    SOUTHERN    COLONIES. 

The  system  of  agriculture  which  swept  away  the  aboriginal  system,  though 
vastly  sujjerior  to  it,  was,  nevertheless,  very  imperfect  compared  with  the 
system  of  modern  days.  Two  very  different  systems  flourished  in  who  settled 
the  colonies,  each  of  which  requires  a  separate  description,  'lb  Virginia, 
the  Southern  colonies  first  came  an  aristocratic  people,  with  their  servants  and 
slaves.  They  were  followed  by  Scotch  merchants  and  mechanics,  who  were 
succeeded  by  French  Huguenots  of  high  spirit  and  attainments ;  while  at  a 
later  period  flocked  large  numbers  of  Scotch  Jacobins,  on  account  of  the 
unsuccessful  rebellions  of  the  pretenders  to  the  Scottish  throne.  A  true 
glimpse  of  the  immigration  by  which  Virginia,  the  mother  of  the  South  Atlantic 
States,  was  <  olonized,  may  be  obtained  from  the  response  of  the  governor, 
Sir  William  Berkeley,  to  one  of  the  interrogatories  propounded  to  him  by  the 
I'ritish  lords-commissioners  of  foreign  affairs.  In  response  to  the  incjuiry, 
*'  What  number  of  English,  Scotch,  and  Irish  have,  for  these  seven  years  last 
past,  come  yearly  to  plant  and  inhabit  with  your  government?  "  and  also,  "  What 
blacks  or  slaves  have  been  brought  within  the  same?"  he  replied,  "  Yearly 
there  come  in  of  servants  about  fifteen  huntlred.  Most  are  I"'.nglish,  few 
Scotch,  and  fewer  Irish,  and  not  above  two  or  three  ships  of  negroes  in  seven 
years."  Nothing  is  said  of  the  free  immigrants,  though  included  in  the 
interrogatory  ;  and  their  number  was,  doubtless,  too  inconsiderable  for  notice. 
In  the  same  examination  Sir  William  says,  "  IJut  I  thank  Ood  there  are  no 
free  schools  or  printing ;  for  learning  has  brought  disobedience  and  heresy  and 
sects  into  the  world,  and  printing  has  divulged  them  and  libels  against  the 
best  government.     Cjod  keep  us  from  both  !  " 

The  feudal  system  also,  wliich  was  weakening  in  England,  was  adopted, 
though  in  an  earlier  form,  as  the  following  extract  from  one  of  the  royal 
grants  will  show.  It  gave  ^he  patentee  the  right  "  to  divide  the  Feudal  sys- 
said  tract  or  territory  of  land  into  counties,  hundreds,  parishes,  tem  adopted, 
tithings,  townships,  hamlets,  and  boroughs,  and  to  erect  and  build  cities, 
towns,  parishes,  churches,  colleges,  chapels,  free  schools,  almshouses,  and  houses 
of  correction,  and  to  endow  the  same  at  their  free  will  and  pleasure  ;  and  did 
appoint  them  full  and  perpetual  patrons  of  all  such  churches  so  to  be  built  and 
endowed;  with  power,  also,  to  divide  any  part  or  parcel  of  said  tract  or 
territory,  or  portion  of  land,  into  manors,  and  to  call  the  same  after  their  own 
or  any  of  their  names,  or  by  other  name  or  names  whatsoever ;  and  within  the 
same  to  hold  a  court  in  the  nature  of  a  court-baron,  and  to  hold  pleas  of  all 
actions,  trespasses,  covenants,  accounts,  contracts,  detinues,  del)ts,  and  demands 
whatsoever,  when  the  debt  or  thing  demanded  exceed  not  the  value  of  forty 
shillings  sterling  money  of  England  ;  and  to  receive  and  take  all  amerce- 
ments, fruits,  commodities,  advantages,  perquisites,  and  emoluments  whatso- 
ever, to  such  respective  court-barons  belonging  or  in  any  wise  appertaining ; 


:.,; 


HI 


I  i'l 


I  ' 


1  ! 


6  INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 

and,  further,  to  hold  within  the  same  manors  a  court-Ieel  and  view  of  frank- 
pledge of  all  the  tenants,  residents,  and  inhabitants  of  the  hundred  within  such 
respective  manors." 


NEW   RIVER   PLOUGH-TEAM,  VIRGINIA. 

The  farms  in  Virginia  and  Mc^  yland  were  extensive,  fronting  on  the  Ches- 
apeake Bay  or  its  tributaries,  and  running  a  long  way  into  the  interior.  Not 
Farms  and  far  from  the  shore  of  river  or  bay  was  located  the  planter's  mansion, 
mansions.  ^q  which  came  ships  from  England,  bringing  merchandise  in 
exchange  for  tobacco ;  or  other  craft  laden  with  the  products  of  New- 
England  fisheries,  or  of  West-India  plantations,  to  barter  for  tobacco,  wheat, 
or  corn.  The  intervening  space  between  the  mansion-house  and  water-side 
was  usually  laid  out  as  a  garden,  in  the  prim,  stiff  style  of  those  days,  with 
terraccb,  arbors,  and  wide  walks  bordered  with  box.  ^Most  of  the  houses  were 
built  of  English  brick,  the  iron-work,  and  also  much  of  tl.e  interior,  being 
imported.  Entering  the  hall,  we  are  told  by  a  Virginia  antiquarian,  walls 
were  seen  covered  with  deer's  antlers,  fishing-rods,  and  guns ;  portraits  of 
cavaliers  and  dames  and  children ;  even  carefully-painteil  pictures  of  race- 
horses, on  whose  speed  and  bottom  many  thousands  of  pounds  had  been 
staked,  and  lost  and  won,  in  their  day  and  generation.  On  one  side  of  the 
hall  a  broad  staircase,  with  oaken  balustrade,  led  to  the  numerous  apartments 
above ;  and  on  the  opposite  side  a  door  gave  entrance  into  the  great  dining- 
hall.  The  dining-room  was  decorated  with  great  elegance ;  the  carved  oak 
wainscot  extending  above  the  mantlepiece  in  an  unbroken  expanse  of  fruits 
and  flowers,  hideous  laughing  faces,  and  armorial  devices,  to  the  cornice.  The 
furniture  was  in  the  Louis  Quatorze  style,  with  carved  backs  to  the  low-sealed 
chairs.  There  were  Chelsea  figures,  and  a  sideboard  full  of  plate,  and  a 
Japan  cabinet,  and  a  Kidderminster  carpet ;  while  in  the  great  fire-place  a  few 
twigs  crackled  on  huge  and  highly-polished  brass  andirons.  On  the  walls 
hung  pictures  of  gay  gallants,  brave  warriors,  and  fair  dames  whose  eyes  out- 


■i 


% 


M 


o! 


j 


OF    THE    rNITED    STATES. 


V  of  frank- 
v^ithin  such 


n  the  Ches- 
terior.     Not 
r's  mansion, 
chandise   in 
ts   of  Now- 
.cco,  wheat, 
1  water-side 
days,  with 
bouses  were 
Icrior,  being 
arian,  walls 
portraits  of 
es  of  race- 
had  l)ecn 
Iside  of  the 
apartments 
reat  dining- 
Icarved  oak 
,se  of  fruits 
nice.    The 
low-seated 
|ate,  and   a 
i^lace  a  few 
the  walls 
eyes  out- 


■Mi. 
-I 


shone  their  diamonds  ;  and  more  than  one  ancestor  looked  grimly  down  clad 
in  cuirass  and  armlets,  and  holding  in  his  mailed  hand  the  sword  which  had 
done  bloody  service  in  its  time.  The  lady  portraits,  as  an  invariable  rule, 
were  decorated  with  sunset  clouds  of  yellow  lace ;  the  bright  locks  were 
powdcreil ;  and  many  little  black  patches  set  off  the  dazzling  fairness  of  the 
rounded  chins. 

Near   the   mansion  were    tenements   for   the  manager  and  the  overseers, 
and  the  slave  cabins.     The  first  philanthropist  to  improve  the  condition  of 
his  slaves,  according    to    trustworthy  authority,   was    Col.    John   j^    j,yg. 
Taylor    of   the    Rappahannof'-    Valley,   who   was    equally  distin-   ment  of  con- 
guished    in    the   last   century  as  a  farmer,  author,  and  statesman.   '"^'J'"  °^ 
"  He  built  commodious  brick  dwellings  for  them,  and  accustomed 
them  to  plank  floors,  glass  windows,  and  decent,  civilized  habits  of  living. 
Me,  besides,  furnished  them  more  regularly  and   abundantly  with  food  and 
clothing  than  was  then  usual.     His  negroes  multiplied  rapidly,  became  more 
honest  and  industrious  ;  and  his  crops  increased." 

The  pioneers  of  Virginia  are  described  as  contrasting  strongly  with  the 
planters  and  their  adherents.  In  most  cases  they  were  younger  sons,  unlucky 
gamesters,  turbulent  spirits,  rejected  lovers,  or  disbanded  soldiers.  The  pioneers 
\ho  turned  their  backs  upon  civilization  to  live  an  untrammelled  of  Virginia. 
life  in  some  .ertile  mountain-gap  or  rich  river-bottom.  Game  was  plentiful ; 
and  they  were  hunters  rather  than  farmers,  sending  their  peltries  to  market, 
and  only  cultivating  enough  land  to  supply  their  wants.  This  unrestrained  life 
became  a  passion  ;  and,  as  the  tide  of  civilization  advanced  westward,  the 
pioneers  would  leave  their  "  settlements  "  with  tb.eir  "  improvements,"  to  seek 
some  spot  in  the  wilderness  where  as  yet  no  white  man's  foot  had  trodden. 

Tobacco  early  became  the  staple  product  of  Virginia,  although  laws  numer- 
ous and  stringent  were  enacted  to  prevent  its  cult'vation.  Efforts  were  put 
forth  to  encourage  other  branches  of  industry;  yet  liuie  attention  Cultivation 
was  paid  to  them  except  for  purposes  of  home  consumption.  "'  tobacco. 
Planters  still  continued  the  culture  of  the  exhausting  tobacco-plant,  with  con- 
tinuous cropping,  shallow  ploughing,  and  no  fertilizing,  until  the  soil  grew  weak, 
and  unfit  for  cultivation.  Small  ploughs  and  heavy  hoes  were  used  in  cultivat- 
ing it ;  and  when  the  crop  was  gathered,  cured,  and  packed  into  hogsheads, 
it  was  rolled  away  to  the  nearest  wharf  for  inspection  and  transportation. 
In  those  early  days  good  roads  were  unknown,  and  wagons  were  few :  so  a 
pole  and  whipple-trees  were  attached  to  each  hogshead  by  an  iron  bolt  driven 
into  the  centre  of  one  head,  thus  converting  the  cask  into  a  huge  roller.  For 
many  years  the  places  for  deposit  and  inspection  of  tobacco  were  called 
"  rolling-houses." 

Though  cotton  was  raised  at  an  early  date,  it  was  not  grown  in  sufficient 
quantities  for  export :  indeed,  the  cultivation  of  tobacco  absorbed  the  chief 
attention   of  the   planter,    especially   in  Virgipia,   until   the   opening   of  the 


8 


INDUSTIHAI.    II I  STORY 


eighteenth  century.  Farther  south,  in  South  Carolina,  rice  was  cultivated. 
It  is  related,  that,  in  1694,  a  vessel  from  Madagascar  put  into  (Charleston  in 
Cotton,  rice,  distress,  the  captain  of  which,  in  return  for  favors  rendered  hy  the 
•nd  other  governor,  gave  him  a  hag  of  rice.  'I'he  governor,  who  had  seen 
pro  uct».  ^1^^.  plant  growing  in  the  hot  swamj)s  of  Madagascar,  conceived 
the  idea  of  raising  rice  in  his  own  colony  :  accordingly  it  was  planted,  an<l  brought 
forth  abundantly,     'i'he  soil  proved  well  ailapted  to  the  plant,  and  it  was  not 


n 


i 


I 
! 

I 


\\ 


I  \ 


■\ 


1 1:11 


MANNliK   OF   CAUUYlN(i   TOIIACCO    lOKTV    YKAKS   A(.0. 


long  before  the  marshes  of  (Georgia  and  South  Carolina  were  covered  with  rice- 
plantations.  ICxports  of  rice  to  England  soon  after  began,  and  in  1724 
a  hundreil  thousand  barrels  were  sent  from  the  latter  State.  E:periments  in 
wine-making  were  undertaken  at  an  early  period;  and  in  1758  the  London 
Society  for  the  Encouragement  of  Arts,  Commerce,  and  Manufoctures,  pro- 
posed premiums  fcr  its  production.  The  same  society  offered  premiums  for 
hemp,  opium,  olives,  pot  and  pearl  ashes,  barilla,  logwood,  scammony,  myrtle- 
wax,  sarsaparilla-root,  and  the  gum  from  the  persimmon-tree.  It  was  supposed 
that  this  gum  might  prove  a  s'.il)stitute  for  gum-arabic  ;  but  the  cost  of  gather- 
ing and  transporting  it  was  too  great,  and  the  experiment  failed.  After  a 
three-years'  trial,  tlie  premium  was  withdrawn. 

Besides  the  premiums  offered  by  this  society,  the  British  Parliament  granted 


VF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


iiltivated. 
Icston  in 
(1  by  the 
had  seen 
onceived 
I  brought 
t  was  not 


.Jf^^- 


>^ 


/ith  rice- 
in  1724 
Imcnts  in 
London 
Ires,  pro- 
liums  for 
myrtle- 
bpposed 
gather- 
After  a 

[granted 


considerable  sums  of  money  at  various  times  to  stimulate  the  culture  of  silk, 
indigo,  and  other  plants.     Colonial  tra<le,  however,  was  guarded   p„^,u„, 
none  the  less  strictly  ;  for  die  colonists  were  obliged  to  send  all   offered  by 
their  siirplus  products  to  l^igland,  and  were  forbidden  purchasing  ^ 
any  foreign  manufactures  save  in  a  British  port. 


British  Par. 
■ment. 


COLONIAL    AGRICULTUKK    IN    THE    NEW-ENGLAND    COLONIES. 

Let  US  now  look  toward  the  North,  and  watch  the  landing  of  the  Pilgrims, 
and  their  first  efforts  in  cultivating  the  soil.  The  colonists  of  Virginia,  who 
came  somewhat  earlier,  as  we  have  seen,  had  confined  their  atten-  ^he  Piigrimt 
tion  chiefly  to  the  raising  of  tobacco ;  and  as  their  climate  was  "n  agricui- 
less  rigorous,  and  their  summers  were  longer,  it  was  easier  for  them  "'*  '"*'''  '" 
to  ()I)tain  a  living.  The  Pilgrims  were  an  agricultural  people,  the  clergy  form- 
ing no  exception  ;  and  for  a  long  period  they  were  among  the  foremost  in 
New  England  in  trying  experiments,  and  inciting  their  flocks  to  patient  and 
intelligent  industry.  One  of  the  reasons  why  they  came  here  from  Holland, 
according  to  Hancroft,  was,  because  they  "  had  been  bred  to  agricultural  pur- 
suits," which  they  could  not  follow  in  the  land  of  their  temporary  adoption. 

That  they  continued  to  follow  their  original  pursuit  as  their  chief  one  for 
many  years  after  their  arrival  is  familiar  history.     But  their  task  was  a  severe 
one.     Cleared  fields  were  small  and  few ;  and  their  implements   Difficulty  of 
were  ill  fitted  to  clear  the  dense  woods,  and  subdue  the  stubborn   cultivating 
soil.    Some  implements,  doubtless,  were  obtained  from  the  mother-   *  ^  ""  • 
land  ;  but  the  only  metal  to  be  found  here  that  they  could  work  was  bog-iron 
ore,  which  was  very  brittle,  and  often  spoiled  a  day's  work.     The   want  of 
magnitude  of  their  tas  .,  from  lack  of  appropriate  means,  it  is  per-   P"""?*""  tools. 
haps  more  difficult  for  us  in  th's  age  to  realize  than  almost  any  other  feature 
of  our  history,  because  farming-implements  have  been  brought  to  such  a  degree 
of  perfection. 

The   system   of  agriculture   best   adapted  to  the  country  could  only  be 
learned  by  experiment.    Of  course  the  settlers  brought  with  them  the  ideas  and 
products  of  their  mother-land  ;  but  how  poor  was  their  outfit  they   success  in 
soon  learned.     Lidian-corn,  pumpkins,  squashes,  beans,  potatoes,    farming 
tobacco,  and  other  vegetables  and  fruits,  which  were  found  grow-   t°"miMd  "* 
ing  here,  it  was  easy  to  cultivate  by  inquiry  fn^m  the  Indians,  and   only  by  ex- 
with  greater  success  than  ever  attended  the  efforts  of  their  teach-   f^"""^"*' 
ers ;  but  in  respect  to  the  fruits  transplanted,  as  well  as  the  horses,  sheep,  and 
other  animals  brought  hither,  it  was  only  foi  .id  out  by  numerous  experiments 
and  many  losses  what  our  climate  and  soil  were  best  fitted  to  raise  and  sustain. 
\Vhat  did  the  I-jiglish  immigrant  know  about  the  country  until  he  came  here, 
and  how  I'^nglish  cattle  and  fruits  would  thrive  under  such  altered  conditions? 
It  would  be  an  interesting  chapter  to  trace  the  history  of  these  experiments ; 


;i 


'  a 


l,L 


i'l'i 


i\ 


I 


I  i,i|i 


'I 
'  if 

I 


I'M 


lO 


INDUSTRIAL    ///STORY 


MAYPl.OWnR. 


but  our  space  is  too  limited,  even  if  tho  necessary  information  could  be  gath- 
ered. Suffice  it  to  say,  after  trial  some  vci,'ilables  and  grasses  were  aban- 
doned, while  the  appropriate  lt)cality 
of  ollicrs  was  (hscovered.  Ilcinp, 
inchgo,  rice,  cotton,  madder,  millet, 
spelt,  lentils,  hicern,  sainfoin,  and 
many  other  things,  were  tried  in 
New  Mngland,  and  failed,  as  did 
other  crops  in  the  Southern  colo- 
nies. Not  only  the  plants  of  V.w- 
rope,  but  many  from  Asia  and  the 
I'-ast  Indies,  were  tried,  includinff 
cinnamon  and  various  commercial 
l)lants.  Some  of  these  crops,  on 
experiment,  failed  entirely ;  others 
flourished  after  a  fashion,  but  proved 
unprofitable ;  others  flourished  with 
peculiar  luxuriance,  and  with  f  haracters  imchanged  ;  and  still  others,  under 
the  new  conditions,  assumed  new  (  haracters  or  excellences.  I5efore  the  war 
of  the  Revolution,  these  trials  had  been  made  from  Nfaine  to  Texas ;  and  so 
completely  had  this  century  and  a  half  of  expcrimi-nls  solved  the  great  pf^ob- 
lems  of  adai)tation,  acclimation,  and  often  naturali/alion,  that  not  a  single 
important  species  of  domestic  uiimal  has  been  profitably  iutri)du(ed  since, 
nor  but  one  plant  (sorghum)  of  suOicient  importance  to  l)e  recognized  in  our 
official  statistics.     So  writes  one  whose  ac(  uracy  none  will  question.' 

Let  us  reproduce  the  jjicture  of  a  New- ling- 
land  colony  during  this  period.  It  is  tlie  one 
flourishing  at  Massachusetts  P.ay,  which  was 
founded  not  long  after  the  riyn.oulh  Colony. 
Picture  of  a  Within  this  iicaccful  realm  s(]uatter- 
New-Eng-  sovereignty  was  unknown  ;  for  no 
CO  ony.  ipdjyjd^m]  \y.j^  pcrniilled  to  establish 
himself  without  authority  of  the  government. 
Each  body  swarmed  out  with  a  regular  allotment 
of  individual  farms,  based  in  extent  upon  the 
wealth  of  the  settlers ;  a  great  pasture,  a  i)eat- 
meadow,  a  salt-marsh,  and  fishing-grounds,  being 
held  in  common.  These  farms  were  so  laid  out, 
that  no  house  was  over  half  a  mile  from  the 
meeting-house ;  and  it  was  with  astonishing  ra- 
pidity that  agricultural  communities  sprang  up,  like  the  fabled  warriors  of 
Cadmus,  into  full-armed   life.      Like  those  mythological  knights,  they  were 

'  Professor  Brewer  of  V.ile  College. 


KNOT-REEL. 


I 


i 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


II 


Id  be  gath- 

wcrc  ahan- 

iatc  locality 

I.      IIcMiip, 

(Icr,  millet, 

infoin,    and 

•0   tric(l    ill 

L'(i,    as   (lid 

llurii   ( olo- 

nts  of   I'lu- 

iia  and  the 

,   iiuluditif; 

coumicn  ial 

crops,    on 

L'ly ;   others 

but  proved 

rished  with 

hers,  under 

.)re  the  war 

;as ;  and  so 

great  p''ob- 

ot  a  single 

iced   since, 

lized  in  our 
1 


■arriors  of 
they  were 


armed  with  weapons,  not  for  their  own  destruction,  Imt  for  the  defen«  e  of 
their  liberties  and  their  homes.  From  these  small  farming-hamlets  have  grown 
up  most  of  the  towns  and  cities  of  our  country,  and  from  one  of  theni  went 
forth  the  alpha  of  colonization  in  the  (Ireat  West.  In  the  log-cabin  of  that 
agricultural  era  were  first  cultivated  the  true  though  austere  religion,  the 
domestic  virtues,  the  sturdy  habits  of  frugal  industry,  the  daring  spirit,  and 
the  devoted  love  of  liberty,  that  have  so  advanced  the  prosperity  and  the  glory 
of  this  Western  continent.  'l"he  acorns  planted  by  our  fathers  have  become 
stalely  trees,  under  whose  umbrageous  foliage  thousands  of  their  descendants, 
and  others  whom  the  grateful  shade  has  invited  from  less-favo'.  .d  lands,  find 
protection,  shelter,  and  repose. 

The  same  writer  has  given  a  felicitous  sketch  of  the  houses  of  the  early  set- 
tlers, drawn  from  a  careful  perusal  of  the  materials  collected  by  the  tireless 
anti<itiarian.     Imagine  yourself  as  belonging  to  a  "committee  on   House*  of 
farms,"  and  then  let  us  visit  one  of  these  yeomen.     Riding  along   the  early 
a  "trail,"  indicated  by  marked  trees,  we  fnd  h's  horse  and  cattle- 
shed  standing  near  an  old  Indian  clearing,  encircletl  by  a  high  palisade,  whicb 
includes  the    si)ring, 
that  water    may    be 
brought  without  dan- 
ger from  the  "  bloody 
savages."       The 
house,  which  is  over 
a  small  deep  cellar,  is 
built  of  logs,  notched 
where    they   meet    at 
the    corners,    with   a 
thatched  roof,  and  a 
large  chimney  at  one 
end,   built  of  stones 
cemented    with  clay. 
The    small    windows 
are  covered  with  oiled 
paper,   with   protect- 
ing shutters  ;  antl  the 
massive  door  is  thick 
enough  to  be   bullet- 
proof.      Pulling    the 
"latch-string,"  we  enter,  and  find  that  the  floor,  and  the  floor  of  the  loft  which 
forms  the  ceiling,  are  made  of  "  rift-i!  "  or  .;plit  pine,  roughly  smoothed  with 
the  adze ;  while  the  immense  hearth,  occupying  nearly  an  entire  side  of  the 
house,  is  of  large  flat  stones.     There  are  no  partition-walls  ;  but  thick  serge 
curtains  are  so  hung,  that  at  night  they  divide  off  the  flock-beds,  upon  which 


llOfSl;   OV   AN    EAKLV    SETTI.II;. 


s 


la 


JND  US  TRIA  L    II iS  TOR  Y 


il    ! 


■  1  % 


I    )\ 


BIBLE  AND  SPECS. 


there  are  piles  of  rugs,  coverlets,  and  flannel  sheets.  A  high-backed  chair  or 
two,  a  massive  table,  a  large  chest  with  a  carved  front,  and  some  Indian  birch- 
bark  boxes,  are  ranged  around  the  walls  ;  while  on  a  large  "  dressoir  "  we  see 
wooden  bowls  and  trenchers,  earthen  platters,  horn  drinking-cups,  and  a  pc/ter 
tankard.  The  corselet,  matchlock,  and  bandoliers  arc  ready  for  defence,  with 
1  halberd,  if  the  senior  occupant  of  the  house  holds  a  commission  in  "  ye 
trainband ; "  and  from  a  "  lean-to  "  shed  comes  the  great  wheel  or  the  clang 
of  the  loom,  as  tlie  busy  " helmates  "  hasten  to  finish  their  "stents."     High 

.    _  on  the  manUe-shelf,  with   a   "  cresset- 

■ —  ~    "     -^  ;~  lamp"   on  one   side,   and  the  time- 

iUarking  hour-glass  on  the  other,  is 
the  well-thumbed  Bible,  which  was  not 
left  for  show.  "  Our  especial  desire 
is,"  say  the  company's  instructions, 
"  that  you  take  especial  care,  in  set- 
tling these  families,  that  the  chief  in 
the  family  be  grounded  in  religion, 
whereby  morning  and  evening  family 
duties  may  be  duly  performed,  and  a 
watchful  eye  held  over  all  in  each 
family  by  one  or  more  in  each  family 
appointed  thereto,  so  that  disorders  may  be  prevented,  and  ill  weeds  nipt 
before  they  take  too  great  a  head." 

While  a  greater  variety  of  crops  was  cultivated  in  New  England  than  in  the 
Southern  colonies,  yet  nowhere  was  seen  any  thing  like  scientific  farming.  As 
Farming  ncw  lands  could  be  easily  obtained,  old  ones  were  not  thoroughly 
unscientific.  tiHed.  When  the  soil  became  exhausted  from  much  bearing,  and 
no  en'  ichment,  and  grew  too  poor  to  raise  wheat,  corn  was  planted  ;  when  this 
woul<l  I'O  longer  thrive,  barley  or  rye  was  sown  :  thus  the  quality  of  the  crop 
decreased  with  the  starving  soil,  until  beans  alone  were  raised  ;  and,  when  these 
ceased  to  grow,  the  field  was  abandoned. 

A  deartli  of  interest  in  cultivating  the  soil  continued  until  the  close  of  the 
Revolution.  Previous  to  that  time,  no  spirit  of  inquiry  in  this  great  industry 
Little  inter-  '^^^  abroad  to  give  a  charm  to  daily  toil.  Hard  work  was  the 
est  taken  in  order  of  the  day,  into  which  neither  poetry  nor  science  ever  en- 
agncu  uie.  j^gj-^j  -j^j-jg  farmer  remained  fast  to  his  farm ;  and  it  was  almost 
as  true  of  him  as  it  was  of  the  Sybarites,  who  dwelt  on  the  eastern  side  of  Italy, 
and  who  prided  themselves  on  growing  gray  between  the  bridges  of  their 
Lagoon  City,  —  he  never  went  beyond  his  narrow  boundaries,  and  hardly  knew 
of  a  world  outside  of  himself. 

There  were  gatherings,  it  is  true,  besides  those  for  religious  worship,  where 
nc''^fhl)ors  met  and  conversed  with  each  other.  Upon  election-days  people 
mingled,  and  also  at  "  raisings,"  when  flip  and  cider  flowed  plentifully.     The 


ai 
a 
n" 

^1 
cl 

fc 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


13 


d  chair  or 
ian  birch- 
■ "  we  see 
i  a  pe./ter 
;nce,  with 
tn  in  "ye 
tlie  clang 
5."     High 
"  cresset- 
the  time- 
other,  is 
:h  was  not 
cial  desire 
istructions, 
ire,  in  set- 
ic  chief  in 
n  rehgion, 
ling  family 
lied,  and  a 
ill  in  each 
ach  family 
^eeds  nipt 

;han  in  the 
■ming.  As 
|lhoroughly 
•aring,  and 
when  this 
the  crop 
Ivhen  these 

kse  of  the 
|t  industry 
was  the 
ever  en- 
Jas  almost 
|e  of  Italy, 
of  their 
bdly  knew 

lip,  where 
Is  people 
lly.    The 


"  husking,"  too,  was  a  social  as  well  as  industrial  gathering,  where  the  same 
favorite  drinks  went  round,  followed  by  a  rich  feast  upon  pump-   Gatherings 
kin-pies,   which   formed  one    of   the    most    thoroughly-enjoyed   of  the  early 
dishes  of  the   early   settlers.     Longfellow  has   immortalized   the 
"  husking  "  in  the  song  of  Hiawatha,  and  we  are  sure  our  readers  will  delight 
in  recalling  the  scene.     The  maize-field  having  grown  and  ripened, 

"  Till  it  stood  in  all  the  splendor 
Of  its  garments  green  and  yellow, 
Of  its  tassels  and  its  plumage, 
And  the  maize-ears  full  and  shining 
Gleamed  from  bursting  sheets  of  verdure ; 
Then  Nokomis,  the  old  woman," 

spoke  to  Minnehaha,  the  merry  Laughing-Water ; 

"  And  they  called  the  women  round  them, 
Called  tlie  young  men  and  the  maidens, 
To  the  harvest  of  the  cornfields. 
To  the  husking  of  the  maize-ear. 
On  the  border  of  the  forest, 
Underneath  the  fragrant  pine-trees, 
Sat  the  old  men  and  the  warriors. 
Smoking  in  the  pleasant  shadow. 
In  uninterrupted  silence 
Looked  they  at  the  gamesome  labor 
Of  the  young  men  and  tlie  women  ; 
Listened  to  their  noisy  talking, 
To  their  laughter  and  their  singing; 
Heard  them  chattering  like  the  magpies, 
Heard  them  laughing  !    e  the  blue  jays, 
Heard  them  singing  like  the  robins. 
And,  whene'er  some  lucky  maiden 
Found  a  red  ear  in  the  husking. 
Found  a  maize-ear  red  as  blood  is, 
'  Nershka  ! '  cried  they  all  together, 
'  Ncrslika  i  you  shall  have  a  sweetheart, 
You  shall  have  a  handsome  husband  1 ' 
'  Ugh  I '  the  old  men  all  responded 
From  their  scats  beneath  the  pine-trees." 

The  obstinacy  with  which  old  ideas  were  cherished  quenched  the  spirit  of 
agricultural  improvement.     It  is  not  to  the  credit  of  our  ancestors,  that,  in  many 
a  town,    the   possession    of  superior  intelligence,   except  by   the   causes 
minister  and  doctor,  was  not  honored,  but  ridiculed.     If  a  choicer   which 
spirit   arose,   wlio   ventured  to  try  experiments,    he  was   neitlier   ^icuiturai " 
cheered  nor  encouraged,  but,  on  the  other  hand,  was  laughed  at   improvc- 
for  b.is   folly.     One   who  has  studied  the  history  of  these  times   '^^"  " 
■./ell  says,  that  if  such  a  one  "did  not  plant  just  as  many  acres  of  ( orii  as 


k  ^ 


14 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


\-\ 


i    1 


his  fathers  did,  and  that,  too,  in  the  '  old  of  the  moon ; '  if  he  did  not  sow 
just  as  much  rye  to  the  acre,  use  the  same  number  of  oxen  to  plough,  and 
get  in  his  crops  in  the  same  day ;  or  if  he  did  not  hoe  as  many  times  as  his 
lather  and  his  grandfather  did  ;  if,  in  fine,  he  did  not  wear  the  same  kind  of 
homespun  dress,  and  adopt  the  same  religious  views  and  prejudices,  —  he  was 
shunned  in  company  by  the  old  and  young,  and  looked  upon  as  a  visionary." 


/^  -■*  1' 


WHITEFIELD  S   HOUSE,    LOOKING   WEST. 


WHITEFIELDS   HOUSE,    LOOKING   SOUTH. 


crops 
unknown. 


■  age 
ment  of 
cattle. 


The  rotation  of  crops  was  a  thing  unknown  in  those  times.  No  one  ever 
Rotation  of  thought  of  fertilizing  the  soil.  It  has  been  said,  that,  even  witliin 
the  memory  of  men  now  living,  barns  were  sometimes  removed  to 
get  them  out  of  the  way  of  heaps  of  manure  by  which  they  were 
surrounded,  rather  than  incur  the  expense  and  trouble  of  putting  these 
accumulations  upon  the  fields.  Swine  were  generally  allowed  to  run  at  large, 
M.  .age-  "^^^  cattle  were  rarely  housed  during  night  or  winter.  It  was 
thought  necessary  to  leave  them  out  of  doors,  and  expose  them  to 
the  summer's  sun  and  dew  and  to  the  winter's  storm,  in  order  "  to 
toughen  "  them.  A  writer  says,  "  It  was  the  common  opinion  in  the  Virginia 
Colony,  that  housing  and  milking  cows  in  winter  would  kill  them."  Erief  as 
this  sketch  is,  who  cannot  fail  to  see  how  great  and  numerous  have  been  the 
improvements  in  farming  since  the  Pilgrims,  to  use  their  own  words,  "  left  their 
pleasant  and  beautiful  homes  in  England  to  plant  their  poor  cottages  in  the 
wilderness  "  ?  For  a  century  and  a  half  the  colonists  throughout  the  coiuitry 
remained  in  a  stationary  state  in  respect  to  their  leading  pursuit.  Their 
implements,  {(:\\  and  imperfect,  were  never  improved ;  the  hoe,  plough,  spade, 
fork,  and  occasionally  a  harrow,  comprising  pretty  nearly  the  whole  inventory. 
A\'ith  this  coarse  and  slender  outfit  their  heavy  task  was  continued  for  many  a 
long  and  weary  year. 

FRENCH    COLONIAL    AGRICULTURE. 

A  word  may  be  said  concerning  the  French  colonists,  before  closing  tl.o 
history  of  this  period.  Wliile  the  Fnglish,  Dutch,  and  Swedes  were  taking 
\)ossession  of  the  soil  from  the  Penobscot  to  the  Altamaha,  the  French  en- 
tered the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  ascended  the  river  bearing  that  name, 
crossed  the  lakes,  found  the  head  waters  of  the  Mississippi,  and  were  borne 


iti^^ 


il 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


«5 


lid  not  sow 
plough,  and 
times  as  his 
,me  kind  of 
js,  —  he  was 
visionary." 


KING   SOUTH. 

No  one  ever 
t,  even  within 
:s  removed  to 
ich  they  were 
putting   these 
run  at  large, 
liter.     It   was 
pose  them  to 
in  order  "  to 
|i  the  Virghiia 
n."     Brief  as 
ve  been  the 
;ls,  "  left  their 
Ittages  in  the 
the  country 
irsuit.     Their 
|lough,  spade, 
|le  inventory. 
.1  for  many  a 


closing  tl.c 
I  were  taking 
French  en- 
that  name, 
were  borne 


G 

> 

I 


?■!. : 


I     lii 


i6 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


f| 


III  I; 


i!  I 


■ 


on  its  broad  current  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  The  discoveries  of  the  French, 
Cultivation  '^'^  joumey  of  La  Salle  among  the  Indians  and  down  the  mighty 
of  the  sugar-  stream,  arc  full  of  romantic  interest ;  but  we  can  only  stop  to 
*""'■  note  what  was  done  when  the  French  landed  in  Louisiana,  and 

began  the  permanent  conquest  of  the  soil.  A  variety  of  crops  was  planted  ;  but 
none  flourished  like  the  sugar-cane,  which  had  been  transported  into  Spain  from 
India  by  the  Saracens,  again  to  Madeira,  and  thence  to  the  West-India  Islands, 
from  which  the  French  planters  obtained  their  plants.  For  several  years  its 
cultivation  proved  unsuccessful.  Not  until  1 764  did  the  experiment  succeed, 
upon  the  eastern  bank  of  the  Mississippi,  under  the  intelligent  and  careful 
culture  of  Chevalier  de  Mazan.  The  following  year,  Destrehan,  the  royal 
treasurer  in  the  colony,  and  other  planters,  erected  works  on  the  opposite 
bank  below  New  Orleans ;  but  the  results  were  disappointing.  Indeed,  the 
planters  lost  so  much  heart,  that,  in  1769,  they  abandoned  the  business,  and 
turned  their  attention  to  the  cultivation  of  indigo,  cotton,  tobacco,  rice,  corn, 
and  other  crops.  A  few  small  gardeners  continued  to  plant  sugar-cane  in  the 
neighborhood  of  tlie  city,  which  they  retailed  in  the  market  for  the  use  of 
children ;  or  expressed  the  juice,  making  sirup,  which  they  sold  in  bottles. 
More  than  twenty-five  years  elapsed  before  further  efforts  were  made  to  culti- 
vate the  sugar-plant. 

The  engraving  here  inserted  represents  the  early  process  of  manufacturing 
sugar,  and  will  not  be  without  interest  to  our  readers.  The  cane  was  stripped 
of  its  leaves,  and  ground,  or  rather  crushed,  by  a  heavy  stone  made 
to  revolve  by  manual  force.  The  expressed  juice,  after  boiling  in 
a  caldron,  was  ladled  into  large  stone  jars,  which  were  exposed 
of  the  sun  until  the  sugar  crystallized.  Later  on  we  shall  learn 
what  success  attended  renewed  efforts  in  the  way  of  cultivating  the  sugar- 
plant. 


Early  mode 
of  making 
sugar. 

to  the  rayf 


EFFECTS    OF    AMERICAN    REVOLUTION. 

The  American  Revolution  wrought  a  profound  change  in  the  agriculture  of 
the  country  ;  not,  indeed,  in  the  way  of  stimulating  interest  in  the  cultivation  of 
the  soil,  but  in  giving  greater  freedom  in  the  exchange  of  commodities.  Thrift- 
less as  was  the  mode  of  farming  \mox  to  that  event,  during  the  Revolution  it 
was  well-nigh  paralyzed  ;  nor  did  it  speedily  recover.  So  dull  were  the  people 
to  tiie  vast  cai)acities  of  the  country  and  to  the  great  fortunes  which  lay 
bjforc  tlicni,  that  the  same  spirit  which  animated  the  ante-Revolutionary  farmer 
Revolution  ^^'-'^  found  to  iivc  withiu  the  breast  of  his  immediate  descend- 
ants. ]5ut  the  ])olicy  of  England,  which  was  to  make  the  colonics 
as  profitaljle  as  i)ossil)lc  to  the  mother-country  without  thought  of 
an  a(le<]uate  return,  came  to  an  end.  Restrictions  against  manu- 
ficturing  were  removed.  The  colonists  were  free  to  buy  where 
they  pleased  :  no  longer  could  P^ngland  compel  them  to  buy  of  her.     On  the 


gave  free- 
dom in  pur- 
chase and 
sale  of  com 
nioJitie^. 


i 


I  'I 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


17 


le  French, 
be  mighty 
,y  stop  to 
isiana,  and 
inted;  Init 
Spain  from 
lia  Island;;, 
l1  years   its 
It  succeed, 
ind  careful 
1,  the  royal 
le  opposite 
Indeed,  tlie 
usiness,  and 
I,  rice,  corn, 
cane  in  the 
the  use  of 
1  in  bottles, 
ade  to  culti- 

lanufacturing 

,vas  stripped 

stone  made 

er  boiling  in 

L-re  exposed 

shall  learn 

the  sugar- 


jriculture  of 
lultivation  of 
Ities.    Thrift- 

levolution  it 
le  the  people 
^s  which  lay 

jnary  farmer 

Ite  descend- 

the  colonics 
thought  of 

lainst  manu- 
buy  where 

lor.     On  the 


'tVmt 


Other  hand,  they  were  at  liberty  to  sell  their  surplus  in  any  market  in  the 
world.  Thus  their  hori/on  was  immensely  broadened.  The  transition  from 
a  colony  to  a  state  was  complete. 

CAUSES    OF    PROORKSS    IN    AGRICULTURE. 

Until  the  present  century  was  fairly  inaugurated,  American  agriculture  can- 
not be  said  to  have  made  any  notable  progress :  it  had  simply  made  a  com- 
mencement.    Since  then  a  number  of  causes  have  combined  to   causes  of 
give   it  marked  dc  clopment  and  stimulus.      Among  the  first  of  prosperity  in 

,  »         .  /-  .1  •      1.         1      1  agriculture. 

these  is  national  peace.  In  tune  of  war,  the  agricultural  classes 
are  drawn  on  most  heavily  for  soldiery.  The  extent  to  which  foreign  nations, 
especially  those  of  ICurope,  were  en- 
gaged in  war  prior  to  1815,  was  a  great 
hinderance  to  their  agricultural  pros- 
perity. The  United  States  have  enjoyed 
a  remarkable  advantage  in  this  regard. 
A  second  influence  which  we  have  felt 
was  the  foreign  demand'  for  our  produc- 
tions. This  is  touched  upon  repeat- 
edly in  the  ensuing  chapters  of  this 
work.  It  will  suffice  to  note  here  the 
fact  that  densely-populated  countries 
like  those  of  Europe,  especially  where 
the  people  are  largely  engaged  in  man- 
ufacturing pursuits,  look  to  the  regions 
of  the  earth  which  are  sparsely  settled 
for  agricultural  j)roducts,  food,  and  tex- 
tile fabrics.  Vmg^w  in  our  colonial  days 
we  had  shown  great  possibilities  of  pro- 
duction, though  but  little  reality ;  and 
as    soon    as    cur    independence    was 

achieved,  and  we  took  a  place  among  the  nations  of  the  earth,  we  were  looked 
to  eagerly  as  a  supplier  of  agricultural  produce  to  the  world.  This  foreign 
demand  has  been  felt  more  particularly  by  cotton  and  tobacco  i)lanters,  grain- 
growers,  and  stock-raisers ;  but  an  immense  variety  of  other  produce  has 
gone  to  make  up  our  enormous  export  trade.  Still  another  great  stimulus  lias 
been  afforded  to  the  agricultural  interests  of  this  country  by  the  invention  of 
improved  implements  for  use  by  the  husbandman.  This  marked  advance 
in  a^jriculture  is  treated  by  itself  in  another  chapter  of  this  work. 

Five  other  influences  tliat  have  operated  to  forward  and  develop  this  in- 
dustry are,  —  the  occupation  of  the  \Vest  under  the  encouragement  of  govern- 
ment Icf^islation  and    land   and  railroad  companies ;    co-operative  effort,  the 


SrlNNING-WHEEL. 


I  f 


i 


:  J 


'I 


I  '  i 


18 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


I   I 


,;    I  ! 


nmtual  exchange  of  experience,  and  the  patronage  of  organized  agricultural 
Other  causes  societies ;  the  foundation  of  a  special  department  of  government 
specified.  f^^^  <^^^^,  collation  and  dissemination  of  information  among  the  agri- 
ciillural  classes,  and  otherwise  aiding  them  in  their  pursuits ;  the  development 
of  a  class  of  literature  devoted  to  these  subjects;  and  the  special  scientific 
education  afforded  by  agricultural  colleges. 

HOMKS'ncAI)    LAWS. 

The  v;ist  expanse  of  our  arable  territory,  and  the  steps  we  have  taken  to 
encourage  its  occupation  and  setUement,  have  been  elements  of  prime  impor- 
Eitcnsion  of  ^'^^'^'^'^^  ''■>  thc  flcvelopmcnt  of  our  agricultural  interests.  Prior  to 
farming  thc  Rcvolutiou,  the  American  settlements  were  confined  chiefly  to 

thc  .Atlantic  coast.  After  the  war,  adventurers  began  to  explore 
a;id  locate  in  the  Ohio  Valley.  The  Louisiana  purchase  in  iiSo3,  tlie  large 
annexation  of  territory  from  Mexico  in  1847,  and  tlie  definition  of  our  British- 
American  boundary,  enlarged  our  domain  wonderfiilly,  and  added  greatly  to 
thi.'  area  sus(  eptible  to  tillage  east  of  the  Mississippi. 

At  one  time  tlie  unsettled  "public  "  domain  of  the  United  States  embraced 
1,446,716,(172  acres,  exclusive  of  the  Alaska  purchase.  It  is  out  of  this  that 
Unsiittied  ^'^'-  States  and  Territories  not  included  within  the  present  limit  of 
p-;bi)c  the  original  thirteen  were  erected.     Of  this  vast  area,  large  grants 

o.Ti.ain.  j^.^^.^_  been  made  to  soldiers  for  military  service,  to  rail'-oads,  to 

agricultural  colleges  and  other  pur])o.5es,  and  reservations  made  for  Indians 
and  government  use.  A  very  considerable  proportion  is  mountainous  or 
sterile  sand  ;  yet  the  extent  of  territory  suited  to  agricultural  purposes  exceeds 
the  like  territory  of  any  country  in  Europe. 

But  the  United  States  not  only  had  the  land,  but  promoted  its  purchase  and 
settlement  by  munificent  offers.  In  1.841  Congress  passed  a  law  providing  for 
Sale  of  pub-  the  Sale  of  these  public  lands  for  the  remarkably  low  price  of  a 
he  lands.  dollar  and  twenty-five  cents  an  acre,  in  lots  of  a  hundred  and  sixty 
a(  les  or  less  each,  to  those  who  would  really  go  to  live  thereon,  and  cultivate 
th-m.  Tiiis  pre-emption  law  was  followed  up  in  1863  by  another  piece  of  legis- 
lation, known  as  tlie  '•  Homestead  Act,"  which  provided  that  the  setUer  might 
have  the  land  lor  nothing,  under  proper  conditions.  Prior  to  and  during  the 
operation  of  these  laws,  the  new  Western  States  and  the  railroad  companies 
therein  put  forth  special  efforts  to  draw  agriculturists  thither. 

The  consequence  of  these  inducements  was  to  draw  people  in  large  num 
i)ers  from  the  T^astern  States,  and  even  from  Europe.  Doubtless  the  Irish 
Emi  ration  *"'^''^^''^'-'  between  1S45  and  1S47,  and  tlie  jioor  success  of  the  Ger- 
man revolution  of  1848,  did  much  to  accelerate  foreign  emigra- 
tion,—  a  movement  which  the  Know-nothing  movement  in  politics  a  decade 
liter  slightly  checked.     But  as  large  numbers  of  unopposed  Swedes  also  came. 


■ft. 


OF    THE    I'NITED    STATES. 


igricultural 
;overnment 
ig  the  agri- 
jvelopmcnt 
il  scientific 


«9 


over,  and  as  the  greater  jiroportion  of  the  new-comers  went  West  to  live  on 
farms,  it  is  apparent  that  our  pre-emption  and  homestead  laws  were  a  great 
attraction.  The  perfectly  surprising  growth  of  the  States  of  the  Ohio  and 
Mississipi)i  Valleys  can  hardly  he  attributed  solely  to  the  fertility  of  the  soil  in 
that  section,  remarkal)le  as  tiiat  feature  of  it  was. 

Those  who  have  looked  into  the  subject  say  that  agriculture  thrives  nowhere 
with  such  life  and  success  as  where  the  men  who  do  the  work  own  the  soil. 


ve  taken  to 
rime  impor- 
ts. Prior  to 
;d  chiefly  to 
I  to  explore 
)3,  the  large 
■  our  British- 
(1  greatly  to 

tes  embraced 

of  this  that 

ient  limit  of 

,  large  grants 

rail'-oads,  to 

{o\   Indians 

mtainous    or 

loses  exceeds 

purchase  and 

[providing  for 

kv  price  of  a 

Ired  and  sixty 

md  cultivate 

bicce  of  legis- 

sctder  might 

[l  during  the 

|l1  companies 

In  large  num 

:ss  the  Irish 

of  the  Ger- 

.'ign  emigra- 

Ics  a  decade 

les  also  cani€. 


■^ 
.i'- 


li.MIOKANT   TKAIN. 


:-f        Under  the  European  feudal  system,  and  the  tenantry  system  which  has  suc- 
,i         cceded  it,  the  rustic  populace  are  eitlier  hired  by,  or  lease  their  land  from, 
:  U  .'■         exacting  owners,  and  never  know  such  a  thing  as  proprietorshii).    _     _,.  . 

.j-V^  o  '  n  1        1  1        Conditions 

'^mt         But   here    tlie    agriculturist  is  made   to  feel   the  dignity  of  labor   of  agricui- 
iind  a  larger  stimulus  of  self-interest  bv  tlie  consciousness  that  he   *"''^'  ^^°^' 

perity. 

^  may  own  tlic  broad  acres  which  he  tills.      JS'o  otlicr  country  in 

tlie  world  has  felt  the  induencc  of  this  incentive  as  lias  the  United  States. 

AC.KIClT.TI-'KAr.    .^OClF.TiT-.S. 

The  first  steps  ti)war(l  organization  for  encouraging  and  forwarding  tillage 
an<l  the  arts  related  thereto  in  this  country  were  taken  by  the  I'hiladelphia 
Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Agriculture  in   1 784.      Similar  ones   „ 

•'  "  '     ^  Formation 

were  formed  in  New  York  in  1791  (incorporated  two  years  later),   of  agricui- 

in    Massachusetts    in    1702,    and    in    South    Carolina.      At   this   ^u^ai  socie- 

...  .  ties, 

tune  the  conception   of  such  societies  was  almost  entirely  new. 

Their  formation  had  only  just  begun  in  iuigland.     But  few  men  understood 


4  I 


!   i  I 


I    U 


20 


IND  US  TKIA  I.    Ills  70  A'  V 


how  the  institution  was  to  operate  ;  and  the  nienibcrship  l)eing  slim,  and  not 
over-practical,  little  gooil  was  at  first  elTected.  'I'liere  was  nuich  talk,  at  first, 
of  taking  these  boards  under  governmental  management,  and  assisting  them 
with  governmental  appropriations.  Washington  was  interested  greatly  in  the 
sul)ject.  He  was,  while  yet  President  of  the  United  States,  an  honorary  mem- 
ber of  the  Philadelphia  organization  to  which  we  have  alluded.  Me,  as  well  as 
Adams  and  Jefferson,  was  a  practical  farmer  on  a  large  scale.  He  caught  part 
of  his  inspiration  from  correspondence  with  Arthur  Young  and  Sir  John  Sinclair 
of  England,  who  were  active  in  the  spheres  of  agricultural  organization  and 
information.  These  gentlemen  suggested  to  him  the  value  of  a  national  agri- 
cultural board  founded  and  fostered  by  the  United-States  (iovermiient ;  but 
Washington's  idea  was,  that  the  formation  of  smaller  societies  wa..  a  i)re- 
requisite  to  the  greater  one.  These  continued  to  be  organized  throughout 
the  States  slowly,  and  with  slight  results.  The  Kennebec  Agricultural  Society 
was  instituted  at  Augusta,  Me.,  in  1800,  being  the  second  society  incorpo- 
rated inside  of  Massachusetts,  the  separation  between  the  two  States  not  hav- 
ing been  effected  until  a  later  jjcriod.  A  voluntary  association  of  Middlesex- 
county  husbandmen  existed  in  Massachusetts  as  early  as  i  794  ;  but  it  was  not 
incorjjorated  until  1803. 

The  first  agricultural  fair  in  this  country  was  held  at  Washington,  then  a  "city 
in  the  woods,"  in  1804,  at  the  suggestion  of  the  commissioner  of  patents,  anil 
The  first  Under  the  auspices  of  the  municipal  authorities,  who  voted  to  hold 
agricultural  them  semi-annually.  The  first  one,  held  in  October  of  that  year, 
showed  the  advantage,  educationally,  of  exhibiting  choice  produce 
and  stock ;  and  at  the  s[)ring  exhibition  the  next  year  over  one  hundred 
dollars  in  premiums  were  offered,  which  proved  a  stimulus  to  the  farmers' 
efforts.  The  next  pro\  ision  for  a  f.iir  was  that  made  by  the  Columbian  Agri- 
cultural Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Rural  and  Domestic  I'lconomy,  at 
Georgetown,  I).C.  The  organization  was  effected  in  the  fall  of  1S09,  and  its 
first  fair  was  held  the  following  May.  Large  premiums  were  offered  on  that 
occasion  for  sheep-raising.  In  181 6  the  Massachusetts  society  held  a  fair  at 
Brighton,  at  which  premiums  were  offered  for  a  variety  of  articles ;  and  a 
ploughing-match  was  had  to  show  off  the  training  of  catde. 

These  fairs  brougiit  the  farmers  together  for  an  interchange  of  thought  and 
experience,  far  more  valuable  than  the  ol'  husking-bees  and  sheep-shearings 
Advantage  that  formed  the  earlier  neighl)oriioo(l  rural  gatherings.  They 
of  fairs.  c'xcited  rivalry  as  well  as  afft)r(led  new  hints.     Furthermore,  they 

advertised  the  stock  of  some  enterprising  breeder  to  his  neiglibors  ;  and  the 
consecpient  sales  enabled  him  to  reap  a  rich  harvest  from  his  venturesome 
^.        .  investments  of  time,  trouble,  and   monev.     The  agricultural   soci- 

Dissemina-  .'  d 

tion  of  eties   also   collected  and  printed   such    information  as  they  could 

knowledge      ijixjcure,  indi\i(lual   members  contribulinL(  i)apers  on   topics  with 

by  fairs.  .  ^         ,  .  .  , 

which  they  were   familiar,  and  these  transactions  being  published 
either  for  circulation  or  reference. 


J 


OF   711  ■■.    rxm-n  siatis. 


ai 


iii(i  not 

al  first, 
ig  ihciT) 
y  in  the 
ry  nicMU- 
s  well  as 
ight  part 
I  Sinrlaii 
tion  and 
)nal  agri- 
icnt;  but 
IS  a  prc- 
iroughout 
al  Society 
'  incorpo- 
s  not  hav- 
aiddlcsex- 

it  was  not 

lien  a  "city 
atents,  and 
;cd  to  hold 
that  year, 
x'  ])roduce 
c  hundred 
he   fanners' 
iibian  Agri- 
■onomy,  at 
109,  anil  its 
I'd  on  that 
|d  a  foir  at 
Ics  ;    and  a 

liought  and 
|p-shcarings 
^s.      'I'hey 
rniore,  thoy 
l-s  ;  and  the 
Icnluresome 
[itiiral   soci- 
thcy  could 
[topics  with 
published 


c 
I- 
r- 

G 


SMM 


I     I  ■■ 


■ 


'11 
I'  li' 


J.     I 


'1      I 


;       - 


as 


/JVD  US  TA'/A  I.    JUS  TOR  Y 


For  the  first  forty  years  of  the  present  century  the  organization  of  county 
increaie  of  '^"'^  ^^'^^^'  societies  was  sIow  and  infrecjuent.  Hut  between  1840 
agricultural  and  1850  State  and  county  societies  were  numerously  formed  all 
»oc  eties.  ^^,^^  ^1^^.  ,,,,„ntry  j  and,  since  that  time,  scarcely  an  agriculturali 
region  within  our  national  limits  has  been  without  one  or  both. 

In  1841  an  effort  was  made  in  Washington  to  organize  a  national  agricul- 
tural society  with  tlie  fund  beciueathed  for  the  jjurpose  by  Hugh  Smithson. 
But  the  establishment  of  the  Smithsonian  Institute  made  the  endowment 
available  for  the  other  purpose;  and  the  project  was  abandoned  until  1852, 
when  a  convention  of  a  hundred  and  fifty-two  delegates,  representing  twelve 
state  agricultural  associations  and  eleven  other  States  and  Territories,  met,  and 
organized  a  national  society,  which  was  a  realization  of  (leorge  Washington's 
long-cherished  idea.  It  was  not  incorporated  until  i860;  but  before  that 
time  it  had  undertaken  a  special  publication  of  its  own,  and  had  held  service- 
able national  fairs.  The  interruptions  of  the  war,  and  the  assumption  of  some 
of  its  functions  by  the  general  department  of  agriculture  in  1863,  resulted  in 
its  disintegration  and  virtual  abandonment. 

Special   societies,   too,    have   been'  organized    in   the    interest   of  special 

branches   of   agriculture.      Horticultural    societies    (of   which    the    first   was 

formed  in  i829),pomological  societies,  Southern  planters'  societies, 

progress  of      dairymen's  Societies  (state  and  national),  sheep-raisers' and  wool- 

speciai  so-       orfowers',  cattle   and   horse   breeding   societies,   poultry  and   bee 

cieties.  ^  '  o  '    i  / 

keepers'  associations,  and  the  like,  have  grown  up  within  the  i)ast 
quarter  of  a  century  very  numerously ;  and  these,  like  the  more  comprehen- 
sive "  agricultural "  societies,  have  done  much,  by  the  interchange  of  observa- 
tions, experiment,  and  exhibition,  t(j  awaken  and  heighten  individual  interest, 
improve  the  standards  of  stock,  enligliten  the  cultivator  or  breeder  as  to  the 
best  methods  of  operation,  and  to  dignify  the  agricultural  industry  before  the 
world. 

In  1867  the  records  of  the  department  of  agriculture  showed  that  1,367 
organizations  of  this  general  character  were  in  nominal  existence  throughout 
the  country.  Some  few  had  been  discontinued ;  but  most  of  then  were 
revived,  or  supplanted  by  new  ones.  And,  besides  these,  many  other  such 
societies  have  since  been  formed. 


C;  K  A  N  G  V.  R     M  O  \'  K  MEN  T. 

In  this  connection  it  may  be  well  to  mention  a  system  of  organization  for 
Granger  the  promotion  of  agricultural  interests  which  is  still  more  recent, 

movement,  ^-^j  somewhat  different  from  the  societies  we  have  thus  far  men- 
tioned. We  refer  to  the  Patrons  of  Husbandry,  whose  association  and  influ- 
ence constitute  what  is  known  as  "  the  (Iranger  movement"  in  this  country. 

At  the  close  of  the   civil  war  the  agriculturists  of  the  West  found  them- 


4 


J 


OF    T//E    UNI  TED    STATES. 


13 


1  of  county 

.'tween  184a 

\f  formed  all 

agricultural 

onal  agricul- 
gh  Smithson. 
;  endowment 
d  until  1H52, 
L-nting  twelve 
ries,  met,  and 
Washington's 
It  before  that 
held  service- 
iption  of  some 
53,  resulted  in 

•est   of  special 
the   first  was 
.nters'  societies, 
isers'  and  wool- 
pultry  and  bee 
within  the  past 
fre  comprehen- 
ge  of  obscrva- 
yidual  interest, 
eder  as  to  the 
istry  before  the 

Iwed  that  1,367 
Ince  throughout 
of  then  were 
lany  other  such 


Organization  for 
|1  more  recent, 
thus  far  men- 
Ition  and  influ- 
Ithis  country. 
\i  found  them- 


selves, for  one  reason  or  another,  badly  situated.  Their  farms  were  mortgaged, 
they  ubtained  poor  remuneration  for  their  produce,  and  their  or»aniiation 
])rospects  were  gloomy  indeed.  Letters  of  complaint  about  of  the  first 
these  and  other  kindred  evils  poured  into  the  department  at  °"'"''*- 
Washington  in  great  numbers.  Finally  it  occurred  to  Mr.  William  Saunders  — 
a  Scotchman  of  education  and  culture  connected  with  the  agricultural  bureau, 
and  in  charge  of  the  gardens  and  conservatories  of  that  establishment —  that 
many  of  these  evils  coulil  be  overcome  were  the  farmers  to  organize  after  tlie 
manner  of  the  Masons  and  Odd  Fellows.  He  did  not  belong  to  either  frater- 
nity himself;  but  in  1867  he  broached  the  idea  to  Mr.  O.  11.  Kelley  (a  clerk 
in  the  post-oftke  department),  Mr.  J.  R.  Thompson,  and  William  M.  Ireland, 
all  of  whom  were  Masons;  to  the  Rev.  A.  15.  (Irosh^  who  held  a  high  rank 
among  the  Odd  Fellows ;  and  to  the  Rev.  John  Trimble,  jun.  On  the  3d  of 
August,  1 86 7,  these  gentlemen  met,  and  devised  a  scheme  for  a  socit-ty,  as  yet 
nameless,  which  contemplatetl  the  objects  Mr.  Saunders  had  in  view.  Soon 
afterward  he  had  occasion  to  visit  Western  New-York  State,  and  there  he 
interested  a  number  of  his  agricultural  friends  in  the  enterprise.  In  the 
autumn  a  second,  third,  and  fourth  degree  was  perfected,  and  the  name 
"Patrons  of  Husbandry"  was  adopted.  The  National  Orange  was  organized 
in  December,  with  the  following  officers :  William  Saunders,  master;  J.  R. 
Thompson,  lecturer;  Anson  Bartlett,  overseer;  >Villiam  Miner,  steward  ;  A.  S. 
Moss,  assistant  steward  ;  the  Rev.  A.  B.  (irosh,  chaplain  ;  William  M.  Ireland, 
treasurer ;  O.  H.  Kelley,  secretary ;  and  Edward  P.  Faris,  gate-keeper.  The 
constitution  provided  for  the  admission  of  women ;  and  four  feminine  offices 
were  created,  named  respectively  Ceres,  Pomona,  Flora,  and  Lady  Assistant 
Stewardess.  There  was  also  an  executive  committee  api)ointed.  Later  in  the 
month  a  subordinate  Grange  was  formed,  with  about  sixty  members.  On  the  ist 
of  January,  1S68,  Mr.  Saunders  disseminated  throughout  the  country  circulars 
netting  forth  the  principles  of  the  order,  and  urging  the  organization  of  Oranges 
and  the  foundation  of  (Grange  libraries. 

Progress  was  at  first  very  slow.  For  three  months  the  local  Grange  in 
Washington  was  the  only  subordinate  one  in  the  whole  country.  On  the  ist 
of  April  Mr.  Kelley  resigned  his  government  clerkship,  and  gave  Growth  of 
his  whole  time  and  energy  to  promoting  the  growth  of  the  order  ;  **^'  ovAtr. 
for  which  he  was  to  have  a  salary  of  $2,000,  provided  he  could  organize 
enough  Granges  to  secure  it  in  fees.  During  April,  four  were  formed ;  and, 
before  the  year  was  out,  six  more,  these  latter  in  Minnesota.  In  1869  to  the 
original  eleven  were  added  thirty-nine,  and  in  1870  thirty-eight,  liesides 
these,  there  were  the  National  Grange,  already  mentioned,  and  three  State 
Granges.  Mr.  Kelley  came  to  Washington  again  Jan.  i,  1871,  as  the  secretary 
and  executive  officer  of  the  organization.  From  that  time  forward  progress 
was  rapid.  The  additions  to  the  order  numbered  125  in  1871,  1,160  in  1872, 
8,600  in  1873,  11,000  in  1874,  and  about  the  same  number  in  1875.     At  the 


■K-s 


24 


INI)  US  TK'  /A  I.    Ills  TON  Y 


I    i 


i  I  ■ 


'i  !l 


Its  objects. 


Mode  of 

attaining 

them. 


rlosc  of  the  last-named  year,  a  few  (irangcs  having  horonio  extinct,  thtrc  were 
about  30,000  in  the  country  aUogctiuT,  with  a  nienihership  of  about  2,500,000. 
Sin<  c  tlien  it  has  grown  but  httlc,  the  niovenienl  having  about  rcachetl  its 
climax  in  US75. 

The  objects  of  this  order,  which  was  secret  but  strictly  non-political,  were 
the  higher  social  and  intellectual  culture  of  the  members,  and  the  dispensing 
with  tlu-  services  and  profits  of  the  middlemen  in  both  buying  and 
selling.  'I'iie  former  end  was  attained  by  the  introduction  of 
music  and  literary  exercises  at  the  meeting  of  the  Orange  ;  and  thus  thousands 
of  rude  farmers  and  fiirmers'  wives  were  led  to  develop  and  gratify  tastes,  and 
engage  in  avocations,  pursued  l)y  persons  in  more  advantageous  conditions  of 
life.  The  latter  end  was  secured  by  several  means.  Agencies 
were  established  for  the  sale  of  produce  directly  to  shippers  and 
other  legitimate  ])urchasers,  thereby  dispensing  with  the  medium 
of  speculators.  Thus  the  farmers  were  enabled  to  get  better  prices  for  their 
crops.  The  same  sort  of  co-operation  saved  to  the  fiirmcrs  the  large  profits 
of  middlemen  in  buying  household  furniture  and  farming-utensils.  Books, 
sewing-machines,  all  kinds  of  implements  and  merchandise,  were  procured  at  a 
saving  of  from  twenty- five  to  thirty  per  cent  through  these  agencies.  These 
advantages,  and  co-operation  in  other  directions,  ])ut  the  farmers  in  a  more 
prosperous  condition  than  ever  before,  cleared  off  their  debts,  and  gave  them 
many  comforts  and  novelties  which  otherwise  they  could  not  have  enjoyed. 

It  was  one  of  the  first  principles  of  the  order  that  it  should  in  no  way 
meddle  with  jjolitics  ;  and  though  it  has  been  alleged  repeatedly  that  this  or 
_.    _  that  candidate  for  local,  state,  or  national  office,  had  been  elected 

The  Grange  '  '  ' 

dissociated      or  defeated  through  Granger  inlluence,  positive  and  emphatic  deni- 

from  poll-  jjIj.  yf  ^^^  same  have  been  made  by  the  oniccrs  of  the  organiza- 
tics.  .  .  ■'  '^ 

tion.     The  discussion  of  political  topics  in  meetings  of  the  CIrange 

is  also  prohibited. 

A  semi-polit'cal  influence  has,  however,  been  exerted  by  the  order,  though 
to  an  extent,  doubtless,  far  less  than  has  been  generally  believed.  One  of  the 
Demands  ^^''^  against  which  the  Western  agriculturist  declaimed  most  bit- 
made  of  the  tcrly  was  the  discrimination  of  the  railroad  companies  against 
railroads.  j^^^j  shippers  of  freight,  in  fovor  of  through  shii)pers.  It  was  felt 
that  these  exactions  were  grievous,  and  a  remedy  was  sought  in  legislation. 
No  "  Granger  "  tickets  were  put  in  nomination  ;  yet,  doubtless  with  this  object 
in  view,  the  Patrons  of  Husbandry  gained  sufficient  strength  in  the  Illinois  and 
Wisconsin  legislatures  to  secure  the  enactment  of  State  laws  in  1873,  restrict- 
ing the  railroad  tariffs  to  a  basis  more  favorable  to  the  farmers  who  were  way- 
passengers  and  shippers.  The  railroad  companies  resisted  this  legislation  at 
first  as  unconstitutional,  declaring  that  a  State  had  no  right  to  modify  their 
charters  when  once  granted.  The  matter  went  into  the  State  courts,  and,  by 
appeal,  to  the  United-States  courts.     But  in  1876  a  test  case,  appealed  to  the 


>  M 


or  TIN-:  cx/r/'-.n  statks. 


«5 


;lKrc  wcTO 

2,50(),(K)». 

L'achcd  its 


tical,  were 
dispensing 

jiiying  •"■"^ 
liiction  of 
i  thousands 
tastes,  and 
iidilions  of 

Agencies 
lippcrs  and 
\\c  medium 
;es  for  their 
large  jirofits 
Is,       Hooks, 
rocured  at  a 
;ics.     These 
i  in  a  more 
I  gave  tliem 
enjoyed. 
I  in  no  way 
that  111  is  or 
)een  elected 
iphatic  deni- 
he  organiza- 

the  Ci range 

irder,  though 
One  of  the 
;d  most  bit- 
inies   against 
It  was  felt 
li  legislation, 
|h  this  object 
Illinois  and 
;73,  restrict- 
10  were  way- 
legislation  at 
1  modify  their 
lurts,  and,  by 
lealed  to  the 


SMprctne  Court  of  tlic  nation,  evoked  a  decision  to  the  effect  that  the  "  Potter 
Law"  of  Wisconsin,  the  most  famous  of  all  these  "dranger"  enactments,  was 
constitutional,  'I'iie  moral  effect  of  this  decision  was  to  secure  greater  or  less 
concessions  from  the  Western  railroads  to  the  agri<  ullural  interest. 

A(;i<lCUi;iUKAI,    F.DUCATION    AND    l.lTI'.KATUKi:. 

Doth  in  I'lngland  and  in  this  country  the  idea  of  governmental  cncour- 
agenuMit  was  at  first  associated  with  popular  organizations  for  [iromoting  hus- 
bandry.    It  has  been  remarked,  that,  until  a  <|uarter  of  the  present 

11  1  •      I.  I      1    1  r  „    Opposition 

century  had  passed  away,  agriculture  had  become   no  more  of  a  to^overn- 
science  in  ICurope  than  it  had  been  for  centuries.     Hut  I'acon's  mental  en- 
])hiI()sophy  was  applied  to  agri(-ulture  by  original  and  enterprising   t°"nau'?Jy"* 
llritish   minds   in   the   eighteenth    century ;    and    the  writings   of 
Jetiiro  Tull,  Arthur  Young,  Lord  Kames,  and  Sir  John   Sinclair,  were  followed 
by  the  eijtablishment  of  a  Mritisii  National  J>oard  of  Agriculture  by  William  Pitt 
in  1793.     In  the  minds  of  many  Americans  of  that  day  and  later  the  idea 
of  congressional  provision  for  this  industry  was  warmly  cherished  ;  but  it  was 
long  in  attaining  realization. 

In  1837-38  the  country  was  roused,  by  the  necessity  for  importing  several 
million  dollars'  worth  <jf  breadstuffs,  to  a  consciousness,  that  owing  to  the 
exhaustion  of  the  soil,  and   bad   management  in  other  respects, 
agriculture  was  sadly  languishing.     One  of  the  two  means  of  relief  pr[ation'l)7*" 
suggested   by  the  leading  minds  of   that  day  was  a  government   money  for 
appropriation,  to  be  exiiended    by  the   commissioner  of  patents   "S""^" '""' 

'  '       '  '  •'  '  purposes. 

for  the  "collation  of  agricultural  statistics,  investigations  for  pro- 
moting agriculture  and  rural  economy,  and  the  ])rocurement  of  seeds  and 
cuttings  for  gratuitous  ilistribution  among  the  farmers."  At  this  time  the  Hon. 
Henry  L.  Lllsworth  was  commissioner  of  patents,  and  it  was  at  his  suggestion 
that  Congress  appropriated  a  thousand  dollars  for  this  purpose  in  1839.  A 
like  one  was  made  in  1842;  for  each  of  the  next  two  years  two  thousand 
dollars  were  appropriated;  in  1845  the  amount  was  three  thousand  dollars; 
then  a  year  was  missed.  Resuming  at  the  same  figure  in  1847,  the  govern- 
ment thereafter  regularly  made  provision,  gradually  increasing  the  sum,  until, 
in  1862,  it  amounted  to  sixty  thousand  dollars.  Twice  and  thrice  that  sum 
has  since  been  expended  in  a  sinHe  year.  Picvious  to  this  date  the  depart- 
ment had  been  little  more  than  a  clerkship  in  the  jiatent  office  ;  and  the 
annual  reports,  beginning  with  one  in  1854,  long  con^^tituted  a  part  of  the 
report  of  the  commissioner  of  patents.  Hy  a  law  of  1862  ..  dis-  organization 
tinct  bureau  of  agriculture  was  erected,  with  a  commissioner  at  of  bureau  of 
its  head,  a  chief  clerk,  botanist,  entomologist,  statistician,  and  °b"'=^'''"='«- 
other  subordinates.  Since  that  time  the  size  and  capacity  and  the  usefulness 
of  the  department  have  steadily  increased. 


26 


IND  US  TKIA  L    HIS  7VK  Y 


f     I   ; 


of  informa- 
tion 


This  government  establishment  has  done  far  more  thoroughly  and  on  a 
much  broader  scale  much  of  the  work  of  a  local  agricultural  society,  and  a 
Work  »c.  great  deal  besides.  By  the  collection  of  facts  and  figures  showing 
compiished  the  extent  to  which  stock-raising  and  crop-growing  of  various  kinds 
y  bureau.  ^^^^^  conducted  in  different  sections  of  the  country,  the  value  of 
the  property,  the  cost  of  the  several  branches  of  the  business,  the  profits,  the 
character  of  maladies,  pests,  bad  weather  and  other  embarrassments,  the  pecu- 
liarities of  soil  and  climate  which  were  favorable  and  unfavorable  to  certain 
crops,  the  effects  of  experiments  with  various  plants  and  breeds  of  animals, 
the  results  of  observation  upon  the  use  of  new  implements  and  new  methods 
of  cultivation,  and  so  on,  it  was  possible  to  draw  deductions  scientifically, 
which  could  not  be  reached  in  any  other  way,  and  which  were  of  immense 
value  to  the  farming-interest. 

Agricultural  publications  and  correspondence  from  abroad  were  procured, 
showing  the  general  condition  and  special  features  of  the  industry  in  other 
parts  of  the  world,  and  the  useful  parts  of  such  information  made 
and  diffusion  acccssible  to  the  American  farmer.  Special  essays  upon  various 
plants,  modes  of  culture,  and  breeds  of  animals,  were  obtained 
from  gentlemen  of  experience  and  knowledge  all  over  the  coun- 
try ;  and  these  were  made  to  bear  more  particularly  upon  the  value  and  use- 
fulness of  the  choicer  kinds  of  stock,  and  varieties  of  crops,  in  order  to  excite 
a  desire  to  select,  raise,  and  breed  only  the  best. 

In  addition  to  the  collection  of  this  information,  the  department  procured 
abroad  and  elsewhere  the  choicest  sectls,  plants,  and  cuttings,  and  experi- 
mented with  them  on  government  grounds  in  order  to  ascertain 
their  habits,  vitality,  and  utility.  The  more  perfect  and  valuable 
specimens  were  extensively  propagated ;  and  the  seeds,  cuttings, 
and  plants  were  distributed  all  over  the  country  among  farmers 
and  gardeners.  Thus  a  greater  degree  of  excellence  was  secured 
in  produce.  The  adaptation  of  these  to  the  locality  whitlier  they  were  sent, 
and  the  success  of  their  introduction,  was  ascertained  by  the  department  for 
its  own  and  the  public's  information. 

Improved  varieties  of  our  staples,  such  as  cotton,  wheat,  and  corn,  were 
sought  after.  Great  attention  was  given  to  the  introduction  of  plants  not 
Introduction  indigenous,  but  valuable,  and  likely  to  be  suited  to  our  country. 
of  new  The  silk-worm  and  the  mulberry-tree,  ramie-grass,  jute  or  Chinese 

p  ants.  hemp,  sorghum,  vines  for  wine,  raisins,  olives,  and  tea  and  coffee 

plants,  arc  only  a  few  of  the  innumerable  ir.iportations  made  by  the  department, 
cultivated  on  its  own  grounds,  and  disseminated  throughout  the  country. 
The  department  has  never  gone  into  stock-breeding  and  importation,  but 
has  i:irocured  a  vast  amount  of  information  upon  the  subject  in  all  its 
ramifications. 

The  printing  of  all  this  valuable  information,  and  its  broad  dissemination 


Collection  of 
seeds,  &c., 
and  experi- 
ments with 
them. 


ii 


i 


.■  li 


/^X 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


27 


yr  and  on  a 
ciety,  and  a 
ires  showing 
■arious  kiiids 
the  vaUie  of 
t  profits,  the 
ts,  the  pecu- 
[e  to  certain 
i  of  animals, 
new  methods 
scientifically, 
of  immense 

ere  procvired, 
istry  in  other 
•mation  made 
upon  various 
,vere  obtained 
)ver  the  coun- 
alue  and  use- 
Drder  to  excite 

ment  procured 

and  experi- 

to  ascertain 

and  valuable 

eds,  cuttings, 

uiiong  farmers 
e  was  secured 
ley  were  sent, 
epartment  for 

Lud  corn,  were 
of  plants  not 
3  our  country, 
ite  or  Chinese 
tea  and  coffee 
ic  department, 
the  country, 
portation,  but 
iect   in   all   its 

dissemination 


■ft 


gratuitously  throughout  the  land,  have  educated  the  country  and   advanced 
the  science  of  agriculture  almost  beyond  computation.     Without   „    ,  . 

°  •'  '  Usefulness 

doubt  it  has  enriched  the  agricidtural  classes  and  the  country   ofagricui- 
generally  a  thousand-fold  more  than  its  cost ;  and  there  is  reason  *"''"'  '•^P^rt- 
to  believe,  that,  before  many  years,  the  facilities  and  influence  ol 
the  bureau  will  be  increased  by  its  erection  into  a  full-grown  "  department  " 
of  the  administration,  co-equal  with  those  which  conduct  our  revenue,  postal, 
military,  and  naval  service. 

)  ESTABLISHMENT    OF   STATE    BOARDS    OF    AGRICULTURE. 

In  several  of  the  States,  Boards  of  Agriculture  have  been  constituted  under 
government  auspices,  sometimes  based  upon  the  remains  of  a  defunct  State 
agricultural  society,  and  sometimes  organized  intlependently.  These  State 
boards  are  maintained  by  appropriations,  establish  experiment-stations,  providf 
for  lectures  in  different  parts  of  the  State,  promote  local  farmers'  clubs,  and 
publish  their  proceedings.  Their  work,  in  some  cases,  will  compare  very 
favorably  with  that  carried  on  at  Washington. 

Education  in  the  science  of  agriculture,  however,  is  the  great  thing  that 
has  developed  the  industry.  This  has  been  done  partly  by  the  discussions  of 
clubs  and  societies,  by  the  dissemination  of  documents  by  socie- 
ties and  the  government,  by  the  literature  produced  by  individual 
enterprise,  and  by  special  schools  for  the  thorough  training  of 
students  in  the  theory  and  practice  of  farming.  In  the  olden  time, 
and  indeed  until  within  r>  century,  the  farmer  looked  at  aj^riculture  as  little 
more  than  gathering  what  Mother  Earth  would  yield  him  spontaneously.  He 
had  not  studied  the  subject  of  vegetation,  weather,  soil,  chemistry,  and  the 
other  elemen'o  which  entered  into  and  vitally  affected  his  industry.  He  had 
not  indulged  in  wide  observation,  nor  reduced  his  labor  to  what  could  be 
termed  a  science.  Nearly  a  hundred  years  ago,  scientific  methods  of  wide- 
spread observation,  logical  deduction,  and  experimental  application  of  theory, 
were  begun  by  a  few  enterprising  agriculturists,  or  patrons  of  agriculture, 
in  the  Old  World,  and  subsequently  in  America.  But  no  provision  for  pro- 
curing scientific  information,  and  making  it  practically  useful,  has  equalled 
the  establishment  of  special  agricultural  colleges.  Except  Germany,  this  coun- 
try has  no  equal  in  the  educational  advantages  she  offers  her  people  in  this 
direction;  although  the  establishment  of  these  institutions  is  comparatively 
recent. 

The  first  three  agricultural  schools  were  started  in  Germany  and  Switzerland 
in  1799.     They  were  locatvd  at  Celle  in  Hanover,  n^ar  Berne,    poundipgof 
and  at  Kruman,  Bohemia.     In  181 1  a  private  forestry-school  was   agricultural 
established  in  Saxony,  which  in  1816  was  transferred  to  the  state,   ^'=^°°'^- 
and  in  1830  became  an  agricultur:',!  college.     The  great  agricultural  college  of 


Introduction 
of  scientific 
methods  into- 
agriculture. 


ssa 


:, 


i'^i 


t 


38 


/JV/)  USTK14L    I/IS  ■/  W  A-  V 


Europe  —  that  at  Hohenheim,  near  Stuttgart  —  wns  founded  in  1818,  and 
another  such  institution  was  starteil  in  Pomerania  in  1835.  Ten  years  ago 
Contrast  be-  there  wcre  a  hundred  and  forty-four  stations,  institutes,  schools, 
tween  ^jp^j    colleges   in    Germany.     Great    Britain  has  but  two    of  any 

Europe  and  i  i-  i      i    i     r  ^  , 

United  consequence,  —  one  at  Cirencester,  established  before  1840,  and 

States.  one  near  Dublin.     French  legislation  in  1848  led  to  the  organiza- 

tion of  one  college  at  Versailles,  and  several  minor  schools  in  various  parts  of 
France. 

It  will  be  seen  from  these  facts,  and  from  others  which  wc  are  about  to 
state,  that  Europe  led  us  but  very  little  in  agricultural  education,  and  soon  fell 
Efforts  of  behind.  We  have  already  referred  to  the  depression  of  agriculture 
Judge  Buei.  in  America  between  TS3oand  1840.  Besides  the  suggestion  then 
made  for  a  government  bureau  of  agriculture,  the  establishment  of  technical 
schools  in  this  department  of  knowledge  was  strongly  recommended,  Judge 
Buel  of  New  York  being  foremost  in  pressing  the  idea.  No  immediate  action 
was  taken,  however. 

In  1844  an  agricultural  department  was  established  in  connection  with 
Oberlin  College,  Ohio.  A  separate  college  was  founded  at  Cleveland  in 
Increase  of  1855,  to  which  the  Oberlin  endowment  was  transferred.  In  1854 
agricultural  Dr.  William  Terrell  made  a  bequest  to  the  University  of  Georgia, 
amounting  to  $20,000,  to  establish  a  professorship  of  agriculture. 
Arrangements  for  a  similar  dejoartment  in  connection  with  Amherst  College 
were  made  by  Massachusetts  in  1855.  Subsequently  a  veterinary  institute 
was  established  at  Boston.  In  1852  a  charter  was  obtained  for  an  independent 
agricultural  college.  The  endowment  was  to  be  raised  from  town,  county, 
and  personal  subscriptions.  Little  was  done  toward  organization  until  1855. 
It  was  i860  before  the  school  was  in  operation  ;  and,  the  war  breaking  out  soon 
after,  it  closed  after  two  terms. 

Michigan  was  the  first  State,  after  Ohio,  to  get  an  independent  agricultural 
college  in  actual  operation.  The  act  of  incorporation  and  appropriation 
Formation  of  P^ssed  Feb.  12,  1 85  5.  A  farm  of  676  acres,  mostly  wooded, 
agricultural  at  first  was  purchased,  and  buildings  erected  for  college-purposes, 
students'  boarding-house,  and  professors'  residences.  The  institu- 
tion went  into  practical  oj)eration  in  1857  ;  and  its  stock-stables, 
botanical  gardens,  and  course  of  instruction,  soon  made  it  famous. 
The  original  grant  was  of  $56,000  :  a  subsequent  one  of  $40,000  was  made  ; 
and  even  then  there  was  a  debt  of  $13,000,  making  a  total  cost  of  $109,000. 
In  i860  it  passed  under  control  of  the  State  Board.  The  <^hird  such  independ- 
ent institution  was  the  Farmers'  High  School  of  Pennsylvania,  opened  in  Centre 
County  of  that  Slate  in  1859.  Three  years  later  its  name  was  changed  to  the 
Agricultural  College  of  Pennsylvania.  Iowa  made  a  grant  of  $10,000  for 
such  an  institution  in  1858,  and  got  it  going  on  a  small  scale  in  1859.  The 
Ovid  College  appears  to  have  been  the  fifth  of  these  institutions. 


schools  in 
Michigan 
and  Penn- 
sylvania. 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


29 


1 81 8,  and 
1  years  ago 
es,  schools, 
wo  of  any 
;  1840,  and 
lie  organiza- 
ous  parts  of 

irc  about  to 
md  soon  fell 
)f  agriculture 
rcrestion  then 
of  technical 
nided,  Judge 
>ediate  action 

mection  with 
Cleveland   in 
ed.     In  1854 
y  of  (ieorgia, 
Df  agriculture, 
iiherst  College 
inary  institute 
independent 
town,  county, 
m  until  1855. 
king  out  soon 

lit  agricultural 
appropriation 
)stly  wooded, 
ege-purposcs. 
The  institu- 
stock-stables, 
ade  It  famous, 
o  was;  made  ; 
of  $109,000. 
ich  independ- 
ned  in  Centre 
anged  to  the 
|f  t"  1 0,000  for 
in  1859.    The 


In  1862  Congress  passed  an  act  granting  land  to  each  State  in  the  Union,  to 
the  extent  of  30,000  acres  for  each  representative  in  Congress,  the  proceeds 
of  the  sales  of  which  were  to  go  to  agricultural  and  mechanical 
colleges.     Immediately  stepj.  were  taken  in  several  of  the  Northern   sjonargrant 
States  for  the  foundation  of  industrial  schools  of  this  sort.     Massa-   for  state 
chusetts   devoted  the  proceeds  of  one-tenth  of  her  land-scrip  to   go^e^er"^"' 
buying  a  farm  at  Amherst,  which  cost  $40,000  ;  and  $75,000  more 
was  appropriated  for  the  buildings  of  her  Agricultural  College.     In  New  York 
the  land-scrip  was   given   to   Cornell   University,  which   had   an   agricultural 
department.     In  Connectit..:t:  the  Slicfifield  Scipntific  School  profited   in  the 
same  way.     Kentucky  at  first  established  a  college  in  connection  v/ith  the 
State    University,  but  subsequently  separated  it,  and   bought   a  farm  for  it, 
which  included  "  Ashland,"  the  historic  estate  of  Henry  Clay.     This  school 
was  opened  in  1866  ;  in  which  year  the  colleges  of  Maine,  Vermont,  and  New 
Jersey,  were  nearly  or  quite  completed.     Where  some  institution  had  already 
been  founded,  as  in  Iowa,  Michigan,  and  Ohio,  they  were  made  the  recipients 
of  the   Federal  grants.     In  some  States  the  endowment  was  utilized  at  existing 
universities  by  the   opening   of  special   departments.     The  Southern  States 
followed  suit  soon   after  the  war.     In    1876  ail   the   States  but  Nevada  had 
availed   themselves  of  the  government  provision;    antl  there  were  then  41 
industrial  colleges  in  existence  in  this  country,  with  463  professors  and   3,703 
students  in  all  grades.     In  1875  there  were  382  graduates  from  these  colleges; 
a  number  steadily  increasing  since.     At  the  present  time   nearly  all  the  land- 
scrip  has  been  sold,  some  of  it  having  been  exceedingly  desirable. 

Our  agricultural  literature  has  been  regarded  by  eminent  authority  as  not 
exclusively  a  cause  of  the  development  of  agricultural  science,  but  as  partly 
an  outgrowth  of  that  advance  in  thought  and  interest ;  for,  '-'ith  Agricultural 
slight  exceptions,  we  had  very  little  until  nearly  a  quarter  of  the  literature, 
present  century  had  passed.  In  the  middle  of  the  last  century  the  Rev.  Jared 
Eliot  of  Connecticut  prepared  and  published  several  papers  on  the  state  of 
husbandry  in  this  country,  which  were  almost  as  valuable  to  his  generation  as 
the  famous  "  Georgics  "  of  Virgil.  But  these  essays  were  a  little  aiiead  of  *he 
time,  and  hr.d  but  few  readers.  The  Philadelphia,  New-York,  and  Massachu- 
setts  societies  also  published  their  transactions,  wiiich  were  valuable.  Those 
of  Massachusetts,  beginning  in  1796,  were  especially  helpfiil. 

Mr.  Flint  thinks  that  "  The  American  Farmer,"  published  in  Baltimore  for 
the  first  time  in  1819,  was  the  first  purely  agricultural  periodical  in  the  I'nitcd 
States.  It  soon  attained  a  wide  circulation,  and  seems  to  have  Agricultural 
set  the  fanners  to  reading  and  thinking  more  scientifically  than  periodicals, 
before.  "The  Agricultural  Intelligencer"  was  started  in  Boston  the  following 
year;  but  it  lived  only  a  few  months.  In  1822,  ho-  _'ver,  a  new  venture 
was  made  with  better  success.  Mr.  T.  O.  Fessenden  founded  "The  New- 
F.n'jland  Farmer,"  v/h ich  was  continued  until    1S46;  when,  upon   its  death. 


3° 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


\   |i 


another  periodical  of  the  same  name,  weekly  and  monthly,  succeeded  it.  Mr. 
Samuel  Fleet  started  "The  New- York  Farmer"  soon  after  the  New-England 
publication  made  its  advent,  subsequenUy  selling  it  out  to  1).  K.  Miner, 
Mr.  Luther  Tucker,  an  experienced  agricultural  editor,  started  still  another 
paper  in  New- York  State,  near  Rochester,  in  1S31.  It  was  called  "The 
Genesee  Farmer,"  and,4Jiough  it  was  long  in  becoming  firmly  established, 
eventually  became  a  valuable  and  widely-circulated  periodical.  Judge  Buel 
of  Albany  founded  "The  Cultivator  "  in  1833;  and  in  1839,  on  his  death,  it 
was  consolidated  with  "The  Genesee  Farmer."  "The  American  Agricul- 
turist" was  started  in  1842.  Shortly  prior  to  this,  and  since,  numerous  other 
I^eriodicals,  weekly  and  monthly,  sprang  up ;  and  their  publication,  and 
increase  of  circulation,  rapidly  developed.  Among  these  may  be  mentioned 
"The  Maine  Farmer,"  "The  Rural  New-Yorker,"  "The  Country  GenUe- 
man,"  "The  Ohio  Farmer,"  "The  Michigan  Farmer,"  "The  Valley  Farmer," 
"The  Wisconsin  Farmer,"  "The  North-western  Farmer,"  "The  Southern 
Planter."  There  are  now  between  fifty  and  sixty  weekly  and  monthly  agricul- 
tural periodicals  in  this  country.  Besides  these,  many  other  papers  devote 
a  special  department  to  agriculture,  stock-raising,  dairying,  poultry,  and  fruit. 

Then,  too,  within  the  past  forty  years,  a  considerable  number  of  books  have 
been  written  on  special  topics  in  agricultural  and  horticultural  science  ;  Andrew 
Agricultural  Jackson  Downing  having  been  one  of  the  earliest  and  most  prolific 
books.  writers  on  the  subject.     The  reports  of  the  United-States  Govern- 

ment, first  prepared  by  a  clerk  of  the  Patent  Office  in  1839,  and  then,  after 
1862,  by  the  commissioner  of  the  Agricultural  Bureau,  have  also  proved 
exceedingly  valuable  accessions  to  this  class  of  American  literature. 


o 

> 

CI 

a 

? 


X 


.0 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


3> 


i  it.     Mr. 
/-England 
tC.  Miner. 
.11  another 
[led  "The 
stablished, 
ludge  Buel 
is  death,  it 
tn   Agricul- 
;rous  other 
:ation,  and 

mentioned 
try  Gentle- 
ay  Farmer," 
le   Southern 
thly  agricul- 
ipers  devote 
,  and  fruit, 
f  books  have 
ice  ;  Andrew 

most  prolific 
ates  Govern- 
id  then,  after 

also   proved 


lllsii:'-?!! 


M 


',    ! 


! 


I  i 


33 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


CHAPTER   II. 

AGRICULTURAL   IMPLEMENTS. 

ONE  of  the  most  interesting  and  important  features  in  the  history  of 
American  agriculture  relates  to  the  improvement  of  means  for  cultivat- 
ing the  soil.  The  history  is  a  record  of  marked  originality,  perseverance, 
and  great  triumphs,  with  enough  of  tragic  disappointment  or 
pecuniary  loss  to  spice  the  tale  ;  while  the  vast  development  given 
to  American  resources  and  wealth  by  the  improvement  of  these 
prerequisites  to  toil  has  given  this  nation  its  distinctive  pre-emi- 
nence. Our  highest  rank  among  the  peoples  of  the  earth,  in  a  material  point 
of  view,  is  as  an  agricultural  people  ;  and  though  great  progress  has  been  made 
in  other  industries,  to  which  Americans  can  look  with  justifiable  pride,  im- 
provement in  means  for  subduing  and  cultivating  the  land  is  still  the  most 
marked  characteristic  of  native  inventive  genius. 

The  most  important  of  agricultural  implements  is  the  plough  :  besides,  it  is 
one  of  the  oklcst ;  for  its  origin  is  lost  in  the  dim  twilight  of  antiquity.  The 
Origin  of  the  plough  is  probably  an  improvement  upon  the  hoe,  which  can  lay 
plough.  claim  to  a  still  more  ancient  history.     At  first,  it  was  made  of  the 

tough  crotches  of  trees ;  then  the  forked  piece  was  trimmed  and  bound  to  the 


High  charac 
ter  of  Ameii 
can  inven- 
tive genius. 


ANCIF.NT   IIOE   ANU   PI  OIGHS. 


handle  to  pre\'ent  the  two  from  splitting  apart.  In  the  accompanying  engraving 
an  ancient  kind  uf  hoe  is  given.  The  plough  had  a  similar  and  equally  humble 
origin.  It  was  not  the  product  of  great  and  enduring  genius.  The  earliest 
l)Ioughs  known  to  us  were  rude  enough  in  their  construction.  Like  hoes,  one 
limb  of  a  tree  formed  the  beam  of  the  plough,  and  th^  other  the  share  ;  from 
which  simple  device  improvements  liave  been  slowly  made,  until  this  imple- 
ment has  been  brou^^ht  nearly  to  perfection. 


m 


% 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


33 


lie  history  of 
IS  for  cultivat- 

perseverance, 
)pointment  or 
lopment  given 
ment  of  these 
ictive  pre-emi- 
material  point 
has  been  made 
able  pride,  im- 

still  the  most 

besides,  it  is 
ntiquity.  The 
which  can  lay- 
made  of  the 
d  bound  to  the 


lying  engravmg 
equally  humble 
The  earliest 
I  Like  hoeb,  one 
|hc  share  ;  from 
Intil  this  imple- 


When  the  colonists  first  began  to  upturn  the  soil,  tlie  plough  was  a  very  rude 
afl^iir.     It  was  made  wholly  of  wood.    'I'hc  beam,  standard,  and  handles,  if  the 
plough  had  two,  were  of  seasonetl  stuff;  and  the  mould-board  was  a   Rujenes, 
block  of  wood,  and  ai)i)roximating  to  the  curve  rccjuired.     A  great  of  early 
deal  of  power  was  needed  to  draw  it.     Yet  even  this,  rude  as  it   p'""^*''' 
was,  far  excelled  the  plough  used  in  the  days  of  Elisha,  who,  when  summoned 
to  assume  the  functions  of  prophet  and  teacher  for  the  Hebrew  children,  was 
walking  l^ehind  his  i)Iough  drawn  by  twelve  yoke  of  oxen.     The  earliest  ploughs 
were  doubtless  imported,  and  as  early  as  1617  they  might  be  seen   pirstimpor- 
upon  a  Virt^Muia  plantation.    The  complaint  of  the  governor  at  that  tation  of 
time  was,  not  lack  of  instruments,  l)ut  "skilful  husbandmen,  and   ^  °"^ 
means  to  set  their  ploughs  on  work,  having  as  good  ground  as  any  man  can 
desire,  and  about  forty  bulls  and  oxen  ;  but  they  wanted  men  to  bring  them  to 
labor,  iron  for  ploughs,  and  harness  for  the  cattle."     But  ten  years  later,  it  is 
recorded  there  were  only  thirty  plouglxs  in  the  colony  at  Massachusetts  Bay ; 
and,  for  twelve  years  after  the  landing  of  the  Pilgrims,  the  farmers  there  had 
none  whatever,  and  were  compelled  to  prepare  their  lands  for  seed  with  cliunsy 
hoes.     It  has  been  affirmed  that  it  was  the  custom  in  that  part  of  the  country,^ 
even  to  a  much  later  period,  for  any  one  owning  a  plough  to  go  about  and  do 
the  ploughing  for  the  inhabitants  over  a  considerable  extent  of  territory.     A 
town  often  paid  a  bounty  to  any  one  who  would  buy  and  keep  a  plough  in 
repair  for  the  purpose  of  going  about  to  work  in  this  way.     The  massi\e  old 
wooden  plough  recpiired  a  strong  and  well-fed  team  to  move  it  through  the 
soil,  a  heavy,  muscular  man  to  press  it  into  the  ground,  another  to  hold,  and 
another  to  drive. 

During  all  the  centuries  preceding  the  present  one,  but  few  improvements 
were  made  in  this  most  important  of  all   agricultural  implements.     All  the 
earlier  ones  never  turned  a  furrow,  but  f)nly  stirred  up  the  ground  ;   slowness  of 
and  hence  they  were  difficult  to  draw,  beside  doing  their  work   early  im-, 
very  imperfectly.     In  the  last  century  tlie  plough  in  use  among  the   P''°^e"'"='>ts. 
French  settlers  in  Illinois  was  made  of  wood,  with  a  small  point  of  iron  tied 
upon  the  nose  with  strips  of  raw-hide.     The  beam  rested  upon  an  axle  and 
small  wooden  wheels  ;  while  the  oxen  whicli  drew  it  vvere  yoked  by 
their  horns  by  means  of  a  straight  yoke  attached  by  raw  leather   °^s<="Pt'°n 

.  -^11  1.  ,.'■  ,  of  early 

straps,  With  a  i)ole  extending  from  the  yoke  back  to  the  axle,  ploughs  used 
Knight  has  described  the  luiglish  plough  in  use  among  the  colo-  '"  *^'= 
nies  along  the  coast  in  1776  as  being  made  of  wood,  except  the  """*''^' 
wrought-iron  share,  and  some  bolts  and  nuts  whereby  the  parts  were  fastened 
together.  The  standard  rose  nearly  vertically,  having  attached  to  it  the  beam 
and  the  sole-piece.  On  the  nose  of  th(;  beam  hung  the  clevis.  The  mould- 
board  and  share  were  attached  to  a  frame  braced  between  the  beam  and  the 
sole.  The  wooden  mould-board  was  sometimes  plated  with  sheet-iron,  or  by 
strips  made  by  hammering  out  old  horseshoes.     A  clump  of  iron  shaped  like 


, 


I    ' 


h 


iii 


34 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


a  half  spear  formed  the  point.  It  was  known  as  a  "  bull-plough,"  "  bull- 
tongue,"  or  "bar-share  "  plough.  Two  pins  in  the  standaril  formed  the  handles, 
and  it  required  the  strength  of  a  man  to  manage  it.  The  work  was  slowly 
and  poorly  performed  by  cattle. 

During  the  last  century,  the  Carey  plough,  as  it  was  termed,  was  more  ex- 
tensively employed  than  any  other,  and  may  be  briefly  described,  although  the 
Carey  form  varied  very  much,  according  to  the  ideas  and  skill  of  the 

plough.  blacksmith  who  made  it.     It  had  a  clumsy  wrought-iron  share,  a 

land-side  and  standard  made  of  wood,  a  wooden  mould-board,  often  plated 
over  in  a  rough  manner  with  pieces  of  old  saw-plates,  tin,  or  sheet-iron. 
The  handles  were  upright,  and  were  held  by  two  pins.  A  powerful  man  was 
required  to  hold  it,  and  double  the  strength  of  team  now  commonly  used  was 
required  in  doing  the  same  kind  of  work. 


Importation 
of  the  first 
cast-iron 
plough. 


PLOUGH    OF    l3l2. 

The  first  cast-iron  plough  ever  seen  in  this  country  was  imported  from 
Scotland  soon  after  the  Revolution,  and  was  the  invention  of  James 
Small  of  Berv/ickshire.  The  mould-board  was  cast-iron,  with  a 
wrought-iron  share,  the  form  being  somewhat  similar  to  those 
now  in  use. 

The  first  person  in  this  country  who  devoted  his  attention  seriously  to  this 
subject  was  Thomas  Jefferson.  Immersed  as  he  was  in  the  politics  of  the 
Jefferson's  time,  he  never  lost  his  interest  in  the  greatest  of  all  pursuits  ;  and 
from  1788  to  1793  he  studied  and  experimented  diligently  to 
determine  the  proper  form  of  the  mould-board,  treating  it  as  a 
"  lifting-wedge  and  an  upsetting-wedge,"  and  endeavoring  to  ascertain  the 
curve  necessary  to  accomplish  this  jjurposc  with  the  least  friction.  Probably 
he  was  stimulated  to  exercise  his  genius  in  this  direction  by  receiving  an 
improved  plough  from  the  agricultural  society  of  the  Department  of  the 
Seine  in  France.  His  son-in-law,  Col.  Randolph,  whom  Jefferson  regardetl  as 
the  best  farmer  in  Virginia,  soon  after  invented  a  side-hill  plough  adapted 
to  the  hilly  regiors  of  that  State.  This  plough  was  made  with  two  wings 
welded  to  the  same  bar,  with  their  planes  at  right  angles  to  each  other ;  so 
that,  by  turning  a  bar  adjusted  to  an  axis,  either  wing  could  be  laid  flat  on  the 
ground,  while  the  other,  staneling  vertically,  served  as  a  mould-board. 

Stimulated  by  the  example  of  Jefferson,  others  entered  this  field  of  inven- 


interest  in 
the  subject. 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


35 


igh,"  "bull- 
the  handles, 
k  was  slowly 

as  more  ex- 
although  the 
skill  of  the 
-iron  share,  a 
,  often  plated 
or  sheet-iron. 
;rful  man  was 
only  used  was 


imported  from 

ention  of  James 

st-iron,  with  a 

tmilar  to  those 

seriously  to  this 
politics  of  the 
ll  pursuits;  and 
]d  diligently  to 
treating  it  as  a 
ascertain  the 
tion.     Probably 
hy  receiving  an 
lartment  of  the 
Ion  regarded  as 
l:)lough  adapted 
with  two  wings 
each  other  ;  so 
laid  Hat  on  the 
board, 
field  of  inven- 


tion. Robert  Smith  of  Pennsylvania,  it  is  said,  took  out  the  first  patent  for 
the  mould-board  alone  of  a  plough ;  and  Newbold  of  Burlington,  g^^jy  ^^^^^, 
N.J. ,  in  1797  patented  a  plough  with  a  mould-board,  share,  and  tions  secured 
land-side  all  cast  together.  Peacock  in  his  patent,  in  1807,  cast  '•>'?■*«'»*• 
his  plough  in  three  pieces,  the  front  of  the  colter  entering  a  notch  in  the 
breast  of  the  share.  We  now  come  to  the  invention  of  Jethro  Wood  of 
Scipio,  N.Y.,  whose  improvement  was  made  in  1819.  It  was  much  wood'i  in- 
superior  to  any  previous  invention ;  but  he  entertained  a  wrong  mention, 
idea  concerning  its  novelty,  supposing  it  to  be  the  first  iron  plough  ever 
invented.  Its  peculiar  merit  consisted  in  the  mode  of  securing  the  cast-iron 
portions  together  by  lugs  and  locking-pieces,  doing  away  with  screw-bolts,  and 
much  weight,  complexity,  and  expense.  Wood  did  more  than  any  other  person 
to  drive  out  of  use  the  cumbrous  contrivances  common  throughout  the  coun- 
try by  supplanting  them  with  a  lighter,  cheaper,  and  more  effective  implement. 
It  was  the  first  ])lough  in  which  the  parts  most  exposed  to  wear  could  be 
renewed  in  tlie  field  by  the  substitution  of  cast  j^ieces.  Wood  was  entitled 
to  a  great  deal  of  credit  for  the  genius  and  enterprise  which  he  displayed ; 
but,  like  many  an  unlucky  inventor  before  and  since  his  time,  he  spent  all  his 
fortune  in  developing  and  defending  his  invention. 

Since  his  day  improvements  have  been  continuous,  and  every  year  new 
designs  are  sent  to  the  Patent  Office  ;  nor  does  human  skill  show  scarce  a  sign 
of  abatement  in  this  direction. 

The  application  of  steam  to  ploughing  in  the  United  States  makes  another 
phase  of  improvement  in  agricultural  implements  worthy  of  mention.  The 
first  invention  of  the  kind  in  the  United  States  was  patented  by  E.  steam- 
C.  Bellinger  of  Sovith  Carolina  in  1833;  but,  for  some  reason  or  pi°"b1i8' 
other,  it  never  went  into  general  use.  Twenty-one  years  later,  John  Fowler 
of  England  improved  upon  Bellinger's  in\ention  so  far  as  to  manufacture  and 
employ  several  of  his  machines.  About  the  same  time  that  Fowler's  invention 
appeared,  several  other  American  improvements  were  made  upon  a  very 
different  principle.  Engines  were  designed  to  travel  over  the  field,  drawing 
])loughs  behind  them.  Promising  as  these  various  inventions  arc,  many  im- 
l)rovements  are  required  to  make  them  perfect ;  and  a  splendid  field  still  lies 
before  the  genius  of  the  inventor. 

Great  as  has  been  the  economy  effected  by  using  the  improved  plough,  the 
farmer,  for  a  long  time,  did  not  take  so  kindly  and  quickly  to  successive  im- 
provements in  this  most  important  of  all  agricultural  implements   „ 

'  01  Farmers 

as   he   does   now.     Slowly  learnetl   as  were  the   principles   upon   were  slow  to 
which  the  true  construction  of  the  i)iough  depended,  —  the  turning   adopt  im- 

,  ,        .    .  101  o     provements. 

over  and  puhenzing  of  the  soil  with   the  least  friction,  —  farmers 
were  slower  still  in  adopting  any  improvement.     Not  unfreciuently  th  ~y  asserted 
that  cast-iron  poisoned  the  ground,  and  spoiled  crops ;  and  so  they  adhered 
to  their  old  clumsy  wooden  affairs.     Slowly  has  this  prejudice  worn  away,  and 


36 


IND  US  TRIA  I.    HIS  TOK  Y 


Eagerness  of 


with  its  disappearance   every  real   improvement   has  been   more   and   more 

eagerly  tested.     'l"he  inventor  has  l)een  stimulated  to  prosecute  his 
eflbrts  more  critically  ;  he  has  found  that  dil'ferent  kinds  of  ploughs 

modern  '  '         " 

farmers  to       will  work  to  the  bcst  advantage  on  various  soils;  that,  while  one 
testinven-       j^   ^^^^^   adapted  for  a  damp  soil,  another  is  for  dry;    and   that, 

tions. 

while  one  works  well    on    level    ground,  another  turns    over  the 
i-ojl    more   perfectly  on  the  hill-side,     besides,  there  has  been  an  enormous. 


STEAM-l'LOUCH. 


J 


I    I 


improvement  in  the  manufacture  of  the  plough  itself.  Formerly,  ploughs  were 
made  by  every  country  blacksmith  ;  and  his  work,  however  skilful,  must  have 
been  rude  enough  compared  with  that  performed  by  the  great  concerns  which 
are  expressly  fitted  up  to  manufactiu'c  these  instruments. 

The  saving  which  fcjllows  the  employment  of  this  one  invention  is  enormous. 
We  know  of  no  method  of  estimating  it  with  exactness ;  but  he  who  stops  a 
moment  to  consider  liow  many  days  he  would  be  in  digging  up  ten  acres 
with  a  hoe   or  with  one    of   the    earliest  ploughs  invented  as   a   substitute, 


>  '1 


'?! 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


37 


incl  more 
,scciitc  his 
of  ploughs 
,  while  one 
and  that, 
i  over  tlio 
I  enormous 


I,  ploughs  were 
\\\\,  must  have 
ioncerns  which 

Ln  is  enormous. 

Le  who  stops  a 
vip  ton  acres 
a   substitute, 


ar.d   realizes  how  (lulckly  and  how  much   more  perfectly  the  work   is  done 
now,  will    he    able    to    form    an    estimate    for   himself.     Without   Economy  of 
this  invention,  thousands  of   acres  would  be  untilled,  or,   if  cul-    modevn 

ploughs. 

tivated  at  all,  only  in  a  very  imperiect  manner. 

There  are  several  outgrowths  of  the  plough,  among  whicr.  oro  the  horse-hoc, 
invented  by  James  Alden  of  New-York  State,  and  others,  and  the  so-called 
cultivator,  provided  with  a  series  of  diminutive  plough-points  to   Horse  hoe 
stir  the    scjil  about  the  roots   of  corn,   cotton,  and   other  crops,   and  cuitiva- 
These  implements,  while  of  minor  importance,  have  been  of  vast 
value  ;  for  with  one  of  them,  one  horse,  and  a  man,  more  work  can  be  done 
than  thirty  men  tan  do  provided  with  hand-hoes. 


IIOKSU-IIoE. 


The  harrow,  the  next  implement  to  be  used  in  tillage  after  ploughing,  is  but 
a  little  different  tool  from  what  it  was  in  the  days  of  the  ancients. 

•^  The  harrow. 

Indeed,  few  implements  have  changed  so  immaterially  m  construc- 
tion, and  principle  of  operation,  as  this. 

Very  little  data  is  attainable  showing  the  progress  of  seed-drills  for  plant- 
ing. J.ired  Eliot,  writing  in  1754,  alludes  to  Mr.  Tull's  wheat-drill  as  a 
wonderful  invention  ;  but,  owing  to  its  cumbersome  and  compli-  pianting- 
cated  construction,  he  urges  Mr.  Clapp,  President  of  Yale  College,  machines, 
to  apply  his  "mathematical  learning  and  lechanical  genius  "  to  the  invention 
of  a  simj)ler  machine.  Drills  for  spreadin.;  manure  were  soon  after  devised. 
The  most  marked  improvement  in  seed-drills  adapted  to  all  kinds  of  crops 
has  been  made  within  the  present  century. 

,3  As  regards  practical  value,  'probably  no  agricultural  implement  can  compare 

with  the  mower  and  reaper.      ifter  the  farmer  has  planted  and  raised  a  crop, 
he  must  harvest  it :  and  it  happens  that  most  of  his  hay  ripens  at   Mower  and 

I     one  time  ;  and  so  with  his  wheat,  rye,  barley,  oats,  and  buckwheat,   reaper. 


38 


INDUSTKIAI.    HISTORY 


^. 


'•  Wt 


Not 

American 

inventions. 


If  the  hay  be  cut  too  soon  or  too  late,  it  is  of  poor  (iiiality  :  and,  if  grain  is 
allowed  to  get  over-ripe,  il  rattles  out  of  the  luisk,  and  is  lost ;  or  it  sprcnits  in 
the  head,  and  spoils.  'I'housands  and  thousands  of  acres  of  wheat  in  the 
fertile  West  were  wasted  in  a  single  season  before  the  reaper  was  perfected, 
owing  to  the  inability  of  the  owner  to  secure  help  enough  to  harvest  it  in  the 
proper  time. 

While  it  is  true  that  American  mowers  and  reapers  are  acknowledged  to  be 
the  best  in  the  world,  and  have  always  triumi)hed  over  all  rivals  in  competitive 
trials  in  iOugland,  l''raiue,  Ciermany,  Russia,  and  South  America, 
they  are  not  of  American  origin.  'I'he  mower  was  invented  in  Eu- 
rope ;  but  Yankee  genius  simplitled  and  improved  it  greatly.  No? 
is  the  invention  so  very  recent.  'I'he  great  improvement  of  the  original  dates 
back  scare  ely  more  than  a  generation  ;  but  the  first  reaping-machine  of  hi^toiy 
is  that  mentioned  by  I'liny  the  elder  as  in  use  among  the  (lauls  over  eighteen 
centuries  ago,  or  about  the  year  23  of  the  C'hristian  era.  .At  that  time,  and 
until  within  fifty  years  of  the  present  day,  most  of  the  reaping  of  grain  was 
done  by  the  sickle.  But  Pliny  mentions  i)articularly  a  large-si/ed  van  on 
^      .    .         wheels,  with  teeth  i)ro)ecting  from  the   forward  edge,  and   driven 

Description  '  i       J  n  o    > 

of  Pliny's  through  the  oat  and  barley  fields,  with  an  ox  yoked  in  the  rear, 
reaping-  between  thills,  in  such  a  way  as  to  push  the  machine  ahead  of 

him.  Sometimes  the  sickles  thus  employed  cut  off  the  heads  of 
grain  at  the  top  of  the  stalk,  and  sometimes  half  way  down  the  stalk;  ])ut 
in  either  case  the  grain  fell  over  into  the  van.  Palladius,  an  Eastern  eccle- 
siastical writer,  A. 1).  391,  describing  these  same  reapers,  or  an  improvement 
thereupon,  says  that  the  driver  could  regulate  the  elevation  or  depression  of 
the  teeth  by  means  of  a  lever.  Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  a  semi-barbaric  race 
had  invented  and  used  a  reaping-machine  long  before  Rome's  glory  had 
departed,  and  even  before  Christ  was  crucified. 

In  17H5  we  read  of  proposals  being  submitted  in  Faigland  for  the  construc- 
tion of  a  rea])er ;  but,  from  the  description,  it  iloes  not  appear  to  have  differed 
Early  Ecr-  Substantially  from  that  of  the  ancient  (Jallic  husbandmen.  And 
lish  reaping-  yet,  as  in  the  development  of  a  plant  or  of  a  fine  art,  we  now 
mac  ines.  i,t.gii^  to  sce  in  rudimentary  shape  some  new  elements  of  the 
perfected  machine.  The  jiower  was  applied  as  formerly,  from  behind,  by 
either  horse  or  ox ;  and  the  big  box  or  van  was  emptied  into  a  storeroom 
when  full.  But  mention  is  made  of  a  heavy  drive-wheel,  toothed  wheels,  and 
pulleys ;  which  indicates  that  a  series  of  knives  were  made  to  beat  against  the 
teeth  in  a  different  manner  from  those  of  old.  Another  reaper  is  described  in 
1 799,  which  cut  a  swath  two  feet  wide,  and  threw  it  to  the  ground  on  one  side. 
This  was  another  advance  on  the  past ;  for  the  machine  could  now  work  with 
less  frequent  interrui^tion.  Agricultural  writers  always  estimate  the  work  of  a 
horse  as  e(]ual  to  five  men,  and  judge  the  value  of  a  machine  accordingly. 
As  this  reaper,  with  a  horse  and   a  boy,  could  do  more   than  six  men  with 


? 


OF    THE    VX/TED    STATES, 


39 


.,  if  grain  is 
t  si)routs  in 
heat  in  the 
s  i)crfc(tc(l, 
wt  it  in  tlic 

Icilgcd  to  lie 

comiietitivc 
nth  Amcrita, 
•cnlcd  in  I'ai- 
^rrcatly.     No» 
original  dates 
line  of  history 
over  eighteen 
liat  time,  and 
r  of  grain  was 
-sized  van  on 
Tc,  and  driven 
mI  in  the  rear, 
hine  ahead  of 
Tf  the  heads  of 

the  stalk;  l>nt 

Eastern  ecde- 
n  inii)rovenient 

depression  of 
|ii-l)avl)aric  race 
Lie's   glory  li^id 

L-  the  construe- 
Ito  have  differed 
Landmen.     And 
Ine  art,  we  now 
llements  of  the 
om  behind,  by 
ito  a  storeroom 
|hed  wheels,  and 
)cat  against  the 
is  described  in 
|uid  on  one  side, 
now  work  with 
the  work  of  a 
|ine  accordingly, 
m  six  men  with 


■MB 


40 


IND  US  TRIA  L    HIS  TOk  V 


I  I- 


1  m 


sickles,  it  fulfilled  the  requirements  of  a  labor-saving  machine.  Two  nvjre 
British  machines  deserve  to  be  noticed,  Mr.  Gladstone  devised  one  in  iSo6, 
which  delivered  the  grain  in  gavels  to  be  bound  ;  and  Mr.  Plunckett  constructed 
one  the  following  year,  which  was  drawn,  instead  of  jnished,  by  the  horse.  In 
\S22  Mr.  M;.nn  brought  forward  a  reaper,  under  the  auspices  of  the  Highland 
Society  of  Scotland,  which  would  cut  ten  acres  in  ten  hours.  In  addition  to 
being  drawn,  and  having  a  siie-projecting  cutter-bur,  this  machine  made  use 
of"  a  sliding  or  reciprocating  knife,  had  a  reel  to  beat  the  grain  against  the 
knivee;,  .^nd  h,'  '  a  platform  on  which  the  grain  fell. 

The  first  record  of  an  American  invnition  of  this  sort  is  of  a  mower, 
constructed  by  an  ingenious  mechanic  of  Genoa,  Cayuga  County,  N.Y.,  in 
First  Ameri-  1S26  or  1S2S.  The  characteristic  feature  of  it  was  a  large  wheel, 
can  mower,  ^yliich  rcvolvcd  horizontally  near  the  ground,  and  which  was  pro- 
vided with  scythe-like  knives  on  its  periphery.  A  heavy  drive-wheel  commu- 
nicaved  the  necessary  power.  It  was  drawn  by  a  single  horse.  The  machine 
never  amounted  to  much,  and  was  never  perfected ;  \,a\.  it  marks  the  first 
awckenino:  of  decided  interest  in  this  direction  in  America. 

In  1828  Samuel  Lane  of  Maine  invented  a  reaper,  and  is  said  to  hav 
combined  therewith  a  "thresher ;  "  but  we  think  this  is  a  verbal  error,  and  that 
Lane's  "  mowcr "  is  meant.     A  successful  mower,  which  had  sonii^  little 

reaper.  popularity,  \vas  invented  by  William  Manning  of  New  Jersey  in 

1 8,3 1  ;  and  in  1834  the  Ambler  patent  applied  Hussey's  vibratory  knives  to 
the  mower. 

In  1833  the  first  really  successful  and  famous  American  reaper  was 
invented  by  Hussey  of  Maryland.  This  had  reciprocating  knives,  ^.hich  oper- 
Hussey's  ated  throiigh  slatted  fingers, —  an  entirely  new  principle,  —  and 
reaper.  ^]^q  cutter-bar  was  hinged  so  as  to  turn  up  at  right  angles  with  the 

ground.  M'Cormick  of  Virginia  patented  a  combined  mower  and  reaper  in 
1834,  which,  with  subseejuent  improvements,  took  a  council  medal  at  the 
World's  Fair  in  London  in  1851. 

The  period  from  1S30  to  1S50  was  one  during  which  great  attention  was 
given  to  improving  these  machines  ;  but  even  more  ingenuity  has  been  ap- 
plied to  their  improvement  since  then,  no  less  than  three  thousand  patents 
having  been  taken  out  for  such  harvesters  in  this  country.  Among  the  most 
important  attac;hments  to  the  reaping-machine  is  the  self-rake,  which  lays  the 
grain  off  in  gavels  for  binding ;  which  work  was  formerly  done  by  an  extra  man 
seated  on  the  machine. 

From  about  1855,  experiments  have  been  made  to  devise  and  perfect  a 
machine  which  shall  bind  grain  as  fiist  as  it  is  cut.  The  man  who  has  given  the 
Grain-  most  attention  thereto  is  Allen  Slierwood  of  Auburn,  N.Y.     His 

binding  apparatus  consists  of  a  series  of  fingers,  arranged  horizontally, 

mac  inc.  upon  which  the  grain  is  delivered  by  the  rake  in  bundles  ;  which 
fingers,  co-operating  with  a  slender,  curved  arm,  are  made  to  embrace  the 


.-jf. 


i 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATE  a. 


41 


WO  more 
in  i8o6, 
instructed 
lorse.     Ill 
Highland 
ildition  to 
made  use 
tgainit  the 

•  a  mower, 
y,  N.Y.,  in 
arge  wheel, 
;h  was  pro- 
"el  commu- 
le  machine 
ks  the  first 

aid  to  hav 
■or,  and  that 
I  soni'^  httle 
tw  Jersey  in 
iry  knives  to 

reaper  was 

v.hich  oper- 

iciplc,  —  and 

les  with  the 

nd  reaper  in 

iiedal  at   the 

attention  was 
las  been  ap- 

isand  patents 
n'jf  the  most 
lich  lays  the 
an  extra  man 

md  i)erfect  a 

has  given  the 

,  N.Y.     His 

horizontally, 

buUes;  which 

embrace  the 


bundle,  and  instantaneously  girdle  it  with  fine  wire,  which  is  cut  from  a  reel, 
and  its  ends  are  twisted  together  for  a  knot.  As  yet,  we  believe  that  the  ma- 
chine has  never  come  into  practical  use. 

The  American  mowers  and  reapers  are  now  awarded  t'-e  palm  of  superi- 
ority the  world  over.      In   i^e,  a  competitive  trial  of  readers  was  had  near 
Paris,  P>ance,   in  which   machines   from   England,  America,  and   superiority 
Algiers,  participated.     The  result  was,  that  the  American  machine   of  American 
cut  an  acre  of  oats  in  twenty-two  minutes ;  the  English,  in  sixty-   '^°^m  ^" 
six  minutes ;  and  the  Algerian,   in   seventy-two  ;    and  the  same 
triumph  has  been  repeatedly  achieved  in  other  sunilar  contests.    Our  machines 
are  exported  to  all  parts  of  the  civili^:ed  word,  in  preference  to  those  of  every 
other  country. 

The  average  capacity  of  the  American  reaper  is  fifteen  acres  per  day; 
but,  under  favorable  circumstances,  it  will  reap  twenty  or  twenty-five  :  whereas, 
by  hand,  an  acre  and  a  half  to  a  man  is  a  large  average.     But   capacity  and 
this  comparison  does  not  fully  represent  the  great  advantage  of  advantages 
this  invention  to  the  farmer.     It  must  be  remembered  that  these   °^  American 

reaper. 

increased  harvesting  facilities  enable  him  to  gather  crops  which 

otherwise  would  spoil  and  be  lost  altogether,  so  short  is  the  season  in  which 

grain  must  be  harvested,  if  at  all. 

The  manufacture  of  reapers  and  mowers  amounts  to  between  eighty  thou- 
sand and  a  hundred  thousand  a  year  ;  and,  though  they  are  made   Manufacture 
at  Chicago  and  elsewhere  in  large  numbers,  the  principal  centre   of  mowers 
of  the  industry  in  America  is  Auburn,  N.Y. 

Several  machines  have  been  invented  within  the  present  century,  which 
have  materially  focilitated  the  gathering  of  the  hay-crop.  One  of  these  is  the 
tedder,  which  upturns  the  new-cut  and  half-cured  grass  as  it  lies  Tedders, 
upon  the  ground,  and  promotes  its  more  rapid  curing.  i"hus  the  rakes,  and 
risk  of  exposure  to  sudden  summer  storms  is  gready  les.  ened. 
Another  very  valuable  implement  is  the  horse-rake.  It  i .  found  in  many 
forms ;  but  the  two  most  esteemed  are  those  with  curved  s  eel  tines  attached 
to  a  bar  hinged  to  a  light  axletree,  —  first  brought  out  it.  Pennsylvania,  and 
manufactured  by  the  Messrs.  Sprout  at  Muncy,  Lycoming  County,  —  and  those 
which  have  two  sets  of  wooden  teeth,  lie  close  to  the  ground,  and  revolve  at 
the  will  of  the  driver.  These  latter  were  invented  by  H.  N.  Tracy  of  Essex 
Jimction,  Vt.  These  rakes  are  used  to  gather  pease,  beans,  and  other  crops, 
and  enable  the  farmer  to  handle  both  them  and  his  hay  with  far  greater 
rapidity  than  of  old.  It  is  estimated  that  they  do  ten  times  the  work  of  hand- 
rakes.  The  invention  of  the  horse-fork,  by  means  of  which  wjiole  haycocks 
can  be  hoisted  into  the  wagon,  or  from  the  wagon  to  the  stack  or  mow,  has 
also  been  the  work  of  the  past  generation,  and  largely  conduced  to  the  saving 
of  labor  and  time. 

Agricultural  implements  may  be  divided  into  three  principal  classes,  —  those 


t 


i  I 


li^ 


11 


V:  i\f 


42 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


which  prepare  and  till  the  soil,  those  which  garner  the  crop,  and  those  which 
Potato-dig-  separate  the  i)recious  part  of  the  p.oduct  from  its  refuse.  In  ad- 
B*=''-  dition  to  the  mower  and  reaper  and  the  horse-rake  and  tedder, 

there  are  several  less  important  machines  belonging  to  this  second  class.  The 
most  interesting  is  the  i)otato-digger.  Several  attempts  to  devise  a  machine 
which  shall  plough  up  these  tubers  from  the  furrow,  separate  them  from  the 
loose  earth,  and  deposit  them  on  the  surface  of  the  ground,  have  been  made, 
but  none  of  them  with  perfect  success.  The  great  difficulty  is  in  separating 
the  potatoes  from  the  dirt,  when  once  exhumed. 


IIAV-TEDDER. 

Prominent  among  the  third  class  of  machines  above  referred  to  is  that 
which  takes  the  place  of  the  flail.  For  thousands  of  years,  even  back  in  the 
Threshing-  davs  of  Israel's  glory,  grain  was  separated  from  its  husk  by  throw- 
macMne.  jpg  jt  upon  large  threshing-floors,  beating  it  with  r"ails,  or  causing 
it  to  be  trampled  by  horses  or  oxen,  and  then  purging  the  floor  with  a  fan  in 
the  hand. 

The  modern  threshing-machine  is  less  than  a  hundred  years  old,  and,  like 


^ii:i|i 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


43 


those  which 
ise.  In  ad- 
and  tedder, 
class.  The 
\  a  machine 
em  from  the 
been  made, 
n  separating 


Irred  to  is  that 
;n  back  in  the 
I  husk  by  throw- 
}ails,  or  causing 
lor  with  a  fan  in 

old,  and,  like 


the  reaper,  is  a  foreign  invention,  which  has  been  greatly  improved  upon  by- 
American  ingenuity.     Attempts  v/ere  made  to  devise  such  appara-   a  foreign 
tus  by  Menzies  in  1732,  and  Stirling  in  1758,  in  Scotland;  but   invention, 
both  failed,  because  of  an  unsuccessful  principle.     In   1 786  Andrew  Meikle- 
of   East  Lothian,  also  a   Scot,  invented  a   machine  which  proved   effective.. 
Tliis  device  introduced  the  sheaf  between  rollers,  and  caused  it  to  be  beaten 
with  arms   on  a  drum.     The    English  impro\'ed  upon   this   arrangement  by- 
making  this  dnun  operate  in  a  concave  "  breasting,"  which  allowed  of  a  more 
vigorous  scutching  and  rubbing.     The  loosened  grain  fell  mostly  through  bars 
in  this  concave,  while  the  straw  was  carried  onward  to  the  shaker.     The  Ameri- 
cans improved  on  this  still  further  by  putting  spikes,  or  teeth,  both  on  the  drum 
and  the  concave,  and  also  by  making  the  whole  machine  lighter  and  swifter 
than  the  cumbrous  English  apparatus.     A  lamous  trial  of  rival  threshers  was 
had  in  P^ngland  in  1853  on  the  farm  of  Mr.  Mechi,  Tiptrce  Hall,   j^       g. 
Kclvedon  ;  and  the  American  machine  did  nearly  three  times  the   ments  \u 
work  the  English  machine  did  in  the  same  time,  and  turned  out  threshmg- 

°  machines. 

the  grain  much  cleaner.     A  subsefpient  trial  was  made  in  France, 
which  resulted  as  follows  :  Pitt's  (American)  machine  threshed  seven  hundred 
and  forty  litres  of  wheat  in  an  hour;  Clayton's   (English),  four  hundred  and 
ten;  Duvoir's   (Irench),  two  hundred  and  fifty ;  Pinet's   (iM-ench),  one  hun- 
dred and  fifty ;  and  six  experts  with  flails,  sixty  altogether. 

The  threshing-machine  is  generally  owned  by  itinerant  proprietors,  who  ga 
through  the  country  working  for  successive  farmers,  as  in  the  early  colonial 
days  did  the  plough-owners.     At  first  they  were  operated  by  tread-   j^j^^g  ^, 
mill  and  rotary  lever  horse-powers  ;  but  now  portable  six  or  ten   operating 
horse  power  engines  are  largely  employed.     The  capacity  of  one      ^'"" 
good  steam-power  threshing-machine  in  a  season  of  three  months  is  from  forty 
thousand  to  a  hundred  thousand  bushels  of  grain.     There  is  a  record  of  a 
horse-power  thresher  cleaning  eighty  thousand  four  hundred  bushels  in  fifty- 
two  days,  of  which  eleven  thousand  three  hundred  were  threshed  in  five  days 
and  a  half. 

Small  winnowing-machines,  for  hand  use,  have  been  used  from  early  colo- 
nial days.  Special  machines  for  threshing  clover,  and  gathering  its  winnowing- 
seed,  have  also  been  dc  ised  during  the  present  century.  machines. 

No  effective  machine  for  cutting  corn  or  husking  it  has  yet  been  de- 
vised, akhough  repeated  attempts  in  those  directions  have  been  made.  A 
sheller  exists,  however,  which  removes  the  grain  from  the  cob,  and 
which  is  operated  by  hand,  shelling  one  ear  at  a  time  ;  and  a 
more  rapid  separator,  worked  by  horse-power,  has  also  been 
developed  therefrom,  and  come  into  extensive  use  in  the  Western 
grain  regions. 

Prol)ably  no  machine  'las  so  conduced  to  the  sudden  and  vast  develop- 
ment of  an\'  agricultural  industry  in  the  whole  world  as  the   cotton-gin.     The 


Mac;.;nes  for 
cutting, 
husking,  and 
shelling 
corn. 


arsBSi 


44 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


\     .. 


Cotton-sin. 


Roller-gin. 


cotton-boll  contains  coarse,  Jiairy  seeds,  which  cling  to  the  soft  fibre,  and 
which  need  to  be  removed  therefrom  before  the  latter  can  be  marketed  or 
manuflictured.  A  century  ago  this  labor  was  generally  performed 
by  women  and  children  in  the  house,  at  evening  ;  and  the  process 
was  so  slow  and  laborious,  that  cotton-culture  was  not  particularly  profitable. 
In  India  a  bow  and  string  were  used  to  whip  the  cotton,  and  thus  remove 
the  seeds  :  this  implement  was  first  used  in  this  country  in  Georgia,  the  market- 
able fibre  being  called  "  Georgia  bowed  cotton." 

A  machine  called  a  gin,  designed  to  accomplish  this  object  more  expedi- 
tiously, is  said  to  have  been  invented  in  1742  by  a  French  planter  who  lived  on 
Dubreuii's  the  present  site  of  New  Orleans,  and  who  was  named  Dubreuil. 
invention.  '^''iic  invention  greatly  stimulated  the  culture  of  the  plant.  Its 
mechanism  is  not  described ;  but  it  probably  was  a  less  efficient  apparatus 
than  the  roller  or  saw  gin. 

Early  in  the  Revolution,  a  roller-gin,  composed  of  burnished  gun-barrels 
fixed  in  wooden  rollers,  was  devised  by  Kinsey  I'orden,  —  the  man  who  brought 
the  Sea- Island  cotton  to  this  country.  Whether  the  idea  was  origi- 
nal with  him,  or  imported,  is  not  known.  Mr.  Bissell  of  Georgia 
simplified  the  roller-gin  in  1788.  Its  product  for  a  day  was  about  five  pounds 
of  cleaned  cotton.  Shortly  after  the  Revolution,  Joseph  Eve,  or  Eaves,  of 
Rhode  Island  (who  is  ixlso  spoken  of  as  the  son  of  a  Pennsylvania  loyalist 
who  had  moved  to  the  West  Indies),  introduced  into  Georgia  an  improvement 
on  the  roller-gin.  It  was  furnished  with  a  double  set  of  rollers,  and  operated 
by  ox-power  instead  of  a  hand-crank  or  treadle.  It  was  not  patented  until 
1803.  In  letters  written  at  that  day,  there  is  a  suggestion  of  the  possibility, 
that,  before  Eve's  machine  was  introduced,  a  foot-gin  was  in  extensive  use  near 
Philadelphia,  which  was  superior  to  that  employed  in  Georgia.  Still  another 
roller-gin  is  mentioned  as  having  been  introduced  from  the  West  Indies,  or 
invented  by  Mr.  Crebs,  who  used  it  on  his  plantation  on  the  Pascagoula  River, 
in  what  was  then  called  West  Florida,  but  is  now  Alabama. 

The  best  of  all  machines  for  this  purpose,  however,  is  that  which  is  be- 
lieved to  have  been  the  invention  of  Eli  Whitney ;  namely,  the  saw-gin.  We 
Whitney's  refer  to  this  in  connection  with  the  history  of  cotton-culture  in 
invention.  ^]^jg  country.  This  machine  employed  an  entirely  new  principle  ; 
namely,  teeth  on  a  roller,  for  which  sets  of  circular  saws  were  after\vards 
substituted,  rotating  so  closely  to  a  set  of  parallel  bars  as  to  catch  the  fibrous 
cotton  on  the  other  side,  and  pull  it  through,  leaving  the  seeds.  Its  relative 
superiority  will  be  better  understood  when  we  say  that  it  enabled  the  planter, 
with  the  employment  of  a  single  hand,  to  clean  a  thousand  pounds  of  cotton 
a  day ;  whereas  the  roller-ijin  would  clean  but  twenty-five,  and  hand-picking 
"but  five  or  six.  Bishop  truly  remarks  of  this  invention,  that,  "  in  economical 
value,  it  ranks  with  those  of  Arkwright  and  Fulton."  Indeed,  it  did  more  for 
the  southern  section  of  this  country  than  the  improvements  on  the  plough,  the 
sickle,  and  the  flail,  did  for  the  North. 


m 


'■ii 


-«3a 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


45 


fibre,  and 
arketed  or 
performed 
he  process 
■  profitable, 
uis  remove 
the  market- 
ore  expedi- 
'ho  hvcd  on 
d  Dubreuil. 
plant.     Its 
It  apparatus 

gun-barrels 
who  brought 
,ea  was  origi- 
1  of  (^.eorgia 
:  five  pounds 
yc  Eaves,  of 
i-ania  loyalist 
improvement 
uid  operated 
latented  until 
le  possibility, 
isive  use  near 
Still  another 
:st  Indies,  or 
agoula  River, 

Iwhich  is  be- 
^aw-gin.     We 
Ion-culture  in 
lew  principle ; 
\c   afterwards 
\\  the  fibrous 
Its  relative 
the  planter, 
Ids  of  cotton 
[hand-picking 
economical 
J  did  more  for 
le  plough,  the 


■'-M 


Besides  all  these  machines  of  which  we  have  made  mention,  a  host  of 
ethers  of  less  importance  have  been  invented.  Stone  and  stumi)  extractors, 
which  are  of  material  use  in  clearing  the  soil  for  cultivation,  have  come  into 
use  within  a  generation.  But,  while  they  were  valuable  in  the  ini;  rovement  of 
limited  areas  in  the  East,  the  most  rapid  extension  of  our  agriculture  has  been 
in  the  West,  where  trees  were  scarce,  and  sucli  apparatus  was  unnec:essar}'. 
Hence  they  have  really  promoted  our  agricultural  interests  a:;  a  whole  but 
little.  Saws  for  lumber,  ditching-machines,  drain-tiles,  land-rollers,  planting- 
machines,  improved  hoes,  rakes,  shovels,  scythes,  wagons,  churns,  bee- hives, 
pruning-knives,  and  other  apparatus  and  implements  for  farm-labor,  have  been 
invented  almost  without  number,  some  of  them  proving  highly  popular  and 
convenient. 

The  introduction  of  these  new  means  of  culture  and  harvesting  has  revo- 
lutionized the  several  branches  of  agriculture  completely  within  the  past 
century  of  our  history,  and  has  incalculably  increased  our  capacity  of  i;ro- 
ductio"\  The  wide  use  into  which  these  have  come  will  be  realized  when  it 
is  known  that  the  agricultural  implements  manufactureil  in  the  United  States 
in  1870  amounteu  in  value  to  fifty  million  dollars;  though  but  part  of  this,  it 
must  be  remembered,  was  for  the  export  trade.  The  aggregate  value  of  such 
apparatus  owned  throughout  the  country  was  a  hundred  and  fifty-two  million 
dollars  in  1850  :  in  1870  it  had  increased  to  three  hundred  and  thirty  seven 
million  dollars,  or  more  than  doubled.  Without  doubt,  it  will  be  twice  this 
figure  by  1880. 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


; :  I  t^' 


CHAPTER   III. 


COTTON. 


I  fl    k 


!  'ii  i 


'  ■  : 


1-.  1' 


I     !;ti 


NO  one  industry  in  the  United  States  is  of  so  great  value  and  importance 
to  the  nation  and  to  the  world  as  cotton-culture.  Though  the  annual 
product  is  not  worth  more  than  half  as  much  as  either  our  corn  or  wheat  crop, 
Importance  ^^'*^  '^^^^  cnough  left  over  to  export,  after  our  own  consumption,  to 
of  cotton-  more  than  ecjual  the  su.n  total  of  our  cereal  exports.  It  is  the  one 
"°^'  great  puduct  which  we  offer  the  other  nations  of  the  globe  in 

exchange  for  what  we  want  from  them.  Except  petroleum,  it  is  the  leading 
product  upon  which  the  outside  world  is  most  dependent  upon  America.  Yet 
our  total  produc,';  annually  is  worth  four  times  our  total  product  of  rock-oil. 
Moreover,  while  we  export  scarcely  two-thirds  of  our  petroleum,  we  send 
abroad  nearly  three-fourths  of  our  cotton,  ^^'ithin  a  century,  cotton  has 
come  to  succeed  silk,  linen,  and  wool,  as  the  most  useful  and  common  textile 
fabric  for  clothing.  It  is  a  necessity  of  life  in  all  civilized  and  semi-civilized 
quarters  of  the  globe,  nnd  the  United  States  raises  seven-eighths  of  the 
world's  supply.  And  not  only  do  we  raise  the  most  cotton,  but  also  the  best 
cotton  i)ro(luced  by  any  nation  under  heaven.  It  is  as  characteristic  a  product 
of  this  country  as  spices  are  of  the  Indites,  or  tea  of  China,  but  vastly  more 
precious.  It  has  exerted  a  greater  political  influence  over  this  country  than 
any  otlier  one  interest.  For  a  century  it  was  intimately  associated  with  negro 
slavery,  and  those  who  were* identified  with  both  constituted  one  party  to  the 
greatest  ci\il  war  known  on  this  continent,  in  that  strife,  the  dependence 
of  Cireat  Britain  on  the  cotton  States  of  our  Union  tor  the  basis  of  her  greatest 
manufacturing  industry,  and  source  of  wealth,  determined  the  sympathies  of 
the  empire,  whose  friendship  was  of  the  greatest  value  tr;  the  contending 
factions.  As  tlie  well-informed  and  thoughtful  American  looks  forward 
into  the  industrial  future  of  his  country,  lie  sees  no  agricultural  interest  that 
promises  to  be  an  ecjually  permanent  and  remunerative  reliance  in  coming 
years.  Great  Britain,  it  is  true,  is  trying  to  become  independent  of  tlie  United 
States  by  raising  her  cotton  supply  in  India.  Thus  far,  however,  her  efforts  have 
not  been  very  successful.     The  quantity  has  been  largely  increased  j  but  the 


OF    T//E    UNITED    STATES. 


47 


quality  has  not  been  much  improved.  So  inferior  s  its  vahie  for  manufac- 
turing purposes,  that  India  cotto.i  can  only  be  used  by  mixing  it  with  some 
longer  staple.  Even  the  India  manufacturers,  who  aspire  to  the  production 
of  only  the  coarsest  and  cheapest  fabrics,  are  obliged  to  import  cotton  to  mix 
with  that  of  native  growth.  Nor  is  this  defect  likely  to  be  soon  remedied. 
The  physical  conditions  of  India  are  such  as  to  render  it  quite  impossible  for 
cotton  ever  to  be  grown  the/e  possessing  the  same  length,  strength,  and  deli- 
cacy of  fibre,  as  is  found  in  ihe  American  product.  Thus  Nature  has  crowned 
our  country  with  an  advantage  m  raising  cotton  which  will  probably  ever  baffle 
human  genius  to  overcome. 


I  importance 
h  the  annual 
r  wheat  crop, 
isumption,  to 
It  is  the  one 
the  globe  in 
s  the  leading 
America.     Yet 
bt  of  rock-oil. 
am,  we    send 
cotton   has 
mmon  textile 
semi-civilized 
ehths   of  the 
also  the  best 
Stic  a  product 
vastly  more 
country  than 
;d  with  negro 
party  to  the 
dependence 
)f  her  greatest 
ympathies  of 
contending 
joks    forward 
interest  that 
:e  in  coming 
I  of  the  United 
.'1-  efforts  have 
Ised;  but  the 


INDIA  si'iNNiN(;-\vni;r.i.. 


Although  the  name  "  cotton  "  is  of  Arabic  origin,  and  the  plant  is  indige- 
nous to  all  warm  climates  of  the  world,  the  fibre  was  first  utilized  in  India, 
whence  came  our  word  "calico,"  and  then  in  Persia,  which  gave   g^^,,    ^.^j. 
us  the  first  "muslin."     Thence  its  culture  and  use  extended  into   ture  of  cot- 
China,  Arabia,  Africa,  and    Europe.     Herodotus   discovered    the   *°"' 
Hindoos  cultivating  the  plant,  and  weaving  its  delicate  fleeces  into  cloth,  450 
B.C. ;  and  from  that  people  the  Greeks  and  Romans  imported  it  before  the 
Christian  era,  first  fui  awnings,  then  tents,  and  tlien  for  clothing.     Hindostan 
still    produces    considerable  cotton  ;    but  her  poor  communications  from  the 
Ulterior  to  the  coast,  and  her  inability  to  raise  as  good  a  quality  of  cotton  as 
the  United  States  (the  American  varieties  not  being  successfiill}-  (uiltivated), 
leave  her  far  in  the  background  as  a  reliance  for  the  world,  although  England 
still  imports  largely  from  hei.     Farther  India  and  the  islands  of  the  Indian 
Archipelago  produce  cotiun  likewise,  to  some  extent.     China  has  cultivated  it 


48 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


countries. 


since  the  eleventh  century,  but  has  to  import  to  sui)i)ly  her  own  manufactories. 

Japan  raises  a  coarse,  inferior  grade  of  cotton.     Livingstone  found  it  growing 

,       in  abundance  in  Central  Africa.      On  the  western  coast  of  that 

Culture  of 

cotton  by        grand  geographical  division  it  has  been  cultivated  with   marked 
various  success,  although  to  no  very  notable  extent.     The  late  Lord  Palm- 

erston,  for  many  years  one  of  England's  greatest  statesmen,  and 
long  her  prime  minister,  is  said  to  have  feared  that  the  supply  from  the  United 

States  would  some  time 
give  out ;  and  he  urged 
upon  his  country  the 
policy  of  encouraging 
cotton-culture  on  the 
west  coast  of  Africa  as 
the  grert.  resource  of  the 
future.  As  yet,  his  fears 
and  expectations  have 
been  but  poorlyjustified. 
'I'l.e  Moors  brought  the 
cotton-plint  from  Ara- 
bia into  Northern  Afri- 
ca and  Spain.  In  the 
latter  country,  its  use  by 
the  Moslems  for  mak- 
ing turbans  ga\e  rise 
to  a  Christian  prejudice 
against  its  culture.  P2s- 
pecial  efforts  were  made 
to  introduce  cotton  into 
F^gypt  in  1821,  and  they 
ha\J  been  attended  by 
quite  successful  results. 
Columbus  discovered  cotton  growmg  on  tlie  ne.  -found  Island  of  Ilis- 
paniola;  Magellan  saw  it  in  lirazil ;  m.l  Pizairo,  in  Peru.  Cortez  gathered  it 
Discovery  of  '"  Southern  Cuba  to  quilt  into  his  soldiers'  armor,  and,  on  reach- 
cotton  in  ing  Mexico,  found  it  urider  high  cultivation  and  use ;  the  natives 
*^  '*'■  •  weaving  it  into  the  most  delicate  and  bcautifi.d  curtain^  '••xl  robes, 
and,  mingled  with  feathers,  converting  it  intf  the  most  love;y  and  richly- 
■':olorf'd  ornaments.  OHier  explorers  found  it  growing  as  far  north  as  the 
bank  j  of  the  Mississippi  and  some  of  its  tr'butaries,  and  some  of  the  Indians 
of  Texas  and  New  Mexico  even  yet  utilize  it  for  blankets. 

Naturalists  fiml  many  varieties  of  cotton  mi  existence,  and  their  classifi- 
cation thereof  differs  greatly.  The  division  is  made  by  them  according  to 
botanical  distinctions,  rather  tlian  sue  h  practical  ones  as  the  length  and  quality 


COTTON-rL  '.NT. 


3 


msi 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


49 


mufactories. 
d  it  growing 
;oast  of  that 
vith  marked 
Lord  Palm- 
itesmen,  and 
11  the  United 
Id  some  time 
and  he  urged 
country   the 
encouraging 
ture    on    the 
;  of  Africa  as 
esource  of  the 
s  yet,  his  fears 
ictations  have 
)oorly  justified, 
rs  brought  the 
mt   from  Ara- 
Northern  Afri- 
spain.     In  the 
uitry,  its  use  by 
Icms   for  mak- 
ans    gave    rise 
islian  prejudice 
s  culture.     Es- 
orts  were  matle 
vuc  cotton  into 
S21,  and  they 
;n  attended  by 
;cessful  results, 
si  and   of   llis- 
tez  i,athered  it 
and,  on  rcach- 
,e  ;  the  natives 
ipc  i';d  rol)es, 
;;y  and   richly- 
ir  north  as  the 
of  the  Indians 

Jd  their  classifi- 
\\  according  to 
Vth  and  ciuaUty 


of  the  fibre.  But  all  kinds  of  cotton  may  be  narrowed  down  substantially 
to  three  botanical  classes,  —  the  Gossypiuin  herbaccnm,  arltonum,  and 
hirsutum,  or  herbaceous,  tree,  and  shrub  cotton.  The  tree  and  Varietieaof 
shnib  cotton-plants  have  a  life  of  from  six  to  ten  years,  and  the  <=otton. 
arborescent  species  sometimes  grow  to  a  height  of  twenty  feet.  In  the  United 
States,  however,  only  the  herbaceous  or  annual  varieties  are  under  cultivation  ; 
and  these  may  be  classified  as  follows  :  — 

The  upland  cotton,  with  a  short  staj^le,  a  yellow  blossom  changing  to  red, 
and  naked  black  seeds  (this  was  the  first  kind  introduced  into  this  country)  ; 
the  Tennessee  cotton,  which  partially  succeeded  the  above-named,   ciassifica- 
liecause  of  its-  freedom  from  rot,  and  which  has  seeds  covered   tion  of  cot- 
with  green  down ;  the  Mexican,  which  has  to  a  great  extent  suc- 
ceeded both  of  the  two  previous-named  varieties   (especially  in   Mississippi) 
because  of  its  greater  vigor  and  productiveness,  and  which  has  seeds  covered 
with  a  dingy,  wliitish-brown  down  ;  and  the  Sea- Island  cotton,  which  has  black 
seeds  ami  a  long  staple,  and  is  the  finest  cotton  in  the  world. 

The  historian  Purchas  says   that  cotton,  probably  the  short-stapled,  was 
planted  in  this  country  by  early  setUers  in   1621.     Historical  papers  in  South 
Carolina  indicate  that  it  was  under  cultivation  in  that  colony  in   cultivation 
1666.     Maryland  is  known  to  have  grown  it  as  a  garden-plant   of  cotton  by 
in  1739;  and  some  forty  years  later  it  was  to  be  found  in  Cape-   '=°  °"'**** 
May  County,  New  Jersey.      At  the  breaking-out  of  the   Revolutionary  war, 
Gen.  Delagall  had  no  less  than  thirty  acres  of  green-seed  cotton  under  culti- 
vation.    Up  to  about  this  time  the  manufacture  of  cotton  was  attended  with 
great  disadvantages.     The  demand  was 
slight,  and    scarcely  an;    one   but  fan- 
ciers thought  of  raising  it  in  this  coun- 
try.     There  were,   nevertheless,    some 
exports  prior  to  the  Revolution,  state- 
ments to  the  contrary  notwithstanding. 
In    1748    seven    bags   of   cotton-wool 
were    sent    from    Charleston,  S.  C,   to 
England,  valued  at  three  pounds  eleven 
shillings  and  fivepence  each.     Further 
shipments  were  made  in  1754  and  1770, 
And  yet  in  17S4,  when  eight  Ivags  were 

found  aboard  an  American  vessel  by  the  Lritish  at  sea,  they  were  seized,  on 
the  ])lea  that  America  could  not  produce  so  much,  —  two  thousand  pounds. 

To  Alexander  IJissell  is  due  the  credit  of  bringing  here  the   Sea-Island 
cotton.     He  cultivated  it  first  on  St.  Simon's  Island,  at  the  mouth   introduction 
of  the  Savannah.     For  a  time  its  culture  was  I.'mited  to  the  islands   of  sea-isiand 
off  a  part  of  South  Carolina's  coast  and  at  tie    mouth  of  the   ''°"°"- 
Savannah  River.     Afterwards  it  was  culiivated  in  the  lowlands  of  the  conti- 


COTTON-GIN. 


^^ 


50 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


neat,  in  most  places  less  tlian  fifteen  miles  from  the  roast,  but  in  one  place  in 
(ieorgia  no  less  than  a  hundred  and  twenty-five  miles  inland.  In  Middle  and 
Western  Florida  the  Sea- Island  cotton  has  since  been  very  extensively  grown. 
Something  was  done  toward  the  cultivation  of  Sea-Isiand  cotton  on  the  Texan 
coast  ui)wards  of  twenty  years  ago,  with  tolerable  success.  It  deteriorates 
rapidly,  however,  when  cultivatetl  in  the  interior.  Its  excellence  and  the 
limited  size  of  the  crop  give  it  the  ascendency  in  the  market.  In  1806  it 
brought  thirty  cents  a  pound  when  the  short-stapled  cotton  brought  but 
twenty:  in  icSi6  it  was  worth  forty-seven  cents  to  twenty-seven  for  the  short. 
I3y  careful  selection  of  seed,  and  uniciue  improvement  of  the  plant,  Mr.  Kinsey 
Burden  of  St.  John's,  Colleton  District,  B.C.,  raised  the  best  Sea-Island  cotton 
about  that  time,  and  could  get  twenty-five  cents  more  a  pound  than  other 
raisers.  The  crop  of  1832,  amounting  to  eight  million  pounds,  was  the  largest 
of  tliis  variety  ever  produced  in  this  country ;  and  a  bale  sent  to  England  in 
1857,  from  Kdisto,  S.C.,  brought  the  highest  price  on  record, —  one  dollar 
and  thirty-five  cents  a  pound.  It  might  be  remarked  in  this  connection,  that 
the  Hindoos  spun  tlie  cotton  fibre  so  finely  on  one  occasion,  that  it  took  a 
hundred  and  fifteen  miles  of  thread  to  make  a  pound.  lOnglish  spinners  have 
stretched  American  Sea- Island  cotton  out  so  fine,  that  a  pound  o{  it  would 
reach  a  thousand  and  twenty-six  miles. 

In  "The  Year-lJook  of  Agriculture  "  we  find  this  account  of  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  Mexican  cotton  to  the  United  States  by  Walter  Ihirling  of  Natchez : 
inuoduction  "  ^"  '''^^^  he  was  scut  by  ( Icu.  Wilkinson  to  the  city  of  Mexico, 
of  Mexican  where  he  dined  with  the  viceroy.  In  the  course  of  the  conver- 
cotton.  salioii  at  the  table  concerning  the  products   of  the  country,  he 

requested  permission  to  import  some  of  the  Mexican  cotton-seed,  —  a  recpiest 
tliat  was  not  ;"inted,  on  the  ground  that  it  was  prohibited  by  the  Spanish  Gov- 
ernment. Ijut  the  viceroy,  over  his  wine,  sportively  accorded  his  free  permis- 
sion to  take  home  with  him  as  many  Mexican  dolls  as  he  might  fancy, — a 
permission  well  understood,  and  which,  in  'le  same  vein,  was  accepted.  The 
stuffing  of  these  dolls  was  understood  to  have  been  cotton-seed." 

By  the  carefiii  selection  of  seed,  the  use  of  seed  from  another  section  of 
the  country,  and  like  expetlients,  enterprising  growers  have  at  \'arioiis  times 
developed  seemingly  new  varieties  in  many  localities  South,  and  each  of  these 
has  had  an  ephcnieral  local  fame.  Ikit  they  did  not  differ  substantially  from 
any  of  the  foregoing  varieties.  Attempts  have  been  made,  too,  to  naturalize 
other  foreign  spti  ics,  such  as  the  Nankin  in  (leorgia,  but  not  to  any  notable 
extent.  The  upland  varieties  most  popular  at  the  present  time  are  said  to  be 
the  Dickson,  Peeler,  Cheatham,  IJoyd's  Prolific,  Simpson,  Petit  Gulf,  Johnston, 
Hurlong,  Shupeck  (or  Schupach),  Ramases,  Matagorda  Silk,  Java  Prolific,  and 
South- American  Cliampion. 

Five  causes  have  operated  very  decidedly  to  develop  the  culture  of 
cotton  in  this  country.     The   first  of  these  was  the  remarkable  improvements 


■;  'I 


OF    77/ K    UNITED    STATES, 


5' 


c  place  in 
iddlc  and 
ely  grown, 
the  Texan 
icteriorates 
e   anil  the 
In  iSo6  il 
rought  but 

the  short. 
Mr.  Kinscy 
land  cotton 

than  other 
s  the  largest 

England  in 
-  one  dollar 
nection,  that 
at  it  took  a 
[)inners  have 
I  (^{  it  would 

the   introduc- 
r  of  Nauhez ; 
y  of  Mexico, 
f  the  (onver- 
country,  he 
. — .a  rec^nest 
Spanish  Gov- 
free  permis- 
ht  fancy,  —  a 
ccptcd.     The 

-r  section  of 
Ivarious  times 
each  of  these 
|stantially  from 
to  naturali/e 
any  notal)le 
Ire  said  to  bo 
lulf,  Johnston, 
|i  Prolific,  and 

ic    culture    of 
improvements 


made,  a  little  over  a  century  ago,  in  the  macliinery  for  spinning  and  weaving 
cotton,  together  witli  the  gradual  discovery  in  ICngland  that  cotton  alone  <  oukl 
be  used  for  making  cloth.     In  1738  Wyatt  invented  the  spinning- 
jenny  to  succeed  the  distaff.     Later  the  process  of  carding  cot-    yv'!i"'ied  to 
ton  was  devised  by   I'aul.     Arkwright  and  llargreaves  improved   development 
«>n  the  previous  spinning-machines;  and  then,  in  1779,  ("rompton   "^(lo"""  °' 
invented  the  mule,  utilizing  the   ideas  of  his  pretlecessors.     C'art- 
wriglit  patented   his  power-loom   in   1787;   but   it  was   not  until  the  present 
century  that  it  came  into  use.     These  remarkable  improvements  very  naturally 
stimulated  the   production   of  cotton,   and  the   application   of  Watt's  steam- 
engine  to  the  manufacture  of  the  fibre  in  1  7.S5   added  still  further  impetus  to 
the  inilustry.     For  a  time,   in    England,  ( otton  was  used  only  to  adulterate 
linen.     Some  time  afterwards  it  was  found  that  it  might  be  used  altogether  for 
filling  a  flaxen  warp  ;  and  linally  both  warp  and  woof  were  made  of  cotton. 


COTTON-<;iN. 


A  Still  greater  stimulus  to  cotton-culture  wa^,  given  by  the  iii\-ention  of  the 
cotton-gin.  Previous  to  that  event  the  difficulty  of  separating  the  seeds  from 
the  fibre  of  the  cotton-boll  was  so  great,  that  the  cost  of  the  prod-  invention  of 
net  formed  a  very  serious  obstacle  to  its  use  ;  but  the  cotton-  cotton-gin. 
gin  removed  this,  and  inmiediately  gave  this  material  the  most  marked  ascend- 
ency over  other  textiles  for  cheapness  and  utility. 


A  ■  ijt») 


/ATD  US  TRIA  L    If  IS  TON  V 


The  honor  of  this  invention  nnfitiestionahly  belongs  to  Eli  Whitney,  who 
went  from  New  Haven,  Conn.,  to  Savannah,  (la.,  as  a  tutor  in  the  family  of 
Whitney's  Mrs.  ( len.  Citeene,  in  1792.  Here  he  learned  of  the  difficulty 
Invention.  experienced  hy  the  short-staple  cultivators  in  separating  the  cotton 
from  the  seed.  Being  of  an  ingenious  turn  of  mind,  he  applied  himself  to 
the  construction  of  a  ma(  hine  which  would  perforin  the  work.  At  first  he 
covered  a  roller  with  hooked  wire  teeth  like  those  of  the  cards,  and  revolved 
it  close  to  a  frame  of  parallel  wires  on  which  the  hall  cotton  lay,  so  as  to  catch 
the  fibre,  and  draw  it  through,  leaving  the  seeds.  The  teeth  not  proving 
strong  enough,  he  substituted  a  series  of  saws  on  his  cylinder,  which  worked 
far  better.  Hehind  the  saw  cylinder  he  placed  revolving  brushes,  which  dex- 
terouslv  removed  the  fibre.  When  the  machine  was  comi)leted,  he  showed  it 
to  the  neighboring  firmers,  who  pronounced  it  a  success.  The  next  year  he 
got  his  invention  patented,  and  then,  with  the  co-operation  and  capital  of  one 
Miller,  went  into  the  business  of  manufacturing  it,  and  using  it  to  gin  cotton 
for  patrons.  Hut  patenr  laws  were  then  new,  almost  unknown,  and  poorly 
understood.  Cotton -cultivators  hired  orilinary  mechanics  to  make  these 
machines  for  them,  in  utter  disregard  of  the  jiatentee's  rights.  In  1794 
Whitney's  sickness  and  that  of  his  employees  delayed  their  work  ;  antl  in 
1795  their  shop  was  destroyed  by  fire.  Thus  the  infringers  were  given  still 
greater  chance  to  impose  upon  him,  the  immense  value  of  the  invention 
being  almost  instantly  recognized.  Protracted  and  wide-spread  litigation 
ensued  ;  but  so  ably  was  Whitney  fought  in  the  courts,  that  he  could  get  but 
slight  damages,  or  none  at  all,  in  return  for  his  pains  and  his  own  outlay. 
Sul)se([uently  the  State  of  South  Carolina  paid  him  fifty  thousand  dollars  for 
his  invention  ;  but  the  costs  of  his  litigation  swallowed  it  all  up.  The  story  is 
one  of  the  most  pitiable  in  American  history.  The  original  invention  was  sus- 
ceptible of  little  improvement,  unlike  many  others  for  which  Americans  have 
become  famous  ;  and  he  deserves  the  honor  of  being  one  of  his  country's 
greatest  material  benefactors.  Yet  he  reaped  not  a  bit  of  fruit  for  his  skill, 
and  there  stands  not  a  monument  to  his  memory  to-day. 

Of  course  the  invention  of  the  gin  wrought  a  wonderful  effect.  The  profit 
Effect  of  his  of  cotton-culture  was  thus  immensely  enhanced,  and  the  business 
invention.  ^yas  rapidly  extended  ;  rice  and  tobacco,  which  for  a  time  exceed- 
ed cotton  in  value  as  an  export,  very  quickly  dropping  to  a  subordinate  rank. 

A  third  influence  upon  American  cotton-culture  was  the  introduction  of 
negro  labor  ;  which,  however,  was  an  effect  as  well  as  a  cause.  The  blacks 
seemed  to  be  admirably  adapted  to  perform  the  reipiisite  labor  in  the  scorch- 
ing climate  of  the  Southern  States,  where  alone  the  plant  could 
be  grown  :  hence  the  ra])id  development  of  the  slavery  system, 
already  ingrafted  upon  our  body  politic.  Although  the  experience  of  the 
past  twelve  years  shows  that  slavery  is  not  essential  to  cotton-culture ;  that  free 
negro  labor  is  as  good  as  slave  labor,  so  far  as  the  yield  is  concerned,  if  not 


Negro  labor. 


r.'.S 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


55 


ncy,  who 
tiimily  of 

(UtfuuUy 
ho  cotton 
limsclf  to 
t  first  he 
[  rcvolvt'tl 
IS  to  catch 
it  proving 
eh  worked 
,hich  tlex- 

sliowcd  it 
;xt  year  he 
ital  of  one 

gin  cotton 
ivnd   i)oorly 
iiKiko    these 
.     In    1794 
irk;   and  in 
2  given  still 
\e   invention 
-id    litigation 
)uld  get  Imt 

own  outlay. 

|l  dollars  for 

I'he  story  is 

\\()\\  was  sus- 

Icrieans  have 

[lis  country's 
for  his  skill. 

The  profit 
I  the  business 
Itime  exceed- 
linate  rank. 
}oduction  of 
'\\\(t  l)lacks 
the  scorch- 
plant  could 
Lvery  system, 
lence   of  the 
Ire ;  that  free 
lerned,  if  not 


better;  and  tliat  acclimated  whites  can  do  good  service  on  the  cotton  planta- 
tion,—  yet  practiialiy  the  work  of  raising  our  cotton  was,  until  tlie  late  civil 
war,  done  altogether  by  the  negroes  of  this  country  ;  and  they  have  been  an 
important  means  in  the  extension  of  the  industry. 

I'ourthly,  the  expansion  of  the  area  of  the  United  States  in  the   South 
naturally  gave   further  development  to  cotton-culture.     ;\t  tiie  close    of  the 
last  century,  as  wc  have  already  indicated,  the  little  cotton  grown   ^^ 
in  this  country  was  ( onfmed  aluujst  entirely  to  South  Carolina  and   o(  area  of 
(ieoPL'ia.     I'rom  tlie  former  it  e.\ten<led  into  North  Carolina,  and   '°"''"- 

'^  culture. 

from   the    latter  into  what   soon    became   the  State   of  .Mabama. 
Kentucky  and  Tennessee  were  rapidly  occupied  by  settlers  at  that  period  of 
our  history,  and  the  latter  gave  great  attention  to  cotton.     At  the  commence- 
ment of  the  present  century  the  Louisiana  purchase  gave  us  the  State  of  that 


COTKJN-(,IN. 


name.  Arkansas,  and  other  territory  beyond  the  Mississippi,  which  soon  was 
occupied  and  developed.  The  State  of  Mississii)i)i  rose  to  the  dignity  of 
sisterhooi:  "n  our  Union.  Florida  was  annexed  in  1S20,  and  finally  Texas 
was  added  to  our  domain  in  1845.  Ivich  of  these  territorial  acquisitions,  and 
the  enterprise  thereby  stimulated,  gave  impetus  to  this  particular  branch  of 
American  agriculture. 

And,  fifthly,  the  great  foreign  demand  for  this  product  of  America  has 


"i  -l 


V  M 


M   fc 


1 


'   1 


IP 


I  I 


'I  ■ 


11. 


i  if 


['i 


Ih  ii"* 


54  INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 

conduced  enormously  to  i*^s  culture.     To  be  sure,  much  of  the  cotton  which 

we  exported  for  manufacture  abroad,  particularly  in  England,  came  back  to  us 

again  for  our  own  use  as  clothing.     But,  inasmuch  as  our  manufac- 

Exportation.       "  .        .     ,  ,        ,  ,  ,  ,  ,  ■,•       ,     , 

turmg  mdustry  was  not  developed,  we  could  not  have  utilized  the 
staple,  and  would  not  have  had  any  occasion  to  raise  it  if  Europe  had  not 
called  for  it.  And  the  demand  'as  the  greater,  because  it  was  soon  discovered 
that  our  cotton  was  altogether  the  best  in  the  world.  For  instance,  in  tlie 
year  1 790  only  one  bale  out  of  every  thousand  imported  into  England  came 
from  this  country  :  in  i  790  the  proportion  was  one  in  every  nine.  This  pro- 
portion steadily  increased,  until,  in  thirty  or  forty  years,  we  furnished  England 
with  seven  bales  out  of  every  eight  that  she  consumed.  Of  late  years  our 
exportation  to  England  has  not  kept  pace  with  our  production,  because  we  are 
coming  to  nianufacture  a  larger  share  of  our  yield  ourselves,  both  for  c"ir  own 
use  and  for  export ;  yet  our  export  has  steadily  increased,  and  even  now 
amounts  to  nearly  two-thirds  of  our  yield,  and  still  constitutes  England's  chief 
reliance. 

The  stimulus  which  the  foreign  demand  gives  to  our  cotton-culture  will  be 
better  understood  if  one  considers  the  proport.on  in  which  the  various  coun- 
Cotton  pro-  ^^'^'^  ^^  *^^'-'  world  producc  the  raw  material,  and  the  proportion  in 
ductior.  of  wliich  they  manufacture  it.  Hie  foregoing  figures  represent  the 
^^°''  •  situation  before  our  late  war ;  since  which  time  we  have  ccme  to 
manufacture  more  of  our  product  ourselves,  and  foreign  countries  have 
obtained  a  perceptibly  smaller  supply  from  us.  As  yet,  however,  these  changes 
are  slight.     The  production  of  the  world  in  1856  was  as  follows :  — 

BALES, 

West  Indies 4,090 

Brazil S>Soo 

Egypt 86,445 

East  Indies 445,637 

Total  outside  Uni'ed  States 541,672 

United  Sta..s 3,880,580 

That  is,  we  produced  seven-eighths  of  the  world's  cotton.     Now  for  the 
consumption.     In  1850  it  v/as  thus  estimated  :  — 

BALES. 

Great  Britain i,m3,ooo 

United  States 487,800 

France 369,300 

Russia 125,200 

Trieste  und  Austria 125,200 

Hamburg  and  Bremen 70,700 

Holland  and  Belgium         . 71,700 

Spain 80,400 

Ita  y,  Sweden,  &c 52,100 

Total 2,895,400 


otton  which 
;  back  to  us 
lur  manufac- 
utilized  the 
)pe  had  not 
n  discovered 
tance,  in  the 
ngland  came 
;.     This  pro- 
lied  England 
ate  years  our 
ecause  we  are 
h  for  our  own 
md  even  now 
ngland's  chief 

-culture  Will  be 
:  various  coiui- 
e  proportion  in 
i  represent  the 
:  have  ccme  to 
countries    have 
r,  these  changes 
s :  — ■ 


541,672 
I  3,880,580 

I.     Now  for  the 


BALES. 
1,513,000 
487,800 
369,300 


OF    THE    UNITED  ^STATES.  55. 

Thus  it  apr  ears  that  England  inanuftvctured  half  or  more  of  the  worki's 
cotton.     Very  naturally,  then,  the  principal  producer  furnished  the   Quantity 
principal  consuiner  most  of  her  supply,  as  will  appear  from  tin.'   exported  hy 
following  statement  of  our  export  in  i860  :  — 

BALES. 

To  England 3,037,763 

"    Fiance 709.9 '8 

"    Other  Countries 671,535 

Total 4,419,215 

This  figure  represents  the  abnormal  export  of  the  year  following  that  of  our 
largest  crop,  and  is  the  largest  aggregate  shipment  we  ever  made  in  any  one 
year.     We  propose  to  give  now,  somewhat  more  in  detail,  a  state-   shipment 
ment  showing  the  extent  of  our  exportation  of  cotton  during  a   for  several 
series   of  years ;    and,  if  this   be   conn)ared  with  the   statement  y'*"* 
which  we  shall  presently  give  of  our  total  production,  it  will  be  easy  to  see 
what  share  of  the  whole  yield  we  have  been  acci  stomed  to  sell  to  other  coun- 
tries in  exchange  for  what  we  have  been  obliged  to  buy  from  them. 

We  have  already  mentioned  that  we  sent  small  amounts  in  "sacks"  to 
England  in  1748,  1754,  and  1770;   and  that  seventy-one  bags,  amounting  to 
about  eight  bales,  were  seized  aboard  an  American  vessel  in  17S4,   Early  ship- 
becausc  it  was  deemed  impossible  that  this  country  could  produce   ""ents. 
so  much,  and  that  such  a  quantity  of  cotton  could  only  have  been  obtained  by 
the  ship  illegitimately.     In  1789  we  shipped  no  less  than  842  bales  to  Eng- 
land.    In   1 79 1,  it  is  stated  in  the  Agricultural  Bureau's  Report  for  1862,  we 
exported  189,316  pounds,  or  4,733  bales  of  the  modern  standard.'     In  1800, 
so  ra[)id  was  the  development  of  the  industry,  we  exported  17,789,803  pounds, 
or  44,476  bales,  —  an  increase  of  nearly  ten  to  one  in  a  single   shipments 
decade.     During  the  next  thirty  years  the  increase  was  about  four-   1830-1855. 
teen-fold,  as  will  be  seen  from  the  followinir  table  :  — 


Five  vcnrs  endi 


"g 


1S35 
1S40 

1845 


iS 


SO 
1S55S 


1,273,232,281 
1,695,970,409 
2,621,360,414 

3.443.757,674 
3.551.036,317 
5,128,295,805 


During  the  twenty-five  years  from  the  first  half-decade  to  the  last  half- 
decade   here   registered   the  increase  was   a  trifle   over  fourfold,   shipments 
Herewith  we  give  the  figures  for  the  next  twenty-two  years,  sepa-   »856-i877. 
rately  and  in  bales  :  — 


2,895,400 


'  Four  hundred  pounds. 

■"'  Average  per  year,  in  b-iles,  2,564,148. 


•  Average  per  year,  in  bales,  636,616. 


i ■ 


f.  's<Sii'iarTr'T'-''"ri  nm 


( 


;    -•« 


I  <! 


^  "H  III 


56  INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 

VKAR.  BALES. 

1856 2,953,771 

1857 2,251,496 

1858 2,589,732 

1859 3."20,5i9 

i860 3.773.256 

1S61 3,126,867 

1862 12,661 

1863 28,462 

1864 29,982 

1865 16,517 

1866 1,552.457 

•      .       1867 1,552.761 

1868 1,657,015 

1869 1,448,020 

1870 2,178,917 

1871 3.166,742 

1872 1,957.314 

1873 •' 2,679,986 

1874 2,838,172 

1875 2,680,841 

1876 3.248,409 

1877  .     • 3,043.084 

Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  in  i860  we  attained  the  climax  of  our  exportation, 
the  amount  being  nearly  a  hundred  times  what-  it  was  in  1800,  and  almost  a 
Comments  thousand  times  what  it  was  in  1791.  The  war  accounts  for  the 
on  foregoing  falling-off  of  the  next  five  years,  and  the  slow  recuperation  frc  m 
*"^^*'"  that  influence  for  the  figures  of  the  next  five.     While,  however,  the 

crops  have  once  more  gotten  up  to  ante-war  figures,  the  development  of  our 
manufactures  lessens  the  exportation  of  the  raw  material ;  and  it  is  doubtful 
whether  we  reach  the  figures  of  i860  again  for  many  years.  It  must  be 
remembered,  however,  that,  prior  to  the  war,  a  share  of  the  cotton  which  we 
exported  came  back  to  us  manufactured,  and  costing  us  nearly  six  times  what 
we  were  paid  for  it  in  a  raw  state  :  hence  our  receipts  for  exported  cotton  were 
not  clear  gain.  But  now  we  are  repurchasing  only  small  quantities  of  our 
cotton  in  thread,  yarn,  or  cloth,  and  are  sending  abroad  manufiictured  cotton 
to  an  extent  more  than  compensating  for  the  falling-off  in  the  raw  material. 

At  the  commencement  of  this  err  tury,  the  export  to  England  represented 
p  ductio  pr<-'tty  much  our  whole  yield.  We  manufactured  at  home  an 
before  and  Utterly  insignificant  amount.  As  late  as  1850,  our  export  com- 
after  civil  prised  over  five-sixths  of  the  crop.  The  following  table  shows  the 
total  production  for  the  eleven  years  immediately  before  the  waf 
and  the  eleven  immediately  after,  the  bales  averaging  440  pounds  each :  — 

YEAR.  UALES. 

1850 2,355,257 

'851 3.015.029 

r     1852 3,262,882 


71 
,96 

Si9 

256 

867 

661 

,462 

,982 

.517 

.457 

:,76i 

?,oi5 

i,020 

8,9 « 7 
6,742 
17-3H 
,9,986 

jH,i72 
80,841 
48,409 
,43,084 

,r  exportation, 
and  almost  a 
ounts  for  the 
peration  fr(  m 
however,  the 
ment  of  our 
it  is  doubtful 
It  must  be 
tton  which  we 
,ix  times  what 
id  cotton  were 
.ntities  of  our 
ctured  cotton 
,v  material. 
,d  represented 
at  home  an 
~^r  export  com- 
A)lc  shows  the 
)ofore  the  wai 
,s  each :  — 

UAl.liS. 

[-355.-57 
loi  5,029 
1,262,882 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES.  57 

YEAR.  RAI.ES. 

1853 2,930,027 

1854 2,847,339 

1855 3-527,845 

1856 2,939,519 

1857 3-"3.962 

1858 3-851.481 

1859 4-669,770 

i860 3.656,006 

Total 36,169,117 

•  1865 2,193,987 

1866 2,019,774 

1867 2,593,993 

186S 2,439,039 

1869 3,154,946 

1870 4,352,317 

1871 2,974,351 

1S72 3,930,508 

1873 4,'70,388 

1874 3,832,991 

1875! 4,669,288 

Total 36,33 ',582 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  increase  in  our  crop  is  quite  steady.     The  varia- 
tions noticeable  are  partly  due  to  pests  (of  which  the  army-worm  is  the  most 
destructive),  to  wet  weather,  and  to  the  fluctuation  of  prices.     Inasmuch  as 
the    increase    in   the   demand   is  very  slight   and   gradual,    it   is   Effect  of 
noticeable  that  over-production  usually  so  depresses   the   price,   production 
that  the  cultivation  next  year  is  slightly  discouraged.     This  will   °"  •'""' 
be  apparent  from  a  comparison  of  the  yield  of  1859  with  i860,  and   1870 
with  1 87 1.     The  effect  of  quantity  on  price  will  be  realized  from  the  follow- 
ing comparison  :   1S69,  cropof  3,154,940  bales  l)rought  23.6  cents  a  pound, 
or  $346,223,774;   1S70,  crop  of  4,352,317  bales  brought  only  14.9  cents  a 
pound,  or  $301,550,283. 

The  effect  of  the  late  civil  war  was  to  stop  the  j^roduction  of  cotton 
almost  altogether  for  four  years.  Some  of  the  stajjle  j)ro(luced  l)efore  that 
interruption  was  hoarded;  .some  was  captured,  especially  in  the  Effect  of  war 
Attakapas  region  of  Louisiana  in  1863  ;  some  was  burned  to  keep  on  produc- 
it  from  falling  into  the  hands  of  the  Unionists ;  and  a  very  little  of 
it  was  taken  out  by  blockade-runners  to  foreign  countries.  The  Southern 
States  made  loans  of  money  in  England  in  anticipation  of  future  production 
and  of  securing  independence ;  which  loans  were  necessarily  left  unpaid. 
During  the  war,  attempts  were  made  in  the  North  to  cultivate  cotton;  seed 
from  our  own  country,  China,  Peru,  and  elsewhere,  being  widely  distributed 

'  Tlic  crop  of  1876  was  about  4,500,000  bales,  and  that  of  1877  ^''^  4)750|'-"0|  —  tbe  largest  ever  known  in 

iliis  cDuntry, 


I 


ll 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


and  planted.  From  Maine  to  Minnesota,  and  from  Canada  to  Mason  and 
Dixon's  Line,  earnest  efforts  to  cultivate  this  then  rare  and  precious  fibre  were 
put  forth.  But,  while  the  plant  flourished  finely,  the  bolls  would  not  mature  ; 
and  except  in  limited  localities,  in  Delaware,  Maryland,  Missouri,  and  Kansas, 
nothing  was  accomplished.  Meantime  India's  crop  and  export  were  largely 
augmented,  and  became  the  chief  reliance  of  the  outside  world.  But,  as 
soon  as  the  war  was  over,  this  country  (juickly  came  to  the  front  as  the  world's 
chief  producer. 


COTTON-I'RESS. 


Indeed,  the  recuperation  of  this  industry,  in  view  of  the  emancipadon  of 
the  slaves,  the  change  from  compulsory  to  free  labor,  the  necessary  demorali- 
Production  nation  of  socicty  attendant  upon  the  substitution,  and  the  repeated 
since  the  predictions  that  we  could  never  raise  a  crop  of  three  million 
^^^'  bales  again,  is  simply  marvellous.     Reference   to   our  tables   of 

production  will  show,  that,  during  the  eleven  years  next  after  the  war,  we 
raised  more  cotton  than  during  the  corresponding  period  before,  and  that 
five  times  ^  since  the  war  we  have  raised  a  larger  crop  than  any  year  an- 
terior to  it,  omitting  the  exceptional  crop  of  1859;  and  there  is  no  doubt, 
that,  were  our  market  once  assured,  we  could  increase  our  annual  yield  to 
ten  million  bales  inside  of  ten  years. 

Besides  the  substitution  of  free  for  slave  labor,  some  other  notable 
changes  have  lately  been  taking  place  in  this  industry. 

As  with   most   of  our   other   agricultural    interests,  there   is   a   westwaru 

'  In  .870,  1873,  1875,  1876,  and  1877.     ITic  last-named  crop  exceeds  even  tliat  of  1859. 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


59 


son  and 
bre  were 
mature  > 
Kansas, 
e  largely 
But,  as 
le  world's 


lA 
va 


lincipation  of 
[ary  demorali- 

the  repeated 
Ithree   miUion 

)ur  tables   of 
the  war,  we 

3re,  and  that 

I  any  year  an- 
is  no  doubt, 

inual  yield  to 

lother    notal)le 
IS   a  westward 

of  iSsy. 


movement  of  the  centre  of  cotton  production.     In  1849  Alabama  stood  in 
the   front   rank,  with    Georgia   next,  and   Mississippi  third.      In   production 
1859  Mississippi    had  the  lead,  with  Alabama  second,  Louisiana  of  the  sev- 
third,  and  Georgia  fourth.     In  1876,  as  will  be  seen  by  the  follow-   state"""" 
ing  table  showing  distribution  of   yield  and  fertility,   Mississippi 
was  first,  Texas  second,  Louisiana  third,  Alabama  fourth,  and  Arkansas  acA 
Georgia  nearly  equal :  — 


North  Carolina. 

Soiitli  Carolina  . 

Clcorgia 

Florida 

Alabama    . 

Mississippi 

Louisiana  . 

Texas 

Arkansas    . 

Tcinicsscc . 

Indian  Territory,  &c. 

Total    . 


609,000 

945.500 
1,515,000 

165,000 
1,732,250 
1,976,000 
1,260,000 
1,483,500 
1,133,000 
741,000 
1 17,000 

11,677,250 


Acreage  less 
than  before 
the  war. 


It  may  be  remarked  in  passing,  that,  while  our  i)roduct  is  as  large  as  before 
the  war   (larger  on  the  average),  our  acreage  is  less,  it   having 
been  upwards  of  thirteen  million  in  iS6o.^     This  shows  an  im- 
provement in  methods  of  cultivation. 

Improved  cultivation  is  noticeable  in  several  respects.  The  relative  pro- 
portion of  corn  and  other  supply  crops  is  increasing.  Heretofore  pork  and 
meal  have  been  bought  from  the  North ;  but,  raising  them  at  home,  the  food 
of  the  laborer  is  made  cheaper,  and  the  profit  on  labor  is  greater.  Then,  too, 
rotation  of  crops  is  studied  more  closely  in  consequence. 

Greater  pains  are  taken  to  prevent  waste  of  the  soil,  and  also  to  feed 
and  restore  it.  Beyond  the  Mississippi,  along  the  new  and 
rich  alluvial  bottom-lands  of  the  Red  River  and  Ouachita,  no 
such  expedients  are  now  necessary  :  but,  in  the  States  east  of  the 
Mississippi,  greater  economy  is  practised  with  cotton-seed  and 
lot  manures ;  and  experiments  are  numerous  with  commercial  fertilizers  used 
chiefly  in  combination  with  composts  of  home  material. 

'  The  distribution  of  the  cotton-culture  in  the  so-called  cotton-belt  is  very  uneven.  Out  of  seven  hut.Jredand 
fifty-nine  counties,  no  less  than  ninety-three  produced  no  cotton  at  all  in  1870,  and  two  hundred  and  .v.nty- 
seven  others  from  less  than  a  thousand  bales  down  to  one;  whereas  seventy-nino  produced  about  1  f  of  tha 
whole  crop,  each  yielding  upwards  of  ten  thousand  bales.  As  an  illustration  on  a  smaller  scale,  ii  m:  be  stated 
that  four  out  of  Tennessee's  eighty-t'ive  counties  produced  four-tenths  of  that  [state's  crop  in  1870.  Corn,  tha 
other  prominent  Southern  crop,  though  of  much  jyss  importance  in  the  aggregate,  is  much  belter  distributed. 


Greater 
economy  in 
cultivation 
of  cotton. 


•I    .M! 


m 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


:1 


The  soil  is  being  cultivatt'l  more  tlioroughly,  and  with  improved  imple- 
ments, especially  in  those  regions  where  white  labor  is  in  the  largest  pro- 
portion. 

A  noticeable  diminution  in  the  size  of  farms  is  going  on,  which  conduces 
to  higher  culture.  Between  i860  and  1870  the  number  of  farms  of  over  a 
Sir.aiicr  hundred  acres  decreased  in  every  cotton  State,  and  those  of  under 

farms.  ^  hundred  acres  increased,  the  reduction  being  twenty-two   per 

cent,  and  the  increase  thirty-five  per  cent.  This  movement  is  still  progress- 
ing, the  ratios  being  largest  in  South  Carolina,  Louisiana,  and  Florida. 

There  is  a  tendency  to  depart  from  the  method  of  working  on  shares 
(which  came  into  vogue  immediately  after  the  war),  and  to  pay  cash  wages 
Mode  of  instead  ;  and,  on  the  whole,  wages  are  growing  a  trifle  less.  Where 
working  the  share  system  prevails,  —  and  it  still  predominates,  —  contracts 
farms.  ^^^^  somewhat  in  particulars.     Thus  bare  labor  gets  about  one- 

fourth  of  the  crop  on  rich  lands,  and  one-third  on  poor  soils.  If  the  laborers 
Rates  of  re-  fumish  their  own  rations,  they  get  from  four-tenths  to  one-half  the 
muneration.  crop,  according  to  the  productiveness  of  the  soils.  As  the  supply 
of  crops  becomes  more  plenty  and  larger,  the  tendency  will  be  for  the  help  to 
provide  themselves  more  and  more  with  rations,  and  rely  less  on  the  land- 
owner.    The  propv'otor  receives  a  third  or  half  of  the  yield  ;   if  he  provides 

imi)lements,       live- 
•^^  stock,    and    rations 

for  the  help,  about 
two-thirds.  Rations 
consist  of  about  two 
hundred  pounds  of 
bacon  and  fifteen 
bushels  of  meal  per 
man  a  year,  which 
is  equivalent  to  from 
forty  dollars  to  sixty 
dollars.  A  landlord 
will  sometimes  let 
his  land  for  a  bale 
of  cotton  to  a  man, 
and  half  a  bale  for  a 
woman,  giving  them 
the  rest.  Where  cash 
is  paid,  the  yearly 
system  rather  than  the  monthly  is  pursued ;  and  the  rate  is  from  a  hundred 
dollar;  to  a  hundred  and  forty-five  dollars  for  a  "  full  hand,"  and  half  or 
two-thirds  that  for  youths  and  women. 

The  freedmen  are  coming  to  take  a  proprietary  interest  in  the  labor,  rather 


COTTON-I'ACKET. 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


6x 


:d  imple* 
gest  pro- 
conduces 
of  over  a 
t  of  under 
;y-tsvo   per 
\  progress- 
la. 
on  shares 
cash  wages 
ess.    Where 
—  contracts 
about  one- 
the  laborers 
one-half  the 
,s  the  supply 
r  the  help  to 
on  the  land- 
f  he  provides 
nents,       hve- 
and    rations 
t  help,  about 
irds.    "Rations 
t  of  about  two 
:d  pounds  of 
and     fifteen 
,s  of  meal  per 
year,  which 
livalcnt  to  from 
^loUars  to  sixty 
A  landlord 
iometirnes    let 
Ind  for  a  bale 
Itton  to  a  man, 
,alf  a  bale  for  a 
n,  giving  them 
ist.  Where  cash 
[id,  the   yearly 
,ni  a  hundred 
'  and  half  or 


1 


than  to  vvuik  as  hirelings  ;  which  tends  to  greater  economy,  thrift,  and  energy. 
(Jiic  in  twenty  of  the  freedinen  are  cultivating  lands  of  their  own,  and  in 
Florida  the  proportion  is  one  in  twelve. 

Like  every  other  great  industry  of  the  country,  cotton-culture  has  given 
chan'.cter  and  development  to  «jities,  railroads,  and  shijipinginterests.     Just  as 
Chicago  and  Buffalo  are  built  up  out  of  the  grain-business,  Cincinnati  out  of 
pork-production,  and  Pittsburg  out  of  iron ;    so  cotton  has  done   Effect  of  cot- 
much  to  create  Charleston,  Savannah,  Mobile,  New  Orleans,  (lal-   ton-cuiture 
veston,  Vicksburg,  and  Memphis.     Railroads  from  the  interior  of  Industrie" 
the  cotton  States  to  their  centres  of  export  have  been  built  more   and  move- 
for  this  class   of  freight  than  for  passenger-traffic,  and  it  is  the   "'"  ^" 
cotton-interest  that  so  earnestly  seconds  the  schemes  of  Northern  capitalists 
for  a  Texas  Pacitlc  Railroad.     Except  river-boats,  the  South  has  never  owned 
much  shipping ;  but  the  heavy  export-trade  of  cotton  necessarily  has  given 
great  expansion  to  American  and  foreign  ship-building  and  navigation.     So 
wide-spread  and  huge  is  the  production,  that  no  cotton-rings,  like  the  coal,  oil, 
and  grain  cliques,  have  ever  existed  to  control  the  markets.     But  the  political 
infl.'.'^r.cc  of  the  cotton-growers  has  been  the  most  powerful  that  lias  ever  been 
wielded  by  any  one  interest  in  this  country ;  though  now,  the  necessity  for 
its  assertion  having  gone  by,  it  is  no  longer  noticeable. 


labor,  rather 


INDUSTRIAL    IJliiTORY 


iJ^VU 


CMVFrER   IV. 

WHLAT. 

THE  culture  of  wheat  is  among  the  very  earliest  products  in  American 
agriculture,  and  is  now,  in  point  of  aggregate  cash  value,  one  of  the  three 
Importance  most  valuable.  Moreover,  it  is  a  prime  necessity  of  existence, 
of  wheat.  Food  to  maintain  life,  and  clothing,  and  houses  to  shelter  us,  are, 
of  course,  the  very  essentials  of  living.  Bread  is  indeed  the  staff  of  life  ;  and 
though,  previous  to  its  invention  by  the  Greeks  several  centuries  before  Christ, 
other  articles  of  diet  formed  the  staple  of  human  food,  yet  wheat  bread  is 
now  characteristic  of  civilization.  No  people  on  the  face  of  the  globe  have 
fully  emerged  from  barbarism  who  do  not  li\e  iJrincijially  ujion  wheat. 

Indeed,  the  cultivation  of  that  grain  has  hatl  more  tlian  any  other  one 
thing  to  do  with  raising  man  from  a  nomadir  and  unintellectual  life,  as  will 
Effect  of  ^^  apparent  to  almost  any  one  upon  reflection.  C'revecanir,  the 
wheat-  old  French  traveller,  illustrates  this  point  by  attributing  this  utter- 

raising  upon   ^j^^,^  ^^  ^^^^^  ^^  ^^^  aboriginal  chiefs  in  this  country,  in  a  speech 

nomadic  hfe.  °  . 

to  his  own  people  :  "  Do  you  not  see  the  whites  living  ujjon 
seeds,  while  we  eat  flesh?  that  flesh  requires  more  than  tiiirty  moons  to  grow 
up,  and  is  then  often  scarce  ?  that  each  of  the  wonderful  seeds  they  sow  in  the 
earth  returns  them  a  hundred-fold  ?  The  flesh  on  which  we  subsist  has  four 
legs  to  escape  from  us,  while  we  have  but  two  to  pursue  and  capture  it.  The 
grain  remains  where  the  white  men  plant  it,  and  grows.  With  them  winter  is 
a  period  of  rest,  while  with  us  it  is  a  time  of  laborious  hunting.  For  these 
reasons  tliey  have  so  many  more  children  than  we,  and  live  longer  than  we  do. 
I  say,  therefore,  unto  every  one  that  will  hear  me,  that  before  tlie  cedar  of  our 
^•illage  shall  have  died  down  with  age,  and  the  maple-trees  of  the  valley  ha\x 
ceased  to  give  us  sugar,  the  race  of  the  little  corn  (wheat)  sowers  will  haw 
exterminated  the  race  of  flesh-eaters,  provided  their  huntsmen  do  not  becomr 
sowers." 

The  thought  might  be  traced  still  furtlier ;  but  it  is  not  witliin  our  proving 
to  do  so. 

The   earliest  origin  of  wheat  is  unknown.     It  is  generally  conceded,  that, 


k 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


63 


in  American 
;  of  the  three 
of  existence, 
helter  us,  are, 
f  of  life  ;  '^ntl 
before  Christ, 
A\iidX  bread  is 
lie  globe  have 
dicat. 

any  other  one 
aai  life,  as  will 

■revecteur,  the 

ing  this  utter- 

,',  in  a  speech 

:s   living   upon 
L)ons  to  grow 

they  sow  in  the 

[ubsist  has  four 

ipture  it.     The 
them  winter  i^ 

ling.  Foi"  t'"*^^^' 
jgt-r  than  we  do. 
|ie  cedar  of  our 
the  valley  have 
lowers  will  have 
Ido  not  become 

[in  our  proviw  '- 
conceded,  that,         | 


unlike  our  fniits  and  lomcstic  animals,  it  was  not  developed  from  a  wild, 
inferior  growth  by  luunan  culture.'  It  is  claimed,  moreover,  that  it  has  been 
found  growing  wild  in  uninhabited  [^ions  of  Persia,  Mesopotamia,  and  Texas. 
I'lgypt  was  one  of  the  greatesi  wheat-producing  countries  of  Origin  of 
aiu  ent  times:  thither  Jacob's  sons  went  for  it  in  the  days  of  a  wheat, 
famine  in  C"an.?an  thirty-six  centuries  ago.  Identically  the  same  grain  of 
th.^l  age,  (.Atraciec  from  the  cerements  of  mummies  that  were  entombed  in 
Joseph's  time,  has  lately  been  planted  ;  and  the  product  is  a  grain  substan- 
tially the  same  as  our  modern  wheat,  only  a  trifle  larger  and  better,  'i'hus 
it  will  be  seen,  that,  from  the  earliest  historical  period,  this  grain  has  remained 
substantially  unchanged ;  and,  though  upwards  of  three  hundred  .rieties  are 
said  to  exist,  these  may  practically  be  narrowed  down  to  thre< .  —  ■  .  hard 
wheat  of  Southern  Russia,  Italy,  Sicily,  Kgypt,  the  BarbarN  'itat.  Chili, 
Peru,  and  other  warm  coimtries ;  the  so-called  Polish  whe?i  a  cl  liie  soft 
wheat  of  Northern  Russia,  France,  England,  and  North  Am>.iiC,T  The  hard 
wheats,  it  may  be  remarked,  possess  rather  more  of  gluten  than  the  other 
varieties ;  while  the  soft  wheats  abound  rather  in  starch. 

The  Egyptians  were  not  only  among  the  most  famous  of  ancient  agricul- 
turists, but  they  also  de\'ised  a  method  of  preserving  grain  which  has  never 
yet  been  excelled ;  namely,  placing  it  in  stone  depositories  her-    cuUivation 
metically  sealed.     Many  eminent  historians  have  taken  the  mam-   of  wheat  in 
moth   Pyramids  of  that  land  for  granaries ;    but,   besides  these,      ^^''*" 
they  are  known  to  have  had  other  huge  receptacles  in  which  they  stored  grain 
for  years  at  a  time. 

The  Israelites  were  educated  in  the  arts  of  husbandry  during  their  bond- 
age to  the  Pharaohs,  and  practised  them  extensively  in  later  da)'s  ;  and  the 
Bible  contains  many  beautiful  references  to  the  wheatf.elds  of  Palestine. 

Without  dwelling  further  u])on  the  ancient  history  of  this  precious  grain, 
we  proceed  to  consider  its  introduction  to  and  culture  in  our  own  country. 
Cereal  grasses  were  found  under  cultivation  in  Mexico  by  Covtez  in  1530; 
but  European  wheat  was  introduced  there  l)y  accident ;  one  of  the  Spaniards 
finding  a  few  grains  mixed  with  his  rice,  which  he  carefully  sorted    ^    , 

•'  Early 

out,  and  planted.     Thus,  in  time,  the  newly-brought  grain  was  scat-   cultivation 
tered  about  the  Spanish-American  colonies,  and  finally  spread  into   °^  wheat  in 
territory  now  belonging  to  the  United  States.     Wheat  was  neces- 
sarily sown  by  the  earliest  English  colonists  of  Uiis  country  almost  immedi- 
ately upon  their  arrival :  indeed,  C lOsnold  is  said  to  have  planted  it  on  the 
Elizabeth  Islands,  off  Massachusetts,  as  early  as   1602.     For  a  time,  Virginia 
gave  much  attention  to  its  cultivation  ;  and  in  1648  several  hundred  acres  in 

•  In  The  Vear-Bo'-'.  ,„'  Agriculture  for  1856  the  editor  mentions  snme  curious  facts  which  had  recently  been 
laid  before  the  French  Academy,  relative  l.i  the  transformation  of  two  grasses,  —  ,-j?^//,i/>j  (niata  and  /Egilots 
triarihtrata.  A  gardener  named  Esprit  I'abrc  of  Adge,  France,  by  seven  years  experimenting  found  he  could 
develop  from  these  two  grasses  all  or  the  greater  number  of  our  species  of  wheat.  A  savage  plant,  under  culti- 
vation, was  thus  made  10  change  its  entire  aspect  and  figure,  and  gradually  assume  a  new  character. 


d^ 


64 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


:; 


n 


i  ;,« 


that  colony  were  sown  with  wheat.  But  the  more  profitable  tobacco-crop 
soon  supi)lantc(l  it ;  and  fur  nearly  a  century  scarcely  any  was  raised,  even 
though  the  colonial  authorities  offered  a  premium  thereon.  Since  the  Revj- 
lulion,  however,  this  branch  of  agriculture  has  revived  ;  and  Virginia  raises  a 
good  wheat-crop.  In  New  England,  wheat  was  grown  rather  assiduously  until 
about  1662,  when,  for  four  successive  years,  the  blast  and  mildew  damaged  the 
crop  to  such  an  extent  as  to  greatly  discourage  those  who  raised  it ;  and  so 
the  colonists  fell  back  again  on  corn  and  potatoes,  to  which  they  have  given 


EGYJTIAN  GKANARV. 


great  attention,  even  down  to  the  present  time.  Colonial  subsidies  to 
wheat-growers  in  those  days  stimulated  them  but  very  little,  the  failure  of 
their  crops  more  than  offsetting  such  encouragement.  Wheat  was  grown  in 
New  England  somewhat  more  generally  in  the  early  part  of  the  present 
century ;  but  the  wearing-out  of  the  soil,  and  other  causes,  led  to  its  neglect. 
Vigorous  efforts  have  been  made  to  revive  the  industry,  but  without  success. 
During  the  last  century  consideral)le  wheat  was  grown  in  the  Hudson  an<' 
Mohawk  River  \alleys  of  New  York,  and  in  New  Jersey  and  Pennsylvania. 
In  1750  New  Jersey  produced  more  wheat  tnan  any  other  of  our  colonies; 


111 


IP  :  •; 


OF    TIIF.     rXlTKD    STATES. 


65 


cco-crop 
ictl,  even 
he  Rt-o- 
1  raises  a 
jusly  until 
iiaged  the 
t ;  and  so 
have  given 


kkd 


I    subsidies    to 
Idie  failure  of 
,was  grown  in 
if  the   present 
[to  its  neglect, 
lithout  success. 
Hudson  and 
Pennsylvania, 
our  colonies; 


and,  long  l)cforc  that  date,  wheat  and  wheat-flour  were  exported  from  New 
York  and  I'hiladelphia.  .\fter  the  Revolution,  Western  New  York  gradually 
<anie  to  he  settled  ;  and  it  is  now  a  particularly  pro(lu(  live  region,  although 
tlu'  impoverishing  of  the  soil  niakes  a  flight  decline  in  the  culture  of  the 
wlieat  there. 

Writing  nearly  twenty  years  ago,  when  the  enormous  development  of 
wheat-culture  in  the  Western  .States  had  not  been  attained,  Klippart  said, 
*' 'l"he  States  south  of  North  Carolina,  or,  say,  latitutle  tliirtv-three    „,. 

-^  -  Klippart  s 

liegrees,  never  have  been  and  never  will  be  wheat-growing  States,  opinion  upon 
Kentucky,  Tennessee,  and  Missouri  are  best  adapted  to  corn  ;  and    B''°w"e 

•'  '  '  wheat. 

wheat  can  never  be  regarded  as  the  great  staple  of  either.     Cotton 
is    the    great    staple    of  Tennessee  ;    hemp    antl    tobacco,    of   Kentucky  and 
Missouri.     Kentucky,  and    Missouri  too,  are  unsurpassed  as  grazing-sections 
and  for  raising  stock;  and  there  is  no  reason  to  suppose  that  they  will  change 
the  agriculture  best  suited  to  their  conditions  for  wheat-culture." 

The  census  of  i860  and  of  1S70  verilv  these  pre(Hctions  won-   „,. 

'  '  '  Klippart's 

derfully  ;  although  the  wheat-map  given  in  connection  with  the  last   opinion  veri- 

national  census  shows  an  area  where  some  wheat  is  cultivated  in    fic^  by  cen- 
sus. 
North-western  South  Carolina,  and  Northern  ( leorgia  and  Alabama. 

Klippart  furthermore  says,  in  the  same  connection,  "  It  is  a  melancholy 

trtith,  and  one  thai  rellects  much   on   the   skill   and   foresight  of  American 

farmers,  that,  while  tlie  wheat-crop  of  Juigland  has  increased '  at  least  fifty  i)er 

cent  in  the  last  centurv,  that  of  the  United  States  has  fallen  off  in   „,  , 

-  '  Change  of 

nearly  the  .same  proportion.     A  century  ago.  New   ICngland,  Dela-    wheat-pro- 
ware.-'  and  Virtrinia  raised  an  ordinary  croi) :  now  a  wheallield  is  a   ^""^'"e 

^  '  region. 

rarity  in  those  States,  and  they  may  be   regarded  as   no  Icjnger 
Avheat-producing  regions.     Portions  of  New  York  that  formerly  produced  thirty 
bushels    to    the    acre    now    seldom    average    over  eight    Inishels ;    and   ( )hio, 
new  as  she  is  (in  i.SOo),  with  her  viri^in  soil,  does  not   vield   thir-    r„„=»„„-r,^. 

^  ' '  n  •  .'  Consequence 

teen  bushels  to  the  acre.  If  we  go  on  as  we  have  for  the  i)ast  of  change 
century,  from  l)ad  to  worse,  in  our  tillage,  the  lands  in  Ohio,  in  '^•""""^*- 
half  a  century  from  this  time,  will  not  produce  wheat  enough  to  supply  our 
own  wants.  It  is  less  than  that  time  since  Vermont  was  a  great  wheat-export- 
ing State  :  now  she  does  not  export  a  bushel,  but  imports  at  least  two-thirds  of 
all  the  (lour  consumed  in  that  State.  Instead  of  increasing  the  productiveness 
of  our  wheat-land,  as  is  done  in  ICngland,  our  wheat-region  is  diminished  more 
than  (jne-half,  and  the  productive  (juality  of  what  is  still  used  has  diminished 
in  e(iual  i)roportion." 

'  The  writer  evidently  docs  not  mc.in  increase  in  the  aggregate  yield,  but  increase  in  proportion  to  acreage 
anil  iKipi.lation.  Perhaps  he  uses  some  such  basis  of  calculation  as  that  employed  by  the  commissioner  of  the 
l  nited-States  census  for  1870  in  his  crop  maps.  By  him  the  number  of  bushels,  tons,  or  pounds,  produced  in 
each  county,  is  divided  separately,  first  by  the  number  of  inh.abilants,  and  then  by  the  number  of  acres  of  im- 
proved land;   the  two  quotients  tluis  oblaincil  are  multiplied  together,  and  the  scpiare  root  taken  of  the  result. 

-  This  is  less  true  to-day  of  Delaware  than  the  other  sections  named.  It  certainly  is  not  true  of  Maryland 
and  Peunsvlvania. 


h 


\  I 


?  ill ' 

'  Ills 


11  : 


66 


/^Vn ( '.V  7A'/.  /  /,    //AS'  7  (M-  K 


WIic'IIkt  or  not  tlu'se  lii^nibrioiis  predictions  will  nhini.itfly  prove  true,  it 
is  impossible  to  say.  In  the  <  oniliidin),'  para^'rapli  of  this  i  iiapter  we  siiow 
Wheatcui-  ^^''M  '''^'V  '"'*^'  ""^  '"  '"'  '*<-''''-''vc'il  witli  the  utmost  eonlulence.  Hut 
tiire  moving  ilijs  iiuK  ii  is  ( irtaiu  ;  witliin  the  past  thirty  years  the  star  of  empire 
westward.  in  \vlieat-pro(hi(tion  has  muved  rapidly  westward  :  and  the  coun- 
try has  rapidly  im  rcased  its  wheat-production,  even  out  of  proportion  to  the 
increase  of  population.  'I'hus  in  1S50  I'ennsylvania  was  the  larj,'est  wheat- 
pro(lu(  iu},'  State  in  the  Union,  Ohio  second,  New  York  third,  and  V'ir^unia 
fourth.  l''or  tlu'  nc\t  decade,  ( )hio  held  the  lead.'  In  1S60  Illinois  was  first, 
Indiana  siMond,  Wisconsin  third,  Ohio  ftjiirth,  Virj^inia  fifth,  I'euiisylvauia 
sixth,  and  New  \'ork  seventh,  with  Iowa  au<l  Michigan  a  (lose  c'i|;luh  and 
ninth.  In  1.S70  Pennsylvania  had  sunk  to  the  seventh  rank,  with  Virginia  and 
New  York  still  lower  ;  and  to-day  they  rale  still  farther  down  the  list.  In  1S50 
Maryland  produced  as  much  as  either  Michigan  or  Wisconsin  :  now  eat  h  of 
those  States  yields  from  lour  to  si,\  times  as  much  as  then,  while  Maryland's 
production  has  scarcely  changed. 

The  United-States  commissioner  of  agriculture  brings  out  this  Western 
movement  forcibly  in  his  report  for  i<S76.  He  says,  "  Not  only  is  the  volume 
of  wheat  to-(lay  more  tlian  threefold  greater  than  twenty-eight  years  ago,  but  the 
incn'a.u'  of  that  portion  of  it  grown  west  of  the  Mississipj)!  River  is 
greater  than  the  entire  crop  of  1849.  Five  jjer  cent  only  was  then 
produced  west  of  the  Mississippi  River;  and  in  i(S76,  a  year  of 
comparative  failure  in  the  North-West,  it  was  forty  i)er  cent. 
Dividing  the  country  into  three  sections,  —  tiie  first  including  the 
Atlantic-coast  States,  with  Pennsylvania,  and  the  Virginias  to  the  Ohio  River, 
and  the  second  and  third  separated  by  the  Mississippi  River,  —  we  find  more 
than  half  the  wheat  grown  in  the  first  in  1849,  the  percentages  in  each  secti.Mi 
changing  rapidly,  as  follows  :  — 


Wheat 
grown  west 
of  the  Mis- 
sissippi 
River. 


Atlantic  Coast 
Central  licit  . 
'rran.s-Mis.si.s>i])i)l  licit 


-    - • ■ — 

--    - 

—  

— 

-  _ — 

SECTION. 

1849. 

1859. 

1869. 

1876. 

5  ■•4 

.307 

20 

19.6 



43-3 

54.6 

49 

40.S 

clt 

5-3 

147 

3' 

39-6 

"  The  first  .section  has  now  a  little  more  than  one-third  o\  its  former  pro- 
portion ;  even  the  second,  which  was  swept  with  so  heavy  a  wave;  of  immigra- 
Proportions  ^'*'"  ''^  ''^'-'  '"'^'^  decennial  period,  exhibits  a  declining  i)ercentage  ; 
between  the  while  tlic  iliird  lias  eight  times  its  former  ])romiiU'n(e,  even  in  a 
year  of  low  production  of  spring  wheat,  and  promises  to  make  the 
[)roportion  nine  to  one  in  1877.     A  few  years  more  will  find  a  preponderating: 

'  IViinsylvania  \v;is  rcliirntd  as  yii:l(Jiun  15, 367,691  Iniiliuls  of  wliuat  in  tlic  .xmisu-.  of  1850,3111!  Oliio  .h 
only  ii;... (87,351.  Tiiis  was  rc.illy  tin  i.rKp  of  iS.(ci.  (Jljlo  prodiicci'.  28.70.1,1  ly  liiislu.'l ;  iif  wheat  in  1850, —  i 
tic:nLni.luii    lean  t.i  t!iO  li-'nt. 


J 


(>/•     77/A    UNlTHIi    STATES. 


67 


L'  true,  it 

nrc.     Hut 
of  empire 
ihc  loun- 
ii,n  ti)  tlu' 
rest  whc.vt- 
u\  Virniniii 
is  was  first, 
cnnsylvania 
cinlUli  and 
;ir(;iniiv  ami 
St.    lniH5'> 
low  ea(  1^  of 
;  Maryland's 

lliis  Western 
s  the  volume 
•s  ago,  but  the 
^sin\)i  Kivcr  is 
only  was  then 
S76,  a  year  of 
)rty  per   cent. 
incUuling  the 
,.  Ohio   River, 
wc  fmd  niore 
1  each  secti.^n 


1876. 


86.5. 

|20 

I49 


I  US  former  pro- 

,^.  of  immisra- 

[ng  percentage  ; 

Ince,  even  in  a 

s  to  make  thr 

preponderalin;:, 

,,,•    ,850,  LUU\    Ohio    .1; 

,1-  wlu-.>i  ill  I85'^■~  ' 


■| 


■I 


weight  of  wheat  produi  lion  licyond  the  '  leather  of  Waters.'     Comparing  rela- 
tive <|uaiuitics.  rather  than   proportions  of  the  crop,  we  find  that  tl>e   Atlantic 
(oast  has  iield  its  own  and  little  more  :   the  ( entral  belt  produces  three  tiints 
as  much  ;  liie  trans- Mississiitpi  bell,  more  lluui  twenty  limes  as  much.     'The 
figiues  are  as  follows  :  — 


HKCriON, 

Atlantic  (,'f)ast 
(ciilr.il  licit      . 
Trans-Mississippi  Hell 

Total  . 


.8,.;. 

51,657,020 

43,522,646 

5.300,278 

100,485,944 


iB^cj. 


53.294. '37 
94,458,609 

-5.352.  •?« 


t73,ioi,924 


57.47^37' 
140,877,070 

«9.392,i8s 
287,745,626 


iflyft. 

56,489,500 
I  18,122,000 
n4,74S,ooo 

2H3S6.S00" 


Croji  of  1877. 


Tf  the  exact  distribution  of  the  crop  of  1877,  arnotmting  to  three  himdred 
and  sixty  millions    of    busheU,  could    be    giveii,   we  unagine  the 
change  would  appear  even  more  marked  than  in  these  ligures  of 
the  commissioner. 

The  jjopulation  of  this  coimtry,  for  the  years  1850,  i860,  1870,  atid  1877. 
was  in  the  almost  exact  ratio,  res[)cctively,  of  three,  four,  five,  Ratiooipro- 
and  six;'  but  the  aggregate  wheal-i)rodu{'tion  of  those  years  was  auction  to 
in  the  ratio  of  four,  seven,  eleven  anil  a  half,  and  tourteen  and  .1  *'°''" 
half.-'  As  the  increase  from  1840  to  1850  was  only  fifteen  per  cent, —  scarcely 
e(|ual  to  the  increase  in  i)opulation.  —  it  is  easy  to  see  when  the  new  impulse 
began  lo  be  felt. 

We  now  ( ome  to  consider  some  of  the  causes  of  the  marked  development 
of  this  department  of  American  agriculture.  'l"he  first  of  them  was  the  rapid 
occupation"  of  the  prairie-land  in  the  Ohio  and  Up[jer-Mississippi  Valleys  by 
emigrants  from  the   I'lastern  States,  and   from  Oermany,  Scandi-    _ 

_  -"  Causes  of 

navia,  and  other  countries  of  Mnrope,  toward  the  middle  of  this    development 
centurv.     Another  was  the  remarkable  adaptabllitv  of  liie  soil  and    °*  wheat- 

■  culture. 

climate  of  that  sc      on  to  wheat-growing.*     Still  another  was  the 
famine  in  Ireland  in   '847,  whieli  made  an  untisual  foreign  demand  for  Ameri- 
can (ereals.      Still  another  was  the   development  of  the  railroad*  system  in 

'  'I'lic  exact  figures  are,  23,i<yi,876,  31,443,321,  38,558,371,  niul  .-ibout  4-,,ooo,c()<>. 

-  'I'lic  fi.i;iires  arc,  i«\485,94t  liiisliuls,  173,104,924,  287,745,626,  rinil  iihoiit  36o,ooo,ix». 

■■'  \V  lilli;  cniigralioii  iMdiiidtcil  wliiMl-ciiliiire  and  exportation,  the  wlieat-ijiterost,  in  turn,  built  i.).  ,.il!rs. 
I'nr  iweiily  years  Chicago  lias  been  the  greatest  grain-d<ipot  of  llic  world,  linffalo  was  likewise  biii't  i  p  ly 
I  lie  u  rain-trade. 

■•  James  Caird,  an  Knglisliman,  having  travelled  through  Illinois  in  1858,  lemarkeil  upon  the  fettiHiy  ;)f  its 
soil  in  Ins  writings.  He  .iltribiited  it  largely  to  the  luxurious  growth  of  grass  on  the  prairies,  whiiii  iicing 
litirned  by  the  Indians  or  whites,  year  after  year  for  centuries,  deposited  a  great  wealth  of  ashes.  J!e  KxiW 
several  samples  of  the  soil  to  Pmf.  Voelckur,  consulting  chemist  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society  of  Knglarid. 
w!io  said,  "  I  have  never  before  .malyzed  soils  which  contained  so  much  nitrogen;  nor  ilo  I  find  any  soils  n.  di-r 
in  nitrogen  than  these." 

•'•  The   railroail  companies,  by  advertisement    a.iid  by  selling  lands   at   low  figures,  did   much   to  prom-jte 

'  MiiL'r.ilion. 


osBassBum 


iBu 


II 


I  3  H^f 


IND  US  TK I A  L    HIS  TOR  Y 


those  States,  and  the  ronstruction  of  the  Erie  Canal,  which  opened  up 
ami)Ie  OiciHties  for  transportation  eastward.  lUit  more  than  any  of  these 
other  influences,  perhaps,  the  improvement  of  agricultural  implements  (Ijy 
Yankee  ingenuity)  gave  impetus  to  \viieat-(  ulture.  l'>lse\vhere  we  have  con- 
sidered this  matter ;  and  of  the  improvement  in  the  plough  early  in  this 
century,  and  of  the  invention  of  the  threshing-machine  in  place  of  the 
poetic  but  feebly-efficient  old  Hail,  we  need  not  here  remark.  lUit  what  Mr. 
Charles  L.  Flint  says  of  the  reaper  bears  immediately  ui)on  the  subject. 
He  remarks,  — 

"  The  sickle,  which  was  in  alaiost  universal  use  until  a  very  recent  date, 
is    undoubtediv    one    oi    the    most    ancient    of    all    our    farming-implements. 

Reaping  by  the  use  of  it  was  always  slow 
and  lal)orious :  while,  from  the  fact  that 
many  of  our  grains  would  rip^cn  at  tlie  same 
time,  there  was  a  liability  to  loss  before  they 
could  be  gathered ;  and  practically  there 
Quotation  was  a  uHich  greater  loss  from 
from  Flint,  ^j^j^  causc  than  there  is  at  the 
present  time.  It  is  not,  therefore,  too  much 
to  say,  that  the  successful  introduction  of  the 
reaper  into  the  grainfields  of  this  country 
has  added  millions  of  dollars  to  the  value  of 
our  annual  han'ests,  by  enabling  us  to  se- 
cure the  whole  product,  and  to  enlarge  the 
area  of  our  wheatfields,  with  a  certainty  of 
being  able  to  gather  the  crop.  NoUiing 
was  more  sur[>rising  to  the  mercantile  com- 
munity of  iMu^pt:  than  the  fact  that  we 
could  continue  to  export  such  vast  ([uanti- 
ties  of  wheat  and  other  breadstuffs  through 
the  midst  of  the  late  Rebcllio'i,  with  a  mil- 
lion or  two  of  able-bodied  men  in  arms. 
.  .  .  The  number  of  two  -  horse  reapers 
in  operation  throughout  the  country  in  the 
harvest  of  1861  performed  an  amount  of 
work  equal  to  about  a  million  of  men." 

Probably  ti'.e  numl)er  of  these  machines  used  in  the  sununer  of  1877  was  more 
than  three  hundred  thousand,  —  e(|uivalent  to  at  least  five  '  '  'lions  of  men. 

'Ihe  exportation  of  wheat  and  wheat-flour  tVom  thi-  country  was  a  large 
Exportation  husiucss  ]:rior  to  the  Revolutionary  war  and  for  twenty-five  years 
01  wheat  and  subse(]uently.  In  1 79 1  we  sent  abroad  619,681  barrels  of  flour 
"^  ^  ■  °"  •  ;i.-4  1,018,339  bushels  of  wheat :  this  was  equivalent  to  a  trifle  over 
4,000,000  bushels.     What  proportion  of  our  total  product  this  was,  we  cannot 


onc- 

;ind 

th;ii 

it  a< 

ci'op 

e.vpoi 

\\\ 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


69 


i;d    up 
these 

lis  (!)>• 
c   eon- 
in   this 
of   the 
lat  Mr. 
suV)jecl. 

;nt  (late, 

lemenls. 

ays  slow 

fad   that 

the  same 

:fore  they 

illy  there 

loss   from 
is  at  the 

too  much 

tion  of  the 

is  country 

■le  value  of 
lis  to  se- 

nlarge   the 

ortainty  of 
Nothinii 
ntile  com- 
■t   that  we 
ast  quanti- 
ffs  through 
dlh  a  mil- 
in    arms. 
•se    reai)crs 
btry  in   the 
[amomit  of 

was  more 
|of  men. 
L-as  a  large 
ly-five  years 
[els  of  Hour 
la  trifle  over 

wc  cannot 


say.  The  quantity  has  steadily  increased  in  a  larger  proportion  than  the 
yield,  just  as  the  yield  has  increased  in  larger  proportion  than  the  population. 
For  the  five  years  ending  1845,  '^'''^  average  exportation  was  hut  7,000,000 
bushels,  including  Hour.  This  was  a  comparatively  slow  increase.  I'Voni 
that  i)oint  it  was  more  rapid,  partly  owing  to  the  start  given  by  the  Iri^,h 
famine.  For  the  next  (\\<i  years,  the  average  was  over  14,000,000  ;  and,  as 
the  <  rop  of  i<S49'\vas  100,485,941  bushels,  it  will  be  seen  that  our  exports 
amounted  to  about  (jne-seventh  of  the  yield.  The  Crimean  war,  by  reducing 
Russia's  production,  stinuilaled  our  export  of  wheat.  During  our  own  <  i\il 
war,  the  Southern  market  being  c  ut  off  and  our  supply  steadily  increasing,  we 
exixiited  abnormally,  the  pro[)ortion  to  the  whole  crop  being  something  like 


TIlKliSHING   WliKAT. 

one-fifth.  Our  average  <  rop  for  the  years  1870-74  was  261,015.920  bushels; 
and  the  average  exportation  6 1,5  79. s  1  7,  or  nearly  one-fourth,  '['he  export  of 
that  year  was  slightly  abnormal,  owing  to  the  fiiilure  ol  foreign  crops.  In  1874 
it  aggre,^ated  9f. 5  10.408  bushels  ;  but  in  1875  it  was  only  72,802,605.  The 
crop  of  1877  was,  in  roimd  nnnilKTs.  ,:;6o.ooo.ooo  bushels:  and  liie  estimated 
exports  \ery  nearly  a  third  thereof.- 

In  his  report  for  1868,  tin-  United-States  commissioner  of  agricidturc  says. 

'  Census  of iS^o. 

■'  The  ,  o,„,„issinner  of  ngria.ltiire,  in  his  report  for  1876,  s.-.ys,  ll.,-,t,  in  o,.r  exports  of  wlie.it  Mn<I  flonr.  ihc 
ten.lenry  ,s  to  sen.l  less  tlonr,  nnr!  more  grain.  Fifty  ycnrs  .-.go,  flour  ronstitmcd  nearly  the  whole  of  o„r  wheat 
export :  hut  u,  ,870  ,t  was  hut  little  over  one-fourth  of  the  whole,  either  in  value  or  quantity.  A  spe,  iai  „  ason 
tor  this  ,s  fouua  u>  the  ue.-essity  for  Kivinu'  every  possihle  seopo  to  industrial  pro.lurtiou  in  Kurope.  The 
n„  rr,,s,  ^.  ,ost  of  Rratn-pro.luction  in  Fatrope,  on  the  one  han.l,  an.l  the  improvenuut  in  traitsa.lanlie  transpor- 
tattoa.on  the  other  «ave  .0  the  ,nilh„«  interest,  espe,  iaily  ,n  KuK-lan,!  an.l  Fr.mee,  a  n.ar(.in  of  profit  in  ^-rin.ling 
Aiiieriran  Kiam,  which  seeured  to  that  interest  an  eu.unious  .levelopnient. 


ti  i 


IND  CS  TRIA  f.    ///.S  7'0/s:  V 

growing  grain  for  exportation,  except  as  a  pioneer  expedient 
Ascendency  ''^  opening  and  improving  farms,  is  not  to  be  commended.  No 
over  other  material  portion  of  our  i'\])orts  can  ever  be  made  up  of  breadstuffs, 
countries.  „or  is  it  desirable  that  this  should  l)e."  But  since  then  our  produc- 
tion and  exportation  of  cereals  have  rapidly  increased  ;  while  die  ex])()rlation  of 
cotton,  with  which  he  made  compari.son,  has  decidedly  decreaseti.  Our  ex])orts 
of  cotton  in  1868  were  worth  ^152,820,733  ;  of  wheat  and  flour.  851,135,430  ; 
and  of  ail  breadstuffs,  ,'>79,o4(),  187.  In  1875  our  cotton  exports  amounted  to 
only  about  $175,000,000  ;  while  wheat  and  wheal-flour  amounted  to  .^83,31  7,- 
937  >  <'orn,  to  $25,747,470  more  ;  and  ih^se,  with  other  breadstuffs.  to  about 
#125,000,000.  C^otton  increased  only  about  one-sixth,  and  <-ereals  a])out  one- 
half,  in  the  interval.  When  we  consider  that  Russia  and  the  I'niled  States 
furnish  those  countries  of  liie  world  which  cannot  raise  wheat  enough  for 
themselves  with  three-ipiarlers  or  more  of  the  surjilus  in  the  proilucing  coun- 
tries ;  that  the  United  States  now  exjiort  nearly  twice  what  Russia  does  ;  that, 
notwithstanding  Russia's  recent  introduction  of  imi)roved  agricultural  imple- 
ments, we  are  likely  to  maiiitain  the  same  ascendency  over  her  as  regards 
))roduction,  —  we  see  that  our  wheat-ex])ortation  promises  to  continue  a  lead- 
ing industry  for  many  years  to  come.  'I'his  will  further  appear  on  the  consid- 
eration of  two  or  three  other  promising  features  of  the  history  of  wheat-culture 
in  America. 

Although  the  wheat-crop  is  susceptible  to  many  hurtful  influences,  —  such 
as  rust,  l)last,  smut,  the  wheat-fly,  weevil,  chinch-bug,  grasshopper,  winter-killing 
Injurious i'-  '''^"^  exposurc  to  frost,  and  the  bloving  and  lodging  from  heavy 
sects,  grass-  galcs,  —  yct  these  influences  have  thus  far  proved  local,  and  have 
hoppers,  &c.  ^(.greely  affected  the  total  production  of  the  country  at  any  time. 
The  New-England  blights  of  1662-65,  though  discouraging,  were  limited.  The 
grasshopi)er  depredations  of  1875  and  1876,  in  Minnesota,  Nebraska,  Iowa, 
Kansas,  Missouri,  Illinois,  and  Wisconsin,  were  very  serious  in  their  effects 
upon  the  farmers  temporarily  ;  and  yet  the  effect  on  the  total  yield  of  the 
country,  or  die  price  of  flour  in  the  East,  inasmuch  as  we  had  some  of  1874's 
wheat  left  on  hand,  was  to  lessen  but  slightly  our  exportation.  In  1877  the 
pest  had  nearly  disai)i)eared  ;  and.  by  planting  an  extra  area,  we  more'  than 
made  up  the  loss. 

The  wars  of  in(lej)endence  and  of  1S12-14  temporarily  impaired  our 
])roduct  and  exportation  ;  but  the  war  with  Mexico  in  1847-48,  and 
the  late  civil  war,  did  not  interfere  perceptibly.  Cireat  Britain  is 
now  so  dependi  lit  u])on  us  for  bread,  that  she  can  scarcely  go  to 
war  with  us  again  under  any  circumstances  :  so  we  are  safe  in  thai 


Effect  of 
wars  upon 
production 
of  wheat. 


re  I 


;ard. 


'  Tiic  cToj>  of  187:;  \v;is  not  iiior"  'li.ui  two  jicr  cent  bcluw  llic  average,  ami  lliat  of  1876  not  iiuire  tliaii  lluc'' 
iK-r  cent,  — riboul  eleven  million  bushels  shorl.  T)]-:  crop  of  1S77  was  twenty  yier  cent  above  the  average,  an) 
fifty  million  bushels  more  tHan  any  previous  yii;l  !. 


.J« 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


71 


.expedient 
led.     No 

ivadNUiffs, 
iv  pnxluc- 
)rtation  of 
nil"  c'\l)orts 

1.135-4;/^; 
lounlcd  to 

s,  to  about 
about  one- 
lilcd  States 
L'no\i,^V\  for 
(icing  coun- 
docs  ;  that, 
Itural  imple- 
r  as   regards 
linue  a  Icad- 
1  the  consid- 
ivheat-culture 


Mices, 


—  such 


winter-killing 
ly  from  heavy 
cal.  and  have 
It  any  time. 
Ilimited.     'H^^' 
In-aska,  Iowa, 
li  iheir  effects 
vicld  of   the 
)ine  of  1H74  s 
In    1.S77  the 
ic  more 


'  tlian 


impaired    our 

1847-48.'"^'' 

Iveat  Britain  i^^ 

.scarcely  go  to 

Le  safe  in  thai 


I  not  inor*-'  i''^"  '''"''' 
|,vc  the  average,  an  1 


'^y 


1   ■    - 

^i  ^  I  ill 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


Within  ten  or  fifteen  years  the  centre  of  wheat-production  has  moved  west 
of  the  Mississippi  River.  Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois,  Wisconsin,  and  Michigan 
Future  pro-  ^ccp  steadily  increasing  their  yields ;  while  Minnesota,  Iowa, 
auction  of  Nebraska,  and  Kansas  have  each  a  still  greater  development  yet 
wheat.  jj^  store.     Then,  too,   California  is  looming   uf)   tremendously  as 

a  wheat-growing  State.  In  1850  she  raised  but  1 7,325  bushels  ;  ten  years  later, 
5,928,470;  twenty  years  later,  16,676,702;  and  now,  upwards  of  30,000.000. 
If  not  so  alrcaily,  she  will  soon  be  the  largest  producer  of  wheat  in  the  Union, 
with  a  huge  latent  capacity  for  lurther  development.  Outside  of  the  States 
here  named,  there  is  comparatively  little  new  territory  which  we  can  devote  to 
the  culture  of  this  grain ;  yet  here  is  still  magnificent  promise,  and  one  which 
even  Russia  cannot  ecjual. 

We  have  already  alluded  to  Klippart's  gloomy  prophecies  as  to  the  failure 
of  our  wheat-production  through  impoverishment  of  the  soil.  The  expe- 
Restoring  rience  of  the  Atlantic  States,  however,  where  the  chemical  ele- 
exhausted  mcnts  of  the  soil  are  different  from  those  of  the  prairie-lands 
^°'  ^'  and  from  those  of  California,  offers  no  sure  analogy.      It  must  be 

admitted  that  Ohio,  which  in  1859  yielded  over  thirteen  bushels  to  the  acre, 
now  produces  but  nine  bushels  and  a  half;  yet,  within  a  icw  pages  of  these 
same  dark  auguries,  Klippart  points  out  the  ability  of  American  husbandmen 
to  restore  the  fertility  of  the  soil  by  artificial  manures,  as  the  Englishmen  do, 
and  quotes  Mr.  Caird's  allusions  to  the  wheatfields  of  Lombardy,  which 
have  steadily  yielded  crops  for  two  thousand  years.  In  view  of  all  these  facts, 
we  fail  to  see  whv  America  is  likely  to  be  worse  off  than  her  principal  rival, 
Russia. 


i 

If! 

1;     i 

i 
i 


m 


ii\ 

'V\ 

ti(| 

ani 

in  I 

ha| 

chj 

ill 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


73 


ed  west 
[ichigan 
L,  Iowa, 
ncnt  yet 


CHAPTER  V. 


the  failure 
rhc   expe- 
niiical  ele- 
iralric-lands 
It  mvist  be 
.0  the  acre, 
r^-s  of  these 
husbandmen 
glishmen  do, 
wrdy,  which 
these  facts, 
■incipal  rival, 


CORN. 

INDIAN-CORN,  or  maize,  is  the  crop  which  this  country  produces  in  the 
largest  ([uantity  and  value,  and  v/hich  l;as  the  widest  acreage,  while  it  ranks 
next  to  wheat  among  our  agricu  cural  exports.  Thus  in  1875  we  raised 
292,136,000  bushels  of  wheat,  anv'  1,321,069,000  of  corn.  In  importance 
1877  the  corn-product  was  the  same  nearly,  while  wheat  had  of  com-crop. 
increased  to  360,000,000  bushels.  I.i  1875  t'"*^  value  of  our  corn-crop  was 
^555.445'93o;  of  wheat,  $294,580,990  ;  of  hay,  $342,203,445  ;  and  of  cotton, 
$272,936,400.  That  same  year  we  had  10,803,030  acres  yielding  cotton, 
23,507,964  yielding  hay,  26,381,5.2  yielding  wheat,  an-'  44,841,371  yielding 
corn.  Such  is  tiie  story  which  the  figures  tell  by  comparing  ihem.  Though 
used  almost  exclusively  among  the 
cereals  by  the  mass  of  the  Southern 
people  as  an  article  of  diet,  it  is  not 
so  exclusively  an  article  of  human 
food  in  the  United  States  as  wheat. 
It  is  fetl  to  horses  largely,  and  to  cattle, 
sheei),  and  poultry,  but  to  swine  more 
than  to  any  other  animal,  the  pork  of 
this  country  b-.-ing  largely  flittened  on 
this  grain.  Ti  stalks  of  this  grain, 
too,  make  more  nutritious  fodder  for 
live-stock  than  the  straw  of  any  other. 
There  is  also  a  perceptible  consump- 
tion of  corn  by  distillers  of  whiskey; 
and  at  times  it  has  been  so  plentiful 
in  some  of  the  Western  States,  that  it 
has  been  used  for  fuel.  It  was  much 
cheai)er.  its  heat  considered,  in  many 

kxa'ities,  in  1871,  than  coal  at  nine  dollars  a  ton;  and  it  was  thus  consumed 
in  large  (juantities,  although  fires  made  of  it  required  close  attention. 


COKN-SMri. 


IND  US  TRIA  L    HIS  TOR  Y 


Regarding  the  origin  of  this  particular  grain,  there  has  been  much  con- 
troversy.     It    has    been    claimed    as    a    j)urely  American    product,   all    other 


:  r 


Origin  of 
corn. 


countries  getting  it  from  the  New  World.  \Vhile,  however,  there 
can  be  no  doubt  that  it  was  indigenous  to  America,  it  cannot 
be  established  that  it  fast  made  its  appearance  in  tliis  country.  In  1204  the 
Marquis  of  jMontferrat  and  his  companions  brought  back  from  the  Orient  to 
Italy  a  grain  known  as  "  melica."  or  "  melaga,"  —  a  name  which  was  afterwards 
used  interchangeably  willi  that  of  the  real  maize,  and  led  to  the  sujjposition 
that  this  kind  of  corn  came  first  from  Asia.  The  name  "Turkish  corn," 
which  it  long  bore  in  luuope,  ga\e  rise  to  a  supposition  that  it  came  from 
Turkey's  Asiatic  possessions.  Neillier  of  these  theories  has  been  demon- 
strated, however.  1  Setter  evidence  of  the  fact  that  the  Old  World  had  this 
same  grain  under  cultivation  before  Columbus  discovered  y\mcrica  is  found 
in  the  fact  that  the  Chinese  historian,  J.i-chi-tchin,  speaks  of  a  plant  exactly 
corresponding  to  it  in  his  country  toward  the  middle  of  the  sixtec'nth  century. 
The  proverl)ial  sK)wness  of  that  people  in  introducing  new  ideas  and  institu- 
tions, the  shortness  of  the  interval,  and  the  inference  from  his  remarks  that 
the  crop  was  long  established,  incline  one  to  believe  that  they  leally  had  our 
Indian-corn  in  China  more  than  four  centuries  ago.  Indeed,  i')riental  trav- 
ellers incline  to  believe  that  it  has  been  cultivated  in  the  islands  of  the  Indian 
Archipelago  from  the  earliest  ages.  A  fact  of  still  more  decisive  character  is 
the  discovery  of  mai/.e  in  the  cerements  of  a  mummy  exhumed  at  Thebes, 
Egypt,  under  circumstances  leading  to  a  belief  that  it  was  two  or  three 
thousand  years  old. 

Nevertheless,  it  is  known  that  it  was  cultivated  on  this  continent  a  great 
many  centuries  ago.  Longfellow  embodies  in  his  "  Hiawatha  "  a  well-known 
_    ,.    ^     ,      legend  of  the  Ojibwavs  as  to  the  gift  of  maize  to  the  red  man 

Earliest  cul-  "  ■'  -  <^ 

tivation  of       by  thc  Great  S])irit.     The  Aztec  nations  of  Mexico  and  Central 
corn  in  America,  who  attained  a  high  civilization,  have   a  tradition  that 

America.  '^ 

the  Toltccs  introduced  the  culture  of  maize  into  this  country  in 
thc  seventh  century ;  but  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  it  was  already  com- 
mon with  the  natives  at  that  time,  and  that  the  Toltecs  merely  improved  the 
methoils  of  cultivation.  I'hc  Mexicans  had  a  deity  corresponding  to  the 
Cer&s  of  thc  Romans,  who  was  supjxosed  to  watch  o\'er  this  crop,  and  whom 
they  worshipped  accordingly,  Tlu  1,1  ain  was  raised  plenteously  from  Southern 
Chill  to  the  southern  part  of  Pennsylvania  when  luiropeans  first  visited  America. 
Parched  corn  was  the  great  vegetable  staple  of  Indian  diet. 

Corn  reciuires  k-s^  (  iiIun  alion  than  almost  any  other  food-cro])  in  this 
country,  altliough  it  is  aflectt'd  more  by  the  condition  of  the  season  than  some 
Mode  of  cu'-  others.  It  prefers  diy,  loamy  soils,  and  rich  bottom-lands,  to  wet. 
tivation.  jj^|.,j  el  ,y^      'I'hough  there  are  many  varieties   (some  growing  tn 

the  height  of  fifieen  or  sixteen  feet,  and  others  scarcely  above  one's  knee  ;  ami 
some  being  better  adapted  to  one  section  than  another,  there  being  variation. 


in 

I" 
la  I 


'N 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


n 


uch  con- 
all   other 
ivcr,  Ibcro 

it   cannot 
1204  the 

Orient  to 

afterwards 
svipposition 
kish  corn," 

came  from 
en   demon- 
rlil  had  this 
ca  is  found 
ilant  exactly 
nth  century. 

and  institu- 
remarks  that 
cally  had  our 
Oriental  trav- 
of  the  Indian 
•c  character  is 
ed  at  Thebes, 

two    or   three 

tinent  a  great 
a  well-known 
the  red  man 
and  Central 
tradition  that 
his  country  in 
already  corn- 
improved  the 
)onding  to  the 
rop,  and  whom 
from  Southern 
isited  America. 


,d-crop    ni 


this 


Hison  than  some 

L -lands,  to  wet. 

Ime  growing  t" 

^ne's  knee  ;  and 

being  variation. 


-.% 


also,  in  the  shape,  size,  and  color  of  the  kernel),  tlierc  arc  practically  hut  two 
kinds,  —  the  white  and  yellow, 


each  hcinu  (livuled  in 


no  tl 


le  nanl  and  sofi 


and 


one  or  another  is  culti\atcd  in  almost  c\cry  jiart  of  the    I'nitcd   Stales  where 
ctised  at  all.     From  these  various  causes,  the  first   emigrants 


agriculture  is  prac 

to  this  country  raised  it  extensively,  relying  upon  it  as  the  ])rin(  ipal  artit  !e  of 
food,  and  using  it,  also,  for  barter  and  export.  Later,  tl.e  crop  was  conibined 
with  i)Otatoes  or  I'umpkins,  or  'x)tli,  on  small  tracts  of  land  ;  and  the  three 
nourished  together  more  jirohpcviusly  than  any  one  of  tliem  would  with  any 
other  common  agricultural  product.  Thus  we  find  that  corn-culture  tbliowed 
the  whites  into  all  new  territory  which  tliey  occupied.  New  England  raised 
hut  comparatively  little  ;  but,  long  before  the  Revolution,  New  Jersey,  I'enn- 
sylvania,  and  Delaware  were  exporting  corn  cxtensi\ely,  Virginia  even  more  so, 
and  the  two  Carolinas  and  (jeorgia  also,  having  a  sur])lus  to  exchange  with 
Europe  Ibr  necessary  imi)orts.  The  aggregate  exjiort  of  tlie  colonies  in  1770 
was  578.349  bushels,  —  an  amount  more  than  once  e(|ualled  by  VirL,nnia  alone, 
before  the  Revolution. 

.\t  the  close  of  that  war,  for  a  time,  agriculture  in  this   country  made  little 
headway;  and  some  special  causes,  like  the  sudden  devc    ipmcnt    Effect  of 
of  cotton-culture  in  the  South,  mav  have  retarded  the  ijroi,^        ot    Revolution- 

,  ^  .  ^        ,  sry  war 

other  lines  of  agriculture.       From  these  various  causes,  \vc  find,    upon  corn- 
that  from   1 79 1,  when  we  exported  corn  and  meal  amounting  to    culture. 
about  2,064,936  bushels  of  grain,  there  was  a  gradual  decline  for  over  twenty 
years  in  the  export.     In  1800  it  amounted  to  2,032,435  bushels,  and  in  1810 
to  only  140.996. 

In  the  next  two  decades,  influences  of  a  stimulating  character  began  to 
operate  on  this  industry,  which  were  followed  up  by  others  during  succeeding 
years  ;  so  that  the  corn-crop  has  for  the   past  fifty  years   shown    , 

J  -  i  i  J    J  Increase 

rapid  increase.     In  1S25  the  Erie  Canal  was  opened,  giving  cheap   during  next 
transportation  to  ^\'cstern  crops.     Railroads  were  built  later,  i)en-    twenty 

'  years. 

etrating  all  the  more  prodiu-.tive  sections  of  the  ^^'est.     Emigra- 
tion  rapidly  increased.      I'arm-implements  greatly  improved,  although   these 
were  not  so  essential  to  corn  as  to  some  other  grains.     The  value  of  this  cereal 
for  fattening  cattle,  too,  began  to  be  realized  :   and  its  demand  for  this  use  was 
soon  vigorous.     From  184010  1850,  the  total  yield  increased  from  377,531.- 
875  bushels  to  592,071.104,  —a  gain  of  fifty-seven  ])er  cent,  while  population 
was   increasing  but  thirty-five  per  cent.     The   increase  of  wheat  during  this 
time  was  only  fifteen  percent.     ISy  iSOo  the   figures  had  grown  10838,792,- 
742,  —  an  advance  of  but  a  trifle  ov.r  fort\-one  ])ercent,  —  three-    increase 
(juarters  of  which  gain  was  in  the  Northern  States.     During  that    ^•""• 
decade  the  iK)])u!alion  increased  thirty-five  per  cent  as  before,  and  wjieat  had 
increased  ncady  seventy-five  per  cent.     In  1870  a  falling-off  was  noticeable,  the 
product  being  only  760,944,549  bushels.     This,  probably,  was  due  to  the  corn- 
lands  bcin"^  converted,  in  some  cases,  to  wheat-culture  ;  wliich.  how  ver,  is  not, 


.fm* 


i^--:£--»Sw<i:w\.iaami^  ^  « 


76 


LVD  rs  7'K  FA  r.    HIS  TORY 


%\  If  ill 


11  hi 


I 


I 


111  If 


ill  tlie  long  rin,  (luite  so  profitable.  To  continue  the  romparison  :  it  may  be 
remarked  that  the  itK  rease  in  population  during  tli;it  linie  was  but  a  triiie  over 
twenty-two  percent;  but  the  whea^-yield  rose  over  sixty  jjcr  (cnt.  In  1.S71 
corn  was  unusually  plenty  in  the  West,  and  so  cheap  as  t(j  be  used  for  fiiel. 
In  i(S75  the  ])ro(luct  was  1,321,000,000,  nearly  500,001), 000  of  which  gain  was 
elTected  wiliiin  the  last  year  of  the  five.  This  was  a  jump  of  nearly  seventy- 
li\e  ])er  ecu'  ;  while  wheal  was  increasing  but  two  or  three  per  cent,  and  the 
population  about  eighteen. 


couN-m  sKi:n. 


depresses 
the  price. 


It  is  noticeable,  however,  that  a  large  crop  of  cereals  or  (  otton  so  depresses 
the  price,  that  the  real  gain  is  but  slight  ;  and  a  re-action  usually  ensues, 
I  o,„„„j  1^     which  checks  the  production  for  a  year  or  two.     Thus.  desi)ile  the 

Large  yield  ■  ^  l 

increase  in  the  corn-production  from  1H74  to  i'S75  above  men- 
tioned, the  two  crops  were  marketed  respectively  for  $550,043,000 
and  $555,445,000.  The  yield  of  the  two  years  subse(]uent,  accordingly,  fell 
off  somewhat. 

The  export  of  corn  from  this  country  to  ]Mu-o])e  is  a  very  important  item 
of  our  trade.  (\iii>  and  corn-meal  make  \\\i  forty  ])er  cent  of  our  cereal 
Export  of  export.  We  have  already  remarked,  that  from  1791,  when  we 
'^°''"'  sent  abroad  2,064.936  bushels  of  corn,  there  was,  for  many  years, 

a  falling-off  in  the  export  of  that  commodity.  For  the  whole  five  years  end- 
ing i<S45,  the  total  I'xport,  including  c(jrn  reduced  to  meal,  was  but  8,005,005 
bushels,  —  an  average  of  less  than  in  1791.  liut  the  Irish  famine,  during  the 
next  half-decade,  made  a  trememlous  demand  ;  and  during  that  interval  the 
exports  aggregated  53,796,953  bushels,  or  over  10,000.000  bushels  a  year. 
With  the  termmation  of  that  famine  came  a  fi\lling-off  in  our  e\i)ort  ;  and  these 


-Top  of  1 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES, 


n 


ly  be 

over 

\S7i 

r  I'licl. 

n  was 

vcnty- 


|(lcpvosscs 
ensues, 

love  nun- 


o.o4;i 

linulv, 


,000 
fell 


l-tant  item 
1)111-  cereal 
when  Nve 
lany  years, 
Icars  end- 
Is, 00  5, 00  5 

luring  tU^' 
[lerval  the 
IS  a  yo^r- 
and  these 


Dependence 
of  other 


figures  were  not  paralleled  again  until  1865-70,  when  we  sent  abroad  53,413.- 
372  bushels.  During  tlie  next  five  years  we  sent  off  152.569.1  27  bushels, — 
an  average  of  over  30,000,000  a  year.  In  1S76  '  we  sent  50,910,532  bush  -Is, 
of  which  1,416,960  was  in  the  form  of  niea!.'- 

Curn  being  <  ullivated  in  but  small  (luantities  in  l'',uroi)e,  especially  outside 
of  iM-ance  and  Russia,  the  nations  of  that  section  of  the  globe  are  dei)endent 
<  hiefly  ujion  the  United  States  for  their  supply  ;  and  our  shii)ments 
to  Italy,  Sweden.  Denmark,  Holland,  Belgium,  and  l''rance.  are 
.slf.idily  increasing.  As  an  article  of  human  diet,  it  is  inferior  countries 
to  wheat :  nevertheless,  it  is  finding  constantly-increasing  ai)plicu-  sut^s""'*''' 
tions  as  such.  As  food  for  horses,  its  consumption  in  ("onti- 
nental  cities  is  also  rapidly  augmenting,  it  having  been  discovered  that  the 
inventing  of  money  in  corn  is  inorc  economical  than  the  purchase  of  oats. 
Tile  enormous  croj)  of  1875,  and  the  consequent  low  pri(-es,  led  Chicago 
parties  to  negotiate  with  I'ritish  stock-raisers  to  purchase  corn  for  fodder. 
l'"i-oin  llie  low  ])rices  and  freights  then  ]>revailing,  it  was  estimated  that  this  trade 
would  prove  profitable  to  both  countries.  Hut  the  movement  ])artly  defeated 
itself  bv  calling  out  supplies  of  grain  in  excess  of  a  normal  demand,  and, 
consecpiently,  by  cutting  down  prices  in  lOngland  below  tiie  calculated  mini- 
mum. Some  of  the  grain,  from  lack  of  care  in  shipment,  was  injured  by 
heating  in  ocean  transit,  causing  considerable  losses.  On  the  whole,  howe\er, 
it  is  estimated  that  tlie  profits  of  this  movement  more  than  counterbalanced 
its  losses.  This  was  one  of  the  causes  that  so  greatly  enlarged  the  export  of 
<'orn  during  tlie  fiscal  year  1876. 

In    1S62   the   commissioner  of  agriculture   remarked  that   the    _  .  . 

'^  Opinion  of 

export  of  corn  was  very  undesirable,  as  it  was  worth  more  to  this   commis- 
(oimtrvio  keeij  our  sui)plv  at   home,  have   low  prices,  and  fiitten   sioner  of 

'  '  '    -  ....  agriculture 

our  cattle   more  cheaply.     As  the  possibilities  of  our  product  are   concerning 
comparali\elv  unlimited,   such    solicitude    does    not    seem   to    be    export  of 

'  corn. 

lully  warranted. 

It  may  be  remarked,  that  corn  exhausts  our  lands  less  rapidly  than  wheat ; 
that  it  returns  more  handsome  profits  for  increased  caie  in  cultivation  than 
.some  other  crops  ;    and  that  careful   experiments  show  that   ex-    _ 

'  Corn  a  more 

hausted  land  may  be  renewed  with  artificial  manures  to  such  an    exhaustive 
extent  as  to   pay  immense  dividends  on  the   investment.     These    '^^°^  "^^" 

■  wheat. 

Kicts,  and  the  steady  increase  of  territory  devoted  to  the  produc- 
tion of  this  cer.;al,  make  the  outlook  for  the  future  of  the  industry  rather  more 
certain  and  bright  tlian  that  of  wheat-culture. 

•  Tliose  d.iti;s  arc  of  f  ■■,cai  years,  ending  June  30.  The  export  of  1876,  therefore,  is  re.nlly  b.ised  upon  tlie 
crop  of  ihi;  c.nlciid.ir  yc.ir  1875. 

-  As  ill  the  case  of  wheat,  the  tendency  in  our  corn-export  has  been  steadily  to  send  less  manufactured 
grain,  and  more  ungrouiid.  Thus,  during  the  five  years  ending  1830,  we  sent  abroad  3,530,710  bushels  of  corn 
unground,  and  3,133,632  in  the  fo'-n.  ^^  nn.ai_  In  1S76  the  corn  sent  abroad  as  meal  was  but  two  and  three, 
fuurths  per  cent  of  the  whole  quantity. 


■  t  >y ; 


I !  I 


f  f 


iiii 


78 


IXprsriUAI.    Jf/STOKY 


The  distri 
that   of  any 

Corn  more 
generally 
raised  than 
wheat. 


)f 


lltl 


throughout  ihi. 


untry  is  more  oven  than 
ottou,  tijljacfo,  hay,  aii<l  wlicat  arc  ea(  li 
Miort"  sectional  than  rorn.  However,  it  is  more  particularly  eon- 
fined  to  the  Ohio  and  Mississijjpi  Valleys.  Illiiioi.  ijroduce,  not 
oiih  more  than  .my  other  one  State,  but  more  than  all  the  ten 
cotton    States    together,  with    Maryland   and    the    two    Virginias; 

wliile  (Miio,  Indiana,  Illi- 
nois, Iowa,  Missouri,  and 
Kansas,  together,  produce 
two-thirds  ot'  the  wlioie  (roj) 
of  the  coimtry.  The  cul- 
ture of  corn,  however,  is 
more  evenly  distributed 
than  tliat  of  cotton,  sugar, 
and  tobacco  in  the  South- 
ern and  IJorder  States  ;  and 
the  jioiicy  of  raising  home- 
supplies  of  this  (  ereal  is 
coming  to  be  more  gener- 
ally pursued  there,  that 
section  having  suffered 
more  than  once  recently 
from  insufficient  food-sup- 
ply. New  I'aiglantl,  en- 
gaged in  manufacturing 
pursuits     rather    than      in 

agriculture,  does  almost  nothing  in  corn. 

Production  "'^^  ''^  ^'^^'  ^'^^'-'  ^^  wheat,  SO  with   maize,  there   is  a  westward 

moving  migration   of  the  centre  of  our  production,  as  will  be  apparent 

wes  war  .       {xo\\\  the  following  table  of  percentages  :  — 


iMiMiin  ni  i.iii>i-Mn.i.. 


SECTION. 


Atlantic-coa^'.  States 
Central  licit    . 
Traiis-Missis.iippi  Hclt 


1S49. 


30 
58 
12 


1859. 


24 

55 
21 


1869. 

1875. 

20 

14 

53 

51 

27 

35 

The  I'last  lias  declined  continuously  and  hopelessly;  the  centre  has  held 
a  determined  struggle,  yielding  only  inch  by  inch;  the  West  has  trotl  thi' 
track  of  destiny  with  accelerated  step. 

As  a  result  of  the  rapid  growth  and  the  geographical  location  of  tin' 
great  cornfields,  there  has   l)een  an  immense  growth  of  cities-     .d  railroads 


II !  '!■: 


OF    THE    (r XI TED    STATES. 


79 


1  Uuin 
each 
y  con- 
es not 
he  ten 
ginias ; 
,a,    l»i- 

rl,    iii^^l 
[)ro(huc 

ok'  irol) 
I'hc  cu\- 
,cvcr,    i>^ 
stribvited 
in,  sugar, 
K*  South- 
itcs  ;  and 
ng  home- 
(  creal   isi 
JVC  gcner- 
lAore,    that 

suffered 

c   recently 

fooil-Hup- 

gUmd,    en- 

nufactviring 

than     in 


ill  that  section  of  country  between  the  Ohio  and  the  (Ire, it  Fakes,  and  just 
west  of  tiu'   Mississi|)])i.     On  the  rivers  and   lal<(s,  cspeciall)  'he  latter,  ship- 
ping   has   grown    iniineiiscly.  to  carry  on   the  work  ot    transpi.r    ^  msequen- 
tation.      It  would   he  difticuk  to  say  exactly  how  much   of  this   cesot  ruising 

,    .  ,  .         .      I         .  •       ,  II  I      ^orn  upon 

m.iterial  wealth  ol    development  is  due  to  corn,  and  how  much   other  iiiUus- 
to  wiieat;  hut    the   division  woukl   give    lli      former   the    larger   triea  and 

1  ^.i  ■  •        I-  .1  ...     I  •    .  .       movementi. 

share.  Chicago  is,  ot  < ourse,  the  great  centre  ol  ilie  corn  interest ; 
hut  many  other  lake  and  interior  t.ities  are  the  product  of  this  industry.  So 
completely  «lci  ''iident,  too,  on  the  grain-transpurtai  on  business,  are  many  of 
the  Western  railroails,  that  their  sloe  ks  rise  an  fall  on  Wall  Street  will.  I'very 
(hiclualion  of  the  crops  and  the  demands  therefor.  Indeed,  to  corn,  more 
than  lo  ail)  other  one  agricultural  j)roduct  of  tlus  country,  do  w^.  owe  the 
expansion  of  our  material  prosperity. 


a  westward 
|)c  apparent 


1875. 
51 


h-c  has  hel<l 
luis  trod  tho 

lation  of  the 
,   d  railroa<l.^ 


4;;^^ 


:«.■  imk;' 


r- 


IMAGE  EVALUATION 
TEST  TARGET  (MT-3) 


/. 


y 


Ki 


me 


1.0 


I.I 


1.25 


li^m    |2.5 

|5o  ■^~     HHl 


ttlUi^ 


m 


^ 


^> 


c?3 


:^  > 


W 


V 


o 


/ 


Photographic 

Sciences 

Corporation 


73  WEST  MAIN  STREET 

WEBSTER,  N.Y.  14580 

(716)  872-4503 


^^    <^' 


80 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


CHAPTER  VI. 


SUGAR    AND    MOLASSES. 


SUGAR  and  molasses  are  among  those  agricultural  products  of  the  United 
States,  which,  in  amount,  fall  far  short  of  our  necessities,  rendering  a 
heavy  import  (chiefly  from  the  West  Indies)  requisite  to  supply  the  defi- 
Description  ^i^^i^cy.  The  production  is,  moreover,  limited  in  locality,  as  well 
of  sugar-  as  in  (juantity,  being  mostly  confined  to  Louisiana.  The  cane 
cane  region,  jj^^ives,  and  is  the  staple  product,  in  all  parts  of  the  State  south 
of  the  latitude  of  Baton  Rouge,  except  in  the  pine  uplands  bordering  on 
Texas.  It  must  not  l)e  thought,  however,  that  the  whole  of  the  region  *  "ithin 
these  boundaries  actually  produces  sugar.  The  area  of  cultivated  land  is 
comparatively  small ;  swamps,  lakes,  rivers,  and  bayous  occupying  most  of 
the  surflice  of  the  country,  and  the  territory  available  for  i)lanting  being 
restrictetl  to  narrow  strips  along  the  water-courses.  The  shores  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi, for  fifty  miles  above  and  below  New  Orleans,  are  lined  with  cane- 
fields,  extending  l)ack  for  about  a  mile  to  the  cypress-swamps.  Along  the 
Atchafalaya.  and  the  La  Fourche,  Platjuemine,  Teche,  Boeuf,  Courtableau, 
and  other  bayous  west  of  the  Mississippi,  there  is  little  besides  sugar  raised. 
The  Teche,  and  the  parishes  bordering  upon  it,  known  under  the  general 
name  of  the  Attakapas  couiitry,  is  the  paradise  of  the  sugar-planter.  Per- 
haps the  land  is  no  better  than  that  along  the  other  bayous  ;  but  its  conforma- 
tion makes  it  easy  of  drainage,  while  the  proximity  of  the  Gulf  gives  it  cool 
breezes  in  summer,  and  the  natural  l)eauties  of  the  region  make  it  the  most 
attractive  part  of  Louisiana.  Longfellow's  description  in  "  Evangeline  "  fits 
it  very  well :  — 

"  IJcautiful  is  the  land,  with  its  prairies,  and  forest  of  fruit-trees: 
Under  tlie  feet  a  garden  of  flowers  ;  and  tlic  bhiest  of  lieavens 
Bending  above,  and  resting  its  dome  on  the  walls  of  the  forest. 
They  who  dwell  there  have  named  it  the  Eden  of  Louisiana." 

There  are  many  litUe  descriptive  passages  in  the  poem  that  are  remarkably 
true  to  nature  ;  and  the  wonder  is  that  Longfellow  could  have  got  the  local 
coloring  so  well  without  once  visiting  the  region  he  pictures. 


OF    71/ E    UNITED   STATES. 


8x 


ts  of  the  United 
ies,  rendering  a 
supply  the  defi- 
,  locality,  as  well 
iana.    The  cane 
the  State  south 
ds  bordering  on 
the  region  i'ithin 
:ultivated  land  is 
cupying  most  of 
,r  planting   being 
lores  of  the  Mis- 
lined  with  cane- 

pps-     -'^l^^g  ^^^*-' 
icuf,  Courtableau, 

ides  sugar  raised. 

jnder  the  general 

^ar- planter.     Ter- 

but  its  conforma- 

iulf  gives  it  cool 

(iiake  it  the  most 

EvangeUne"  fits 


Irccs: 
Lvens 
lircst. 


Iia. 


»» 


It  are  remarkably 
Lve  got  the  local 


Long  before  the  Revolutionary  war  the  New-England  colonies  carried  on 
a  largo  (oinniorcc  in  sugar  and  molasses,  which,  with  rum,  they  brought  from 
the  West  Indies,  and  carried  hence  to  luuope.     There  were  re-   Early  com- 
fineiiis  in  various  parts  of  Connecticut,  and  Massachusetts  too,   merce  in 
mostly  for  such  sugar  as  was  kept  for  home  consumption.     The   ^^"^*jy| 
enactment  of  laws  by  Parliament,  restricting   this   carrying-trade 
to  IJritish  vessels,  as  also  the   stamp-acts,  which  threatened  to  lay  a  tax  on 
such  sugar  and  molasses,  seriously  affected  this  industry. 

Accounts  of  Virginia  and  North  Carolina,  by  the  earliest  settlers,  speak  of 
sugar-canes  as  indigenous  to  that  section,  but  inaccurately.      Sugar-canes  do 
not  ajjpear  to  have  been  grown  in  any  part  of  what  is  now  the   g^^jy  gy,jj. 
United  States  until  1 751,  when  the  Jesuits  introduced  them  to   vation  in 
Louisiana  from  San  Domingo.     The  first  sugar-mill  in  this  section 
was  erected  by  M.  iHibreuil,  whose  plantation  is  now  covered  by  the  city  of 
New  Orleans.     But  little  headway  was  made  in  the  culture  until  1 794,  when 
persecuted  Frenchmen  fled  from  San  Domingo  to  Louisiana,  and  carried  their 
business  ideas  with  them.    This  State  did  not  form  a  part  of  our  Union, 
however,  until  1S03.      In  later  years  the  culture  extended  into  Texas  to  a 
slight  extent.     In  ICS05  an  enterprising  Georgia  planter  obtained   Extension  of 
and  set  out  in  his  own  State   one   hundred   young  sugar-canes,   culture. 
These   were   rai)idly  propagated ;    and   the   culture   extended   into   Florida, 
Alabama,  and  elsewhere.     It  was  soon  found,  though,  that  the  soil  of  Lou- 
isiana was  by  far  the  most  productive,  and  the  industry  never  prospered  very 
much  elsewhere.     In    1850  eleven-twelfths  of  the   yield   of  cane  sugar  and 
molasses  of  this  country  was   Louisiana's.     The   following  table   shows  the 
distribution  in  1S70:  — 


SUGAR, 

MOLASSES, 

STATES. 

HOCSHIiADS. 

OALLUNS. 

Louisiana 

80,706 

4.585.150 

Texas 

2,020 

246,062 

Tennessee       

1,410 

3.629 

South  Carolina 

».oss 

436,882 

T''lorida 

952 

344,339 

<jcorgia 

644 

S53.»92 

Arkansas         

92 

72,008 

Mississippi 

49 

152,164 

Missouri 

49 

Alabama 

3' 

166,009 

North  Carolina 

35 

33.888 

Total 

87.043 

6.593.323 

82 


I.WD  I 'S  TKrA  T.    Ills  TOR  J ' 


Just  as  the   tobacco-intliistry  l)uilt  up   Richmond,  so   the  sugar-business 

built  up  New  Orleans,  althou.nh  the  cotton-interest  had  a  share  in  the  latter 

work.     Very  few  statistics   are    obtainable,  sliowing   the    product 

•  '^f^^\  of  cane    sugar    and    molasses    in    other  States  :    and    statisticians 

interests  f' 

gave  rise  to  treat  thai  of  Louisiana  as  about  all  there  is  in  the  country. 
]}earing  this  fact  in  mind,  one  can  learn  much  of  ihe  history  of 
the  cane-sugar  industry  of  tliis  country,  and  realize  how  far  it  is 
from  meeting  our  needs,  by  glancing  at  the  following  table,  showing  the  total 
consumption  in  this  country  by  tons,  and  wiiat  proportion  thereof  was  im- 
ported, anil  how  much  was  raised  in  Louisiana  :  — 


New 
Orleans. 


Ml    .  i' 


YEARS.                    l.MPOKTKU.' 

LOUISIANA. 

TOTAL.' 

I82I     .... 

26,672 

14,000 

.(0.672 

IS.^I 

44,178 

35,000 

79. '78 

184  I 

65,601 

38,000 

i03,()0i 

1842 

69,474 

39,200 

108,674 

•«.13 

28,854 

64,360 

93.-' '4 

1844 

83,801 

44.400 

128,201 

1845 

88. 336 

45,000 

^y^^Vcfi 

1846 

44-974 

83,028 

1 28,002 

1847 

98,410 

71.040 

169,450 

1S48 

104,2(4 

107,000 

21 1,214 

1849 

103.121 

99, 1  So 

202,301 

1S50 

160,210 

144,600 

304,810 

1 85 1 

201,493 

•20,331 

3-^1.824 

.852 

196,558 

118,659 

3'5.2i7 

•S53 

200,()I0 

172.379 

37-.989 

1854 

150,854 

234.444 

385.298 

>«55 

192,607 

185.145 

377.752 

1856 

-55. -'92 

123.468 

378,760 

IS  57 

241,165 

39,000 

280,765 

185S 

244.758 

143.734 

388,493 

•859 

-\59.O34 

192,150 

431,184 

J  860 

296,950 

I '8,33' 

415,181 

1S61 

241,420 

122,399 

363,819 

1862 

241,4" 

191,000 

432.4H 

1S63 

^'y-i>'f> 

52,910 

284,308 

1864 

192,660 

28,000 

220,660 

1865 

345.809 

5,000 

350,809 

1 866 

383.  >  78 

8,500 

391,698 

1867 

378,068 

22,500 

400, 568 

1868 

44C'.533 

23,000 

409.533 

1869 

447.899 

45,000 

492,899 

1870 

483,892 

46,800 

530,692 

1 87 1 

5  53.7 '4 

79,600 

633.3 '4 

1872 

567.573 

6<;,8oo 

637.373 

1873 

592.725 

59,300 

652,025 

1874 

661,869 

48,500 

710,369 

•875 

621,852 

63,500 

68  5.3  52 

1S76 

561,369 

77,000 

638,369 

'  I  >inittins  tluit  wlilcli  was  exported 


-  Oiuiuiiig  lliu  Irillc  coiiaiiiiiL\l  on  tlic  I'.icific  coast. 


■;ji 
■si- 

1 


()/•■  77//:  rxirr.D  statf.s. 


H 


sHRnr-busincss 
;  in  the  latter 
;  tlic  product 
(I  statisticians 
the  country, 
ihc  liistory  of 
.  lv)\v  far  it  i^ 
jwinij;  tlu'  total 
hereof  was  im- 


•roTM..' 

40,672 

79.'78 
103,(101 

108,674 

93.2 '4 

128,201 

133.336 

I  2S,002 

160.450 
21  1,214 
202,301 
304.S1O 

321,824 

315,217 

372.989 

385,298 

377.75- 
378,760 

280,765 

388,492 

431,184 
415,181 
363,819 

43-.4H 
284,308 

220,660 
350,809 
391,698 
400, 568 

4*^9-533 
49-.^99 
530.692 
633.314 

637.373 
652.025 
710,369 

685,352 
638,369 

|)ll  llic  I'.ioifu:  coast. 


Stiirtinp;  at  notliin.fj,  our  domestic  production  rajjidly  ,i;aiued  on  t)ur  im- 
ports until  1X4^.  when,  spasmodically  as  it  were,  it  suddenly  ovcrlea|)ed  and 
more  than  douMi'd  lliem.  In  1.S46.  rS4S.  .iiid  1S54,  our  domestic  product 
exceeded  the  imjKjrts.  hut  not  to  so  u'reat  .m  extent.  (Jwing  lo  increase  oi 
the  accumulation  of  a  lari,'e  sto(  k  in  t'le  country  in  i(S56,  the  Production, 
next  Mar's  home  \  ield  fell  off  ama/iuL;iy.  What  alirupl  and  utter  ruin  was 
brought  ui)on  this  indiistry  l)y  the  war  may  he  inferred  from  the  fact,  ihut,  by 


Sll.AR-Mll.l  . 


the  year  1.S63.  the  cane-crop  iiad  (hvmdle.l  down  lo  50,000  tons.  In  1S64  it 
fell  to  .30.000  :  and  in  1X65,  the  last  year  of  the  svar.  shrunk  to  the  minimum  of 
only  5,000  Ions.     The  great  trade  that  was  thus  ..haltered  in  three  vears.  has, 


84 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


since  the  war,  been  slowly  reviving ;  but  still  a  long  time  will  have  to  elapse 
before  it  again  reaches  the  proportions  to  winch  it  had  r.  'ained  in  1853.  i-or 
the  pa;;t  three  or  four  years,  owing  to  labor-troubles  and  political  causes 
which  need  noi  now  be  mentioneil,  the  crop  harvested  in  Louisiana  was  not 
so  large  as  many  supposed  it  would  be  :  still,  in  spite  of  every  drawback,  it 
has  increased  25,000  hogsheads  each  year,  and  during  the  season  of  187C-77 
amounted  to  169,331  hogsheads,  or  a  total  of  190,672,570  pounds.  It  is 
confidenUy  exi)ected  that  the  crop  of  the  season  of  1877-78  will  amount  to 
not  less  than  200,000  hogsheads. 

It  is  asserted '  that  the  business  of  sugar-planting  offers  peculiar  induce- 
ments to  Northern  people  who  want  to  find  new  homes  in  the  South.  The 
p  ofit  d  Pi'ofits  are  immediate,  and,  with  proper  management,  very  large, 
prospects  of  A  plantation  near  Franklin,  with  1,100  acres  in  cane,  received  for 
its  product  of  sugar  and  molasses  $120,000;  and  the  net  profit, 
deducting  all  expenses,  even  to  the  cigars  smoked  by  the  planter 
and  his  friends,  was  $60,000  dollars.  This  is  an  exceptionally  large  plantation. 
About  300  acres  under  cultivation  is  an  average  one.  The  following  is  the 
condensed  balance-sheet,  for  1876,  of  a  300-acre  place  above  Franklin  :  — 


this  indus 
try. 


RECEIPTS. 

400  Iilids.  .sugar  at  eight  cents  per  pound $41,600 

300  bbls.  molasses  at  two  dollars 6on 

Total $42,200 

EXPENSES.  M 

Labor :  twenty-five  hands  throughout  year,  and  ten  extra  in  sugar-mak- 
ing season $12,000 

Rations :  five  pounds  pork  and  a  peck  of  meal  a  week  to  each  hand      .  2,500 

Mule  feed Ii500 

Hogsheads  and  b.-rrelj 2,500 

Purchase  of  mules,  tools,  repairs,  &c 3,000 

Commission  on  sale  of  crop      ....                ....  1,275 

%775 

Profit $19,425 

The  cost  of  a  plantation  like  this,  in  good  condition,  with  sugar-house  and 
machinery  in  good  repair,  would  range  from  $40,000  to  $75,000.  There  is 
usually  three  or  four  times  as  much  swamp  as  arable  land  sold  with  a  planta- 
tion. But  the  swamp  has  a  value  ;  for  it  furnishes  the  wood  required  for  fuel 
in  the  sugar-mill.  A  hogshead  of  sugar  to  the  acre  is  a  small  yield,  a  hogs- 
head and  a  half  a  fair  yield,  and  two  a  large  one.  There  are  thirteen  hundred 
pounds  of  sugar  in  a  hogshead ;  and  the  price  in  New  Orleans  ranges  from 
seven  cents  for  an  ordinary  brown  grade  to  ten  and  eleven  cents  for  the 
white  coffee-sugar  made  by  vacuum  pans  and  centrifugal  machinery  for  sepa- 

*  New- York  Tribune. 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


85 


have  to  elapse 
1  in  1853.  For 
political  causes 
ouisiana  was  not 
/cry  drawback,  it 
ison  of  1876-77 
3  pounils.  It  is 
8  will  amount  to 

1  peculiar  induce- 
the  South,     'i'he 
:ment,  very  large, 
cane,  received  for 
nd  the  net  profit, 
ed  by  the  planter 
ly  large  plantation, 
e  following  is  iV". 
e  Franklin :  — 


.    $41,600 
600 

.    $42,200 


ik- 


$12,000 
2,500 
1,500 
2,500 
3,000 
1,275 


Ih  sugar-house  and 
R 7 5, 000.    There  is 
[old  with  a  planta- 
|d  required  for  fuel 
Inall  yield,  a  hogs- 
le  thirteen  hundred 
Irleans  ranges  from 
ven  cents  for  the 
machinery  for  sepa- 


rating the  molasses  from  the  sugar.  Field-hands  are  paid  sixteen  dollars  a 
month  and  a  ration,  and  have  Saturday  aftcrnocjns  to  themselves,  and  the  use 
of  a  mule  to  c  ultivate  patches  of  their  own.  The  cane  they  raise  on  these 
pat(  hes  is  workeil  up  by  the  planter,  and  they  get  half  the  i)roduct.  An  in- 
dustrious negro  will  thus  add  a  hundred  dollars  or  more  to  his  yearly  earnings. 

Thus  far  the  land  has  usually  been  cultivated  in  large  sections,  two  hun- 
dred acres  being  considered  the  minimum  ([uantily  that  wouitl  sustain  the 
expenses  of  a  sugar-mill  and  of  the  colony  of  hands  necessary  to  Jik  both 
land  and  mill.  The  large  jjlanters  are  now  encouraging  the  ter  t-system, 
and  a  tendency  to  separate  the  business  of  sugar-making  from  l.  :eand 
cane-growing  begins  to  show  itself.  On  the  smaller  farms,  where  ••"  "  '"'"'"■• 
only  a  few  hogsheads  of  sugar  are  i)ro(luced,  the  owners  are  obliged  to  con- 
tent themselves  with  (rushing  and  boiling  in  the  old-fashioned  style ;  thus 
wasting  much  of  the  cane,  and  producing  a  very  inferior  brand  of  sugar. 
Indeed,  it  is  stated,  that,  of  the  1,050  sugar-houses  in  o])eration  in  Louisiana, 
ui)ward  of  250,  or  nearly  one-fourth,  still  crush  the  cane  by  horse-power,  —  an 
exceedingly  primitive  ai.d  unsatisfactory  process,  by  which  it  is  impossible  to 
extract  any  high  percentage  of  juice  from  the  cane,  dreat  waste,  and  <onse- 
quently  rncat  loss,  is  naturally  the  result  of  this  practice.' 

It  is  proposed  to  revolutionize  the  whole  system  of  sugar  manufacturing  by 
abolishing  all  the  old-fashioned  and  comparatively  useless  sugar  houses  ami 
presses,  and  establishing  in  each  district  of  the  great  cane-growing  region  an 
accessible  and  well-a])pointed  mill  of  the  most  ap])roved  descrip-    ^^^  ^^j^ 
tion,  and  containing  all  the  latest  machinery.     To  these  mills  all   of  making 
small  farmers  arc  to  send  their  cane  as  soon  as  it  is  cut,  disposing   ^^^"■ 
o!'  it  at  a  fair  market-price,  or  having  it  ground  into  sugar,  paying  the  mill- 
managers  a  small  percentage  for  the  \\    rk.     It  will  be  noticed  that  this  system 
is  similar  in  many  respects  to  that  which  governs  the  manufacture  of  cheese  in 
some  of  the  great  dairy  districts  of  this  Stale.     There  seems  to  be  no  reason 
why  its  establishment  in  Louisiana  should  not  be  the  beginning  of  a  new  pnd 
moip  prosperous  era  in  the  history  of  the  sr.gar-producing  districts  of  the  Peli- 
can State.     It  ought  certainly  to  result  in  the  employment  of  large  capital  in 
tlie  manufiicture  of  the  staple,  and  a  great  increase  in  the  area  cultivated. 

Tlie  consumption  of  sugar  in  all  parts  of  the  world  is  constantly  increasing, 
—  increasing  with  amazing  rai)idity.  In  the  United  States  alone,  during  the 
year  1876,  the  total  consumption,  including  the  jiroduct  of  the  maple-tree  and 
the  sugar  made  from  molasses,  is  estim  ted  at  not  less  than  745,000  tons. 
This  is  fully  one  hundred  per  cent  more  than  the  amount  consumed  in  1863. 
or  tlian  the  average  of  the  decade  immediately  preceding  that  year.  From 
these  figures  it  will  readily  be  seen,  that,  even  were  every  acre  of  the  rich  allu- 
vial bluff  and  prairie  lands  of  Louisiana  devoted  exclusively  to  the  cultivation 
of  sugar,  there  would  still  be  no  fear  of  over-production.     Every  pound  that 

'  New-York  Times,  Sept.  ii,  1877. 


86 


IND  US  TR I A  I.    Ills  TOK  Y 


is  made 
from. 


Biiet-tugar. 


can  he  maniifarturt'd  will  (ind  :i  rcndy  market,  and  a  quick  sale  at  remunera- 
tive |)ric(.'s. 

Most  of  tin-  uioKissL's  j)nidiu  cd  in  this  country  is   in  suitable  condition  for 

table  use  when  it  leaves  the  Southern  suf,'ar-house.     'I'he  condition  of  sugar 

usually  is  very  dilTrrent.  as  it  is  the  raw  brown  nuiscovado  whicli 

Keflninf{.  '  .  ,..,.,.  ,  ,, 

needs  to  W  rehned.  I  lu-re  are  reluieries  lor  this  jjrodiu  t.  as  well 
,is  for  the  raw  sugars  im|)orted  in  many  (jf  the  large  cities  of  the  countrv, 
which  do  an  enormous  busiiu'i->,  and  which  have  generally  been  very  siK'cess- 
ful.  The  process  of  refining  has  been  nuu  h  improved  within  a  few)ears; 
anil  the  former  method,  which  seemed  to  be  any  thing  but  a  refining  process, 
is  rapidly  going  into  disuse. 
.,,.   .  Siiuar  is  made  from  three  other  plants  besides  the  .American  or 

vvnat  BUKar  -^  ' 

West-Indian  cane:   namely,  the   sugar-beet,  the  ( "hinese-cane  nr 

sorghmii,  and  maple-sap. 
Forty  per  cent  of  'he  total  sugar-product  of  the  world  is  made  from  beetx 
I''Al)eriinent  was  made  in  (iermany.  toward  the  latter  pari   of  the   last  century, 

by  a  chemist  named  .\chard,  who  ilemonstrated  that  sugar  could 

be  made  from  beets.  The  first  Napoleon  did  much  to  encourage 
this  industry  in  l''ran(  e,  especially  in  iSiJ,  when  the  blockade  of  French  ports 
pre<  luded  a  foreign  supply  of  cane-sugar.  .\l  one  time  S20o,ooo  were  placed 
in  the  hands  of  the  minister  of  agriculture  to  encourage  it.  IJiit,  after  Water- 
loo, beet-sugar  production  almost  died  out.  In  iSjo  it  revived  again,  and, 
with  lliictuations,  has  since  rapidly  and  e.\tensi\ely  developed,  until  the  jjrod- 
uct  IS  immense.  Kxperiments  in  this  country  began  as  early  as  I1S38;  I)avi(l 
L.  (^hild  of  Northampton,  Mass.,  having  produced  1.300  pounds  of  sugar  that 
year.  The  next  attempt  was  that  of  the  (iennert  brothers,  (leriians,  at  Chats- 
worth.  111.,  in  ICS63,  who  bought  2.400  acres  of  land,  and  went  into  beet-cultiirc 
for  sugar  very  extensively,  'i'hey  had  bad  iuck  for  several  years.  In  iSyo 
they  consolidated  with  a  like  establishment  at  l'"ree])ort.  III.,  and  produced 
that  year  200,000  pounds  of  good  sugar  at  moderate  cost.  Messrs.  IlonV'*-''^! 
iV  nit(j  embarked  in  the  business  at  Fond  ilu  Lac,  Wis.,  in  i<S6/;^n(l 
another  co-operative  enterprise  was  started  at  lllack  Mawk,  Wis.,  in  1870. 
Several  ventures  were  made,  too.  in  California,  Mr.  Wentworth  of  Alvarado 
securing  the  assistance  of  Honesteel  and  Otto  in  1870;  and  the  next  year 
they  i)roduced  1,000,000  jwimcis  of  sugar.  Amherst  Agricultural  College, 
the  Virginia  University,  and  other  institutions  and  intlividuals,  have  exi)eri- 
meiited. 

Sorghum,  or  the   Chinese-cane,  was  introduced  into  this  country  by  the 

Bureau  of  .Agriculture  ir  1856.     It  can  be  cultivated  in  almost  any  part  of  the 

countrv  ;  and,  imder  the  extensive  notices  given  it  by  the  conimis- 

sioner's  reports,  it  soon  met  with  a  wide  accx-ptance.     It  yields  a 

good  sirup,  and  but  little  sugar.     The  census  of  i860  showed  the  product  of 

that  year  to  be,  — 


OF    77/ K    VMTED    STATES 


8J 


Ic  al  rcmuncr.i- 

lo  condilion  lor 
ulilion  of  sugar 
lUScovatU)  wlii<  l> 
pnuluc  t.  as  well 
of  thf  counlrj, 
en  very  su«-fess- 
\\\\\  a  iVvv  N^-'^rs  ; 
refining  i)r()ccss. 

the  American  or 
ChiiK'sc-ranc  or 

made  from  beet>. 
the  last  century, 
that  sugi^r  couM 
uch  to  encourage 
le  of  French  ports 
o.ooo  were  i)lace(l 
lint,  after  Water- 
.■vived  again,   and, 
d,  vmtil  the  prod- 
,y  as  1 S38  ;    1  ^avid 
|nnds  of  sugar  thai 
'.ernans,  at  Chats- 
lit  into  beet-cuU>uc 
il  years.     In  1S7" 
11..  and  produced 
^lessrs.  iionViteel 
L,  in   186/  -.•"I'l 
•k,  Wis.,  in    1870. 
Iwortli  of  .Mvarado 
jid  the  next  year 
ricuUural  C^ollegc 
juals,  have    experi- 

his  coiintry  by  the 

])st  any  part  of  the 

it  by  the  conimis- 

Lice.     It  yields  a 

Id  the  product  of 


M 


88 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


r.ALLnNK, 

Iowa 1,311,512 

Indiana 881,049 

Illinois 806,589 

Mi.ssuuri 796,111 

Ohio 779,076 

Tennessee 706,66-, 

Other  St.itcs S6X,i23 

Total 6,749.'2J 

Iowa  was  then  the  largest  producer;  but  Ohio  developed  tlic  industry 
more  rapidly  until  1866,  since  which  year  it  has  graihially  declined  there  and 
Production  '"  Indiana  and  Illinois.  It  extended  up  into  Wisconsin  too, 
from  ior-  soniewliat,  but  rather  more  largely  in  Kansas,  and  all  through  the 
ghum.  South,  prominently  in    (leorgia.     It    is   estimated    that    we   raise 

annually  12,000,000  gallons  of  sirui),  which,  at  sixty-five  cents  a  gallon,  would 
come  to  $7,800,000 ;  and  250,000  pounds  of  sugar,  which,  at  six  cents  a 
pound,  would  make  the  annunl  yield  worth  over  57,815,000.  When  the 
value  of  the  crop  comes  to  be  better  understood,  it  is  believed  its  cnlture  will 
be  vastly  increased. 

The  maple-sugar  industry  dates  from  the  earliest  colonial  days,  but  has 
not  been  carried  on  extensively  in  any  part  of  t'lc  country.  It  is  mostly  in  the 
Maple-  hands  of  individual  farmers,  and  is  chiefly  confined  to  the  North- 

luitar.  crn  States,  from  Maine  into  Minnesota,  though  reaching  into  Ken- 

tucky. Statistics  are  imperfect  and  scarce;  bit  the  Department  of  Agriculture 
says,  that,  in  181 1,  Ohio  produced  3,033,08(1  pounds,  Kentucky  2,471,647, 
and  Vermont  but  1,200,000.  Probably  the  total  production  throughout  the 
country  was  something  like  15,000,000  or  20,000,000,  with  sirup  equivalent  to 
as  much  more,  a  gallon  of  sirup  counting  for  ten  pounds  of  sugar.  The 
census-returns  for  1850,  i860,  and  1870,  show  the  following  total  product  in 
pounds  and  gallons  :  — 


[. 


I  i 


1850. 

i860. 

1870. 

Sugar     .... 
Sirup     .... 

34,25;„436 
106,782 

40,120,205 
'.S97.5S9 

28,443.' '15 
921,436 

In  1850  New  York  was  the  leading  State,  producing  about  thirty  per  cent 
of  the  whole.  Vermont  held  the  second  i)lace,  with  Ohio  third, 
and  Indiana  fourth.  In  i860  the  order  was, —  New  York,  Ver- 
mont, Michigan,  and  Ohio.  In  1870  Vermont  had  reached  the  first 
place,  with  New  York  second,  Ohio  third,  Michigan  fourth,  and 
Indiana  fifth.  Several  of  the  States  have  since  improved  on  the  fig- 
ures of  1870 ;  and  it  is  likely  that  the  total  product  now  almost  equals  that  of 


Production 
of  maple- 
sugar  in  the 
several 
States. 


OF   TUB    UNITED   STATES. 


89 


LONH. 

1,049 
0,5«9 
»6.iit 

i<).o76 

58.12,^ 

.(<;.' 23 

the  industry 
c(\  there  and 
isconsin  too, 
I  through  the 
Ihat   we   raise 

gallon,  would 

at  six  cents  a 

When  the 

its  culture  will 

days,  but  has 
is  mostly  in  the 
d  to  the  North- 
[:hing  into  Kcn- 
it  of  Agriculture 

iicky  2,47»»647» 
throughout  the 
[ip  c(iuivalent  to 
uf  sugar.  The 
otal  product  in 


i860,  and  is  worth  something  like  |6,ooo,ooo.  The  utmost  limit  has  already 
been  reached,  in  all  probability,  however ;  though  we  are  not  likely  to  see  a 
very  marked  decline  for  a  ninnber  of  years.  Much  of  the  maple  sugar  and 
lirup  used  in  this  country  comes  from  Canada. 


1870. 


28,443  A>  5 
92i,43^J 


,  thirty  per  cent 
Hth  Ohio  third, 
kew  York,  Ver- 
Icached  the  first 
'an  fourth,  and 
f  vcd  on  the  fig- 
cquals  that  of 


90 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


CHAITER   VII. 


TOBACCO. 


WIIMN   roliimbiis  landed   in    I  Iisi)aiii()la,  in    1492,  he   saw  the   natives 
I)n.athin<;  out  sinukc  from  their  nostrils  ;  and  he  was  offered  a  roil  of  a 
fragrant  narcotic  weed,  in  the  form  of  a  cigar,  that  he  might  do  likewise.     'I'his 

Early  his-  ^^''^^  ''^•-'  '""^^  ^'^'^^  ''i*-'  c'lvilizeil  world  ever  knew  of  tobacco.  'Ihe 
tory  of  Spaniards  \\\(\.  Portuguese  soon  made  Europe  ac(iuainled  with  the 

to  acco.  plant  and  its  uses.  In  1560  the  agent  of  the  King  of  !•' ranee  in 
Portugal,  named  Jean  Nicot,  obtained  from  a  Dutchman  some  seed  of  the  p];uit 
from  I''lorida ;  and  thus  it  was  introduced  into  France,  where  it  was  known  as 
the  Nicotian  weed.  Tobacco,  the  Indian  name,  appears  to  have  been  applied 
originally  to  the  pipes  wherein  the  C'aribbees  smoked  the  dried  leaves.  In 
1586  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  and  his  colleagues,  who  had  been  unsuccessful  in 
founding  a  colony  in  America,  brought  back  to  England  the  custom  of  using 
tobacco;  but  until  1607,  when  the  Jamestown  Colony  was  planted,  Ilnglaud 
obtained  the  little  tobacco  which  it  used,  indirectly,  through  the  Spaniards, 
from  the  West  Indies.  As  the  various  nations  of  the  world  were  using  narcot- 
ics and  stimulants  of  various  sorts,  this  new  one  had  to  fight  its  way  into  f.ivor 
against  great  prejudice.  King  James  I.  of  F.ngland  wrote  a  pamphlet  in  1616, 
vigorously  denouncing  its  use;  in  1624  Pope  Urban  \'I1I.  decreed  excommu- 
nication to  all  who  used  snuff;  in  1634  Russia  affixed  a  jjenalty  of  cutting  off 
the  nose  for  smoking  tobacco  ;  and  other  nations  restricied  its  importation, 
culture,  and  use,  in  various  ways,  a  favorite  ])lan  being  to  lay  very  heavy  taxes 
thereupon.  Vet  the  use  of  the  weed  —  which  the  American  Indians  smoked  as 
a  solace  to  care,  a  cheer  in  idleness,  and  a  token  of  fidelity  around  the  council- 
fire  and  at  peace  negotiations  —  soon  became  popular  in  l^urope.  and  thus 
spread  all  over  the  Old  World.  —  into  'l\irkey,  ICgypt,  Arabia,  Persia,  the 
Indies,  and  China.  More  than  any  other  product  of  the  soil,  tobacco  has  an 
unquestioned  title  exclusively  to  American  origin. 

The  culture  of  tobacco  was  undertaken  almost  imniedia»:ely  by  the  first 
settlers  in  Virginia;  and  it  is  recorded,  that,  in  1615,  not  only  the  gardens 
and  fields,   but  also  the  streets,   of  Jamestown,   were  ])lanted  therewith.     It 


or  Till':  rxiTF.n  sr.-irF.s. 


9« 


.im'rkly  hcramc  tlic   st.ipU'  <  rop  (if  the-  <  nlDiiy.     'I'Ik.'  laws  of  the  niothor- 
roiiiUry  lorliadc  any  niatiiillu  turcs.  <vir>  of  necessary  rlothin^  ;    and  tnlMcro 
was  soon  found  lo  lie  ilu-  most  valuable  of  a^'riciiltural  itrodiicts.   cultivation 
fvcn  wheat  W\u^  abandoned  for  its  <  iilture.     \\\  the  year   \U22   o(  tobacco 
the  prodiKt  of  N'irKinia  had  increased  to  sixty  thousand  pounds.     "    "i:""»> 
;ujd  it  doiiliird  in  twenty  years.     Its  culture  was  be^u.i  in  l,ie  |)ul(  h  » olony  of 
New  Netherlands  (afterwards  called  New  N'ork)  in  1646;   but  it  never  spread 
vcrv  rapi<lly.     Later,  it  was  cultivated  quite  extensively  in  the  neiKhborhood 
of    I'hiladelpliia.     I'n)U\   Virginia  the  industry  extended  southward   into  the 
Carolinas.     'I'he  I'lvnc  h  corporation  known  as  ''Hie  Comp.any  of  the  We^t  " 


,w  ihc   natives 
jred  a  roll  of  a 
likewise.     'rhi>< 
tobacco.      'Ihe 
iiinled  with  tl\e 
g  of  France  in 
L'edoflhc  plant 
t  was  known  as 
VI-  been  applii^'*! 
ra'd  leaves.      In 
unsuccessful  in 

instoni  of  "S''*!-^' 
llanlcd,  I'-ngland 
the  Spaniards. 
|,-c  using  narcul- 
^s  way  into  tavor 
,,nphlet  in  161 6. 
veed  cxcommu- 
y  of  cutting  off 
its  importation, 
cry  heavy  taxes 
lians  smoked  as 
luiil  the  council- 
iirope,  and  thus 
\)ia,  Persia,  the 
lobacco  has  an 

lely  ^'y  ^^^*-'  ^""^^ 
Inly  the  gardens 

therewith.     It 


SMuKINlj    l.S^l  Kl  Ml.N  1^.   li|     Al.l.    NAllONS. 


introduced  it  into  Louisiana  in  lyi.S.  So  rapidly  did  the  production  increase 
at  first  in  Virginia,  and  so  slowly  was  its  consumption  augmented  abroad,  that 
prices  fell,  and  the  colonists  could  not  make  tol)ac(  o  }»ay  for  tiieir  clotliing. 
In  1639  the  Assembly  ordered  the  product  of  the  next  two  years  to  be  burned, 
except  a  hunilred  and  twenty  thousand  i)ounils,  properly  divided  among  the 
planters,  in  order  to  check  production  and  raise  pri(  es.  A  trac  t  on  X'irginia, 
printed  in  London  in  1649,  ^'''''  I'l'^'  t'^'-'  price  of  tol);ic< o  in  the  colony  had 
fallen  to  threepence  a   ]Hiuiid    011  at  louiU  of  the  supply.      In  1652   Cromwell 


r, 


I 


\ 


I  ? 


ill 


;i  j'i 


5 


fi 


4^  m 


92 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


ordered  all  tobacco-' lants  in  England  to  be  destroyed,  in  order  to  give  the 
colonies  a  belter  chance ;  and  the  increasing  popularity  of  the  weed  also 
stimulated  the  production  in  the  colonies  again,  and  it  made  rapid  strides. 
In  1729  the  product  of  Virginia  and  Maryland  had  increased  in  quantity  and 
value,  so  as  to  be  worth  ;;^375,ooo;  and  a  fleet  of  three  hundred  sail  was 
employed  in  its  transportation.  The  annual  export  from  all  the  colonics  for 
the  ten  years  prior  to  1709  averaged  28,868,666  pounds;  and  from  1744 
to  1776  the  average  was  40,000,000'  pounds,  or  one-tenth  of  our  present 
yield.     Of  this  amount,  more  than  three-quarters  came  from  Virginia  alone. 

Prior  to  the  Revolutionary  war  the  planters  had  discovered  that  their 
lands  were  deteriorating;  and  from  1758,  when  Virginia  exported  75,000 
Increase  of  hogslicads,  there  was  a  falling-off  for  a  number  of  years  in 
acreage  until  the  amount  raised  on  the  original  plantations.  The  acreage  in- 
*®*°'  creased,  however,  extending  into  new  States,  notably  Georgia  and 

Kentucky ;  so  that  the  total  yield  of  the  country  kept  about  the  same,  or 
increased  slightly.     In  1790  our  exports  were  118,460  hogsheads,  —  a  figure 

not  reached  again  until  1840.  In- 
asmuch as  domestic  consumption 
was  increasing  meantime,  a.^l  the 
taxes  were  enormous  which  foreign 
countries  imposed  upon  our  tobacco 
when  imported  by  them,  it  is  proba- 
ble that  our  product  increased  at 
least  threefold  during  that  period  uf 
fifty  years,  —  from  something  like 
60,000,000  to  over  200,000,000 
pounds. 

Between  1840  and  1850  tobacco 
culture  remained  almost  at  a  stand- 
still :  indeed,  the  figures  given  by 
the  Agricultural  Bureau  show  a  slight 
Production      falling-off.    Thusini840 

since  1840.         t^g   ^X^X^X   waS    219,163,- 

319   pounds,  while  in    1S50   it  was 

but   199,752,655.     During  the  next 

decade,  however,  there  was  a  very 

marked  development  of  the  industry. 

In  that  short  time  it  attained  double 

dimensions,   the    returns    for    i860 

being  434,209,461  pounds.     Since  that  time  it  has  been  impossible  to  more  than 

approximate  the  yield,  inasmuch  as  the  heavy  internal  revenue-tax  on  tolncco 

has  induced  producers  to  falsify  their  returns  by  diminishing  them.     Thus  the 

'  Probably  equivalent  to  100,000  hogsheads  in  that  day.    A  hogshead  now  contains  about  i,aoo  pounds. 


TODACto-I'l.ANT. 


^^    TifE    UNITED    STATES. 


r    200,000,000 


Jt  1,300  pounds. 


census-Statement  for  1870  g.Ves  .r3,  .  ^^ 

tne  commissioner  of  i.rri,.  u         "^'735.341  pounds  as  the  fnMi 

and.  as  a  f„r,l,er  ll«,  r7:    >"■■-'  ""'"''"'^  "'■■"  ''  "-^  a.    ca  ,  If       '  ""' 
returns  ,o  Feci™    c™!'     'l    '""  '"=  ''"'"''  "■^"  '"  ^'io    n    s',  "'  ^T"' 

assessor  <,ec,„ec,  .i::~t.x«r'v-  ^^•^^'.^:^.  ;:;'s.; : 

■»  -re  ,„  sa,  .„a,  „l  ..J;',      1,^  °:";|f  '-'-a.i,,,  i,,  .,,  :;i,,^  ,;»'5 
<l"arler  more  Ihan  in  ,S6o.     Tint  ^  I  S""'"*."""  or  Coo,ooo  ooo     ; 

;;«n-«ted  by  the  ol,,  p,a,„er  'to  11?  ™"°-  "°  ■""  ''"""av'I  d,,"; 
>l>atlliei.Klustrialdcmor-il,V„'  ""'aiiciliation  of  ,|,e  slue,     ■,-,  ^ 

I  r^lt  far  more  b,  tl^  1:^  r.^tr  V"",  ^^'^"'^  '"^'  ^  .        '  "' 
It  may  be  remarked    hovvevr   h  !  ''''  ""■'  ™"on-gro»ers       ""'°' 

-ab„oste„tire,ys„'se    ,:,,;,:'.:  "'■  ""',  "'"-  ofco.;  „   .r/.S»- 
was  but  slightly  airecte  I   a  sm-,  I        ,        ""■'  ""^  '"''acco-imerest   ■"""'■ 

.Ist;"'  "'■""  '™-  ""■"   M    of  ,t'2a^->d  Virginia  bave,  for  .',:;:;' 
"'""  '"=  1""°'"y  Induced  in  each  S,a,e  '!!  '"■°''''"-    ™^  --""-"ing  .abfe 


Kentucky 
Virginia    . 

Total . 
North  Carolina 
Tennessee 
Missouri  . 
Maryland 
Oliio 

Total . 
Pennsylvania  . 
J'ldiana    . 

•Connecticut 

Massachusetts . 
Illinois 

^'lier  States    . 

Grand  total 


55.501,196 
5'5,So3,227 

"2,304,423 
".984,786 
20,148,932 

^7,113,784 
21,407,497 

*°'454,449 


ioS,ro2,433 

'23,967,757 

232,070,190 
32,853.250 

38,931,277 
25.086,196 
38,410,965 
25.528,972 


'05.305,869 
38,086,364 

'43,392,233 
11,150,087 
2 ',465,452 
'2,320,483 

'5.785,339 
18,741,973 


'93,413,871        WSSnSr^    1' 

39-,66o,85o      221,855,567 


■''■'5.655      434,.o,„„      5;^ 


130,000,000 
59.240,0001 

189,240,000 
'4,750,000 
35.000,000 
40,000,000 

'' ^,000,000 

'  ■>.  ';oo,ooo 

314,490,000 
16,000,000 

12,750,000 

9,900,000 
8,500,000 
8,000,000 
9,707,0008 

379,347,000 


'^-'"d-»,.4o.ooofro„,Wes.  Virgin,-,  ,,     ,  —-^ 

« all  in  the  ubie  i  \xr- ^  '^'"^" 'ast  five  Stat«  =1,  


94 


IND  US  TRIA  L    HIS  TOR  Y 


tures  in  pro 
duction. 


This  irregularity  of  distribution  will  more  clearly  appear  on  a  more  minute 
examination  of  returns.  Thus  one  county  in  New  Hampshire  (Cheshire) 
Other  fea-  yielded  niuety-sevcn  per  cent  of  the  State's  crop  in  1870.  Three 
counties  in  Massachusetts,  adjoining  the  Connecticut  River, 
yielded  all  but  23,610  of  the  7,812,885  pounds  raised  in  that 
State.  Connecticut  grows  some  in  each  of  her  eight  counties ;  and  yet 
Hartford  County  produced  5,830,209  of  the  8,328,798  pounds  raised  in  the 
State  that  year.  In  New-York  State,  three  counties  (Onondaga,  Chemung,  and 
Steuben)  yielded  1.884,048  out  of  2,324,730  pounds.  Pennsylvania  produces 
seven  times  what  New  \'ork  d:)es ;  and  yet  the  great  proportion  of  her  yield 
is  confinetl  to  Bucks,  Lancaster,  and  York  Counties ;  while  nine-tenths  of 
what  is  grown  in  lUicks  County  is  i)roduced  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the 
old  William  I'enn  mansion,  in  Falls  Township.  In  1869  three-fourths  of 
Ohio's  yield  was  inside  of  one  county  (Montgomery)  ;  although  the  next  year 
the  crop  was  so  disseminated,  that,  according  to  the  returns,  ten  counties 
produced  only  a  trille  over  half.  In  the  great  tobacco  belt,  of  course,  the 
distribution  is  considerably  more  even  in  proportion  to  the  whole  yield ;  yet 
the  difference  between  the  yield  of  the  several  towns  in  a  county  is  often- 
times very  marked. 

Among  the  more  marked  minor  changes  in  the  production  of  tobacco 
is  the  development  of  the  yield  in  Indiana,  Illinois,  Pennsylvania,  Con- 
Production  necticut,  and  Massachusetts,  within  the  jiast  twenty-five  years, 
by  States.  Ohio  had  already  come  to  grow  it  largely  prior  to  1S50.  The 
two  States  next  west,  doubtless,  were  incited  to  the  experiment  more  by  her 
example  than  by  any  thing  else.  In  New  England  the  culture  is  confined 
mostly  to  the  Connecticut  and  Housatonic  Valleys ;  though  tobacco-raising 
was  scarcely  known  there  even  in  1850.  Massachusetts  yielded  but  138,426 
pounds  that  year;  while  in  i860  she  produced  3,233,198,  and  now  raises  more 
than  8,000,000  pounds  annually.  Pennsylvania  raised  but  912,651  jiounds  in 
1850;  but  in  1875  ^^^'"  crop  amounted  to  16,000,000  pounds.  New  York  re- 
turned 83,189  pounds  as  her  yield  in  1850.  In  1869  the  figures  were 
8,500,000  :"  since  then  they  have  greatly  declined.  This  decline,  as  also  that 
to  be  noticed  in  some  of  the  other  States,  is  probably  less  than  is  returned. 
Coming  to  the  more  proiluctive  regions,  it  is  to  be  observed  that  Maryland, 
North  Carolina,  (^hio,  anil  Tennessee  have  bravely  held  their  own  during  the 
past  quarter  of  a  century,  on  the  whole,  though  not  doing  as  well  now  as  they 
did  formerly.  Virginia,  long  the  chief  producer,  has  been  compelled  to  take 
a  second  place  in  the  line  ;  and  Kentucky  has  come  to  the  head  of  the  pro- 
cession. This  westward  movement  of  the  centre  of  production  is  also 
noticeable  in  the  growth  of  Missouri's  production. 

The  varieties  of  tobacco  raised  in  the  United  States  differ  somewhat 
according  to  the  section.  Connecticut  yields  a  light-colored,  fine-fibred  leaf, 
which  makes  particularly  good  wrappers,   and  which  is  exi)orted  largely  to 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


95 


lore  minute 
(Cheshire) 
,70.    Three 
icut    River, 
scd  in  that 
is;   and  yet 
aised  in  the 
benning,  and 
nia  produces 

of  her  yield 

ne-tenths  of 

icinity  of  the 

cc-fourlhs   of 

the  next  year 

ten  counties 
of  course,  the 
ole  yield;  yet 
ounty  is  often- 

on  of  tobacco 
isylvania,  Con- 
:nty-fwc   years, 
to   1850.     The 
[it  more  by  her 
ire  is  confined 
tobacco-raising 
led  but  138,426 
low  raises  more 
^651  pounds  in 
New  York  re- 
lic figures  were 
me,  as  also  that 
[an  is  returned, 
that  Maryland, 
,wn  during  the 
'cU  now  as  they 
mpelled  to  take 
ad  of  the  pro- 
uction   is   also 

[iffer  somewhat 
Ifme-fibrcd  leaf, 
Irted  largely  to 


FIKST   PIPE. 


Ha\ana  for  the  fimous  Havana  cigars.    This  variety  is  used  also  for  the  fillers 
of  a  cheaper  grade  of  cigars,     AJassachusetts,  New  Hampshire,  New  York, 
and  Ohio  mostly  raise  the  Connecticut  seed-leaf;  although  West-   varieties  of 
field,  Mass.,  has  a  cross    between  the  Connecticut  and  Cuban ;   tobacco 
and  Ohio  has  also  the  so-called  "  Baltimore  Cuba,"  and  some  of  ^fown. 
the  stronger,  heavier  Virginia  and  Kentucky  varieties,  which  are  cut  or  pressed 
for  chewing,  and  are  exported,     (jadsden  County,  Florida,  has  alone  succeed- 
ed in  raising  the  Cuban  tobacco  in  all  its  excellence.     It  has  a  narrow  leaf, 
and  possesses  the  peculiar  aroma  and  delicious  fragrance  that  characterize 
tlie  genuine  Havana  cigar.     The  northern  counties  of  North  Carolina  raise 
particularly  fine  wrappers,  being  both  light-coloretl  and  of  fine  texture.      In 
other  parts  of  the  State,  coarser,  ranker  kinds  are  cultivated.     In 
Maryland  two  principal  varieties  are  noticeable,  —  the  broad  and 
narrow  leaf     The  former  commands  the  higher  price  :    but  the 
latter  yields  the  greater  quantity.     Only  a  little  is  used  for  wrap- 
|>ers ;    most  of  it  is  used   for  the  fillers  of  strong  cigars,  snuff, 
and  as  plug  and  twist  for  chewing.     It  is  exported  largely,  es- 
pecially to  France.     \V'hen  cured,  it  varies  in  color  from  a  bright 
yellow  to  nutmeg  or  mahogany.     The  same  is  the  case  with  Vir- 
ginia's product  and  Kentucky's,  which  are  of  coarse  texture  and 
great  pungency.     These  three  States  are  the  principal  exporters  of  the  leaf 

We  have  already  remarked,  that,  previous  to  the  Revolution,  tobacco  was 
for  a  long  time  our  most  valuable  export ;  and  our  export  constituted,  doubt- 
less, nearly  or  quite  three-fourths  of  our  production.  Our  export 
of  1790,  which  was  118,460  hogsheads,  was  not  reached  again 
nominally  until  1840,  although  in  the  interim  the  quantity  contained  in  a 
hogshead  materially  increased.  A  hogshead  of  tobacco  now  averages  between 
1,200  and  1,450  pounds.  Herewith  we  give  a  statement  of  our  exports  since 
1 840 ;  — 

HOGSHEADS. 

IS4O 119,484 

1S4I 147,828 

IS42 158,710 

1843 94.454 

1S44 163,042 

1845 147,168 

1846 147,998 

1847 378,440 

1848 130,665 

1S49 101,521 

^850 145,729 

'851 95,945 

^852 137,097 

1853 159,853 

1854 126.107 

'855 150,213 


Exports. 


'%^ 


96 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


HOGSHEADS. 

1856 116,962 

1857 156,848 

1858 127,670 

1859 198,846 

i860 167,274 

IS61 160,816 

1862 107,233 

1863 111,896 

1864 109,905 

1865 149)032 

POUNDS. 

1866 190,826,248 

IS67 184,803,065 

I86S 206,020,504 

1869 181,527,630 

1870 185,748,881 

I87I 215,667,604 

1872 234,936,892 

1873 213,995,176 

1874 318,097,804 

1875 223,901,913 

1876 218,310,265 

1877 282,386,426 


I  «;;  . 


Our  present  export  amounts  to  more  than  two-thirds  of  the  crop-returns, 
but  probably  amounts  to  scarcely,  if  any,  more  than  half  our  real  production. 
Where  th  '^^^^  value  of  our  tobacco  export  is  upwards  of  twenty  million 
export  goes,  dollars.  Most  of  the  product  goes  abroad  in  the  form  of  leaf- 
tobacco  :  only  a  small  proportion  of  it  is  manufactured.  Some 
of  the  raw  material  comes  back  to  us  worked  up,  though  but 
Most  of  our  little  import  is  of  foreign  varieties,  desired  for  their  pecul- 


and  in  what 
form. 


little. 


iar  flavors.  The  great  bulk  of  our  export  goes  to  England,  France,  Holland, 
and  Germany,  In  the  large  cities,  there  are  extensive  cigar-manufactories. 
In  England,  the  tobacco  from  America  is  chiefly  for  chewing.  Scotland's  im- 
port is  largely  converted  into  snuff. 

It  is  worth  noticing,  in  connection  with  our  exports  of  tobacco,  that  Euro- 
pean countries  impose  a  very  heavy  tax  upon  the  American  article  ;  England's 
Foreign  duty  ^^^^^  amounting  to  seventy-five  cents  a  pound,  and  the  average 
upon  to-  duty  on  the  bulk  of  American  tobacco  imported  into  all  Europe 
being  about  fifty  cents  a  pound.  In  some  of  those  countries  the 
cultivation  of  the  plant  is  prohibited,  in  order  that  the  government  may  get 
the  full  benefit  of  this  source  of  revenue.  In  1859  the  United  States  made 
an  unsuccessful  attem.pt  to  secure  the  repeal  of  these  taxes.  Were  they  once 
removed,  undoubtedly  our  exports,  and  consequently  our  production,  would 
be  greatly  increased. 


HOGSHEADS. 
116,962 
156,848 
127,670 
198,846 
167,274 
160,816 
107,233 
111,896 
109,905 
149,032 

POUNDS. 
190,826,248 
184,803,065 
206,020,504 
181,527,630 
185,748,881 
215,667,604 
234.936,892 

2 '3-995. 1 76 
318,097,804 
223,901,913 
218,310,265 
282,386,426 


the  crop-returns, 

real  production. 

)f  twenty  million 

the  form  of  leaf- 

ifactured.     Some 

up,  though  but 

i  for  their  pecul- 

France,  Holland, 

ar-manufactories. 

Scotland's  im- 

•acco,  that  Euro- 
rticle;  England's 
and  the  average 
into  all  Europe 
ise  countries  the 
jrnment  may  get 
ted  States  made 
Were  they  once 
oduction,  would 


OF    Tf/E    UmTED   STATES. 


97 


Jt  is  estimated  th-^t  tu^       , ,.  ^ 

000,000  pounds      r^n  . .        '""'■^'^  '  production  of  tobacco  to  H       • 

tnes  that  produce  it  either  use  1  r"'"^'  °'  '^"-     ^'^''  ^-n-  Wo^ 

or  call  for  even  more,  as  do  F  aZ    ITr""  "'^P'^''  "^^  ^^-co,   -^crn"""- 

the  main  resource  of  Norther^  k::o  "e'  ''^"^^"^-     '^'^^  ^"-^  ^^^  therefore, 

-^^^^o':^;:Z:J-^  '-'^  -"-"  dollars   or  more   to 
to  resnrf  tr.   •  ^^  admission  into  fornirr^  ^°   "s. 

calculation.  ^     '^'''  '"^'"  ^  development  almost  bevond  I"""*" 

rj-,,  '-'»-^un(.i    American 

Jiie  several  wavs  of  usinrr  tr.u  product. 

in  popular  favor     Th.   ^'^^'^  '"  ^^^^s,  and  cigarettes  hav^  err  ^^^" '"'' 

„n;^  ^hesale  of  ciMrptt^c       ,.,^"^^  "^^^  grown  c'earettc.. 

unimportant  item  in  tr.rX  ,  '^arettes,  until  a  year  and  i  h.u 

-e  no,v  cTer:,;;'^  "™"  '°  P-cire'cL'^":'';''°»".^^'''efact 

"'"ong  smokers  '. '"""'"  "'  "'"  ^-"^  0/0!™'^"  °^  '^',«"^'  ™d.  -^Wle 
'he  gfeate.  r:   "''  ""'  "^  ^  raster  of  eco„o„r  t,'  'T''  "  ''  ^  'i*"" 

■"«   ^igtpri    d":™'  '^  '"°™  ''^  "-  trade  r.f;  p.^'^  ""l-'"  *='^«'  '"« 
Piialitv  of  H,  ''""'  ""'«.     This  ,w.        ■"""""'cti.red  in  smaller 

from  abo^rxiiy^"^' "•"'■'=" «- '« ot:  oriri''''r  "^  ^^^  «"- 

Sreat  exten/  ,  ™'^"' "'■■"""i«,„e  is  „o,v  carried  ''  •■""'°''  exclusively 

"■-,  Se  te"rr  "T  '™'^-  ^--'"00,,::;;  tr'"' "-"'  "> ' 

-■-"-rs  a.  those  pMc'satT"''  """  =°"'  "'"ct  che^T,  r"  V""  '"'' 
"■"easing  ^de  ;„'  fi  "  ''"  ''"'  '"  ''•■'ve  become  grea  v  ' T  ^"•"  """"'■ 
affirm,  i„  relatin,  '  .T  ^^''"  '"  ""»  countrv  rf  ^'"'>^.  "'"'"ed  at  the 
"*™..s.  be  a  °e  "''™"'"«  <^">"™"  »    ci,,,^^""",  "'""'"■-tMrcrs 

'"Percf'.,;  ■     e     rcr'"'""-^    '"""-"ents    tt  e^'f '   '""  "  '^ 
'"y  large  decrease  i     1      "'"?  ''  ■"••"'=•    Statistics       „•",  "'""""^  "" 

^  According:  to  the  Bureau  of 


98 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


Statistics,  the  total  number  of  cigars  and  cheroots  upon  which  the  internal- 
revenue  tax  was  paid  during  the  fiscal  yeai*  ending  June  30,  1876,  was 
1,828,807,396.  This  is  a  decrease  of  nearly  98,000,000  cigars  from  the  year 
previous.  The  amount  of  cigars  manufactured  and  imported  in  this  country 
during  the  year  1875  reached  nearly  2,000,000,000.  The  value  of  the  im- 
ported cigars  consumed  in  the  United  States  during  1876  amounted  to 
^2,289,712.89,  and  of  snuff  to  $18,470. 


-'»!  'i 


hich  the  internal- 
ne  30,  1876,  was 
ars  from  the  year 
;cl  in  this  country 
value  of  the  im- 
576    amounted  to 


Of    r//£    UNITED    STA 


TES. 


99 


CHAPTER     VIII. 

GRASS    AND    HAY. 

'-S  and  .e.„c,  a^Xtt:"  """'  '^'^  ">=  >vi« i™  ^-'^"^  «>e 
"""  """--^  dying  of  ,^^J^''  7'  S'"'  <langer  of  .^e  c«  e   ?'"-'-' 

m  fdo,t  '  «"'"=•'  ""■'■■^^d  -vere  m,  r     T^""^'  """-•■  »''   "'""'■ 

,^  *'^"  ■•"«!   olher  "artificial" 


lOO 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


'\ 


i    ' « 


Timothy. 


Probably  the  most  nu'.ritiotis  hay  in  this  country  is  made  from  the  so- 
called  "  Timothy-grass,"  which  is  named  after  Timothy  Hanson,  who  carrietl 
the  seed  of  it  from  New  York  to  Virginia  and  Carolina  about  the 
middle  of  the  last  century.  It  is  also  known  as  Herd's-grass, 
especially  in  New  England.  Jared  I'^liot  says  that  a  man  named  Herd  found 
it  growing  in  a  swamp  near  Piscataqua,  N.H.,  early  in  the  eighteenth  century. 
In  England  it  was  already  known  and  cultivated,  and  it  is  said  to  have  been 
taken  to  Virginia  by  Peter  Wynche  in  1 760.  The  Hungarian  millet,  which 
has  been  moderately  cultivated  within  a  few  years  past,  was  introduced  by 
the  Department  of  Agriculture.  Another  importation  is  the  orchard- grass,  or 
rough  cock's-foot,  common  the  world  over,  and  introduced  into  Virginia  from 
England  in  1 764,  and  which  afterwards  obtained  a  wide  popularity  farther  north. 
It  endures  drought  admirably,  yields  a  luxuriant  aftermath,  and  affords  excel- 
lent pasturage.  Clover,  which  is  a  forage  plant  of  the  leguminous  family,  and 
not  a  genuine  grass,  was  likewise  imported  into  this  country. 

The  varieties  of  native  grass  i'i  this  country  are  almost  innumerable, 
though  but  few  have  ai.y  agricultural  value.  Among  the  earliest  known  and 
Varieties  of  "^°^*  esteemed  is  tl  e  Kentucky  blue-grass,  widely  prevalent  in 
early  the  West  and  in  New  England.     It  thrives  best  on  limestone  soils, 

grasses.  ^^^^j  j^  ^^^^  fattening.     Cattle  and  horses  fed  thereon  are  usually 

the  choicest-looking  stock.  It  is  an  early  and  vigorous  plant,  and  makes 
a  permanent  turf.  It  is  prized  both  for  hay  and  pasturage.  The  red-top, 
sometimes  called  Herd's-grass,  in  Pennsylvania  and  farther  south  is  quite  a 
favorite,  but  is  generally  mixed  with  Timothy  and  clover.  A  grass  called 
"  English  bent,"  indigenous  to  the  Connecticut  Valley,  and  swamp  wire  or 
fowl  nif'adow,  are  two  local  New-England  varieties.  Besides  these,  the  salt- 
marsh,  goose  or  creeping  sea-meadow,  is  frequently  grown  at  the  seaside,  and, 
mixed  with  other  hay,  is  regarded  as  excellent  fodder.  Most  of  the  wild 
prairie-grasses,  while  affording  good  pasturage,  are  not  eligible  for  hay.  In 
the  Far  West,  mostly  in  "the  Territories,  the  plains  are  covered  with  a  short,, 
curly,  native  vegetation,  called  "  gramma,"  or  "  buffalo-grass."  It  is  the 
natural  and  principal  food  of  the  bison,  and  cattle  are  fond  of  it.  It  is  not 
gathered,  however,  as  hay. 

The  increasing  demand  for  fodder  for  live-stock,  and  the  improvement  in 
implements  for  cutting  and  curing  hay,  — the  mower,  horse-rake,  tedder,  and 
horse-fork,  —  have,  within  the  present  century,  given  a  great  stim- 
ulus to  the  hay-business.  In  the  Southern  States  litUe  attention 
is  given  to  it,  because  the  stock  can  be  pastured  so  large  a  part 
of  the  season ;  but,  in  the  North,  the  severity  of  the  season  com- 
pels the  farmer  to  devote  more  attention  thereto.  There  is  a  large 
demand  for  hay,  too,  in  the  cities,  where  horses  are  stall-fed  the  year  round, 
and  where  large  numbers  of  these  animals  are  employed  for  private  and  public 
conveyance  and  cartage.     The  villages  and  smaller  cities  in  agricultural  dis- 


ll 


Causes  of 
incrcaco  of 
ci:ltivation 
and  con- 
sumption. 


^^    r/f^    UNITED    STATES. 


lOI 


CLOVER-HULLER. 


Jt  IS  consiiincd,  hovv- 
<^vcr,  almost  excJu- 
s'^'^'ly  at  home. 

Ourccnsus-rcttirns 
'"^'"'Icvi  no  mention 
''^  "•"■  'lay-crop  prior 
to  r84o,i,nvhicIiycar 
the  total  product  was 
'•'-ported   at   10,24s,. 
loS  tons;  in  1850  it 
^^«    '3..S3S,642;    \n 
1S60  it  uas   19,083,. 

S96;  in  1870  it  was  .««. 

27,316,048,  and  in  iS-rc  th« 

ar-otmt  New  York  nrol      .'''""''''^  ^""'^^^  «"'"  of  ^7  8,,  finn  . 

Pennsylvania   2  lo  T        '''  "^^--'y  one-fifth  (nameK    !  "'•     °^  ^^is 

-n^eLond^rClhTo^'^"   '^^'^  ''-      -t^^ 

---early  2,ooo,o;o:nfrr\;:-^-^^^^^ 

1,000,000   tons.      The   r«  . 

s  c„„        ,,,.^,_  PS    n 

™l"c;    although   in   ,8„  „r" 

pen,  of  acreage,  a.  wi„rete„ 


44.841,371 
26,381,512 
23,507,964 


^555,445.930 
294,580,990 
342,203,445 


49,033,364 
27,627,021 
25,282,797 


^475,491.210 
300,259,300 
300,901,252 


103 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


CHAPTER    IX. 


MINOR    CROPS. 


oldest 
cereals. 


BARLEY  grows  wild  in  Sicily,  Asia,  and  the  United  States,  but  is  among 
the  very  earliest  cultiva«^^ed  cereals  of  the  world.     In  this  country  there 
„    ,  are  two  varieties,  two-rowed  and  four-rowed  :  but  in  lOurope  a  kind 

Barley  '  '  ' 

among  the  is  grown  which  has  six  rows  of  kernels  in  a  head,  and  is  without 
the  awn,  or  beard,  which  characterizes  other  barley.  This  is  gen- 
erally planted  in  the  fall,  ours  in  the  spring.  In  remote  times  it 
was  used  largely  for  a  coarse  bread,  and  is  now  used  to  some  extent  abroad  for 
feeding  horses.  Its  principal  use  at  the  present  time  is  for  malt ;  and,  as  our 
crops  are  not  sufficient  for  our  needs,  we  are  obliged  to  import  in  addition  to 
our  own  yield. 

Barley  was  sown  l)y  Gosnold  on  Elizabeth  Islands,  Mass.,  in  1602,  and  by 
the  Jamestown  settlers  in  Virginia  in  161 1;  but  in  the  latter  region  it  soon 
Cultivation  gave  place  to  tobacco-culture.  Good  crops  of  it  were  raised  in 
by  colonists.  Massachusetts  in  1630.  Small  samples  were  sent  out  from  the 
Dutch  colony  of  New  Netherlands  in  1626.  In  1796  it  was  Rhode  Island's 
principal  crop.  It  never  gained  a  very  extensive  foothold  in  this  country, 
and  its  culture  has  been  chiefly  in  those  States  which  give  the  most  attention 
to  grains.  In  1840  we  raised  4,161,504  bushels  :  in  1850  the  amount  returned 
was  5,167,015.  The  census  of  i860  stated  the  total  yield  at  15,825,898,  and 
that  of  1870  at  29,761,305  bushels.  From  the  table  of  minor  -".rops  appended 
to  this  chapter,  it  will  be  seen  that  California  is  the  leading  producer  of  this 
grain,  with  New  York  second,  and  the  grain  States  of  the  North- West  following 
closely. 

Of  all  the  grains,  the  oat  most  nearly  resembles  grass  in  appearance. 
There  is  but  one  principal  variety,  —  the  common  oat,  which  is  thought  to 
have  originated  in  Mesopotamia.  It  grows  in  cold  ''limates  and  sterile  soils, 
and  is  highly  prized  in  Northern  Europe  as  an  article  of  human 
food,  being  used  in  the  form  of  meal  for  porridge  and  small  cakes, 
and  as  grits,  or  groats,  for  gruel.  In  this  country,  however,  it  is  principally 
used  as  horse-feed.  The  straw  is  regarded  as  good  fodder  for  milch-cows. 
The  crop  is  generally  regarded  as  an  exhausting  one. 


Oats. 


I' 


O^    TI/E    irj^rTF.n    STATES. 


'03 


'•'•Ocar.  ,|,c.  I)e|,ar„„  ■    ,f  ""'  '""""  """  ""'•^'  I'lrt. 

r^'>..rns  „f    ;;,,":,  """""^■m.  as  also  of  kX     Th  "  "'"""'"••'"^  ■I'oice 

«''"fro,„,l,    ,;        '"""■'■•■'"'■■/''•-•'•lions  of,,,,  X        '      "     "  ""'"•■  '"'■K'-ly 


-^>'e  ranks  next  to  whP-if  o 

'li^tlllanon  Of  ;i,?l  ""  f  Sland.     The  Un  ; '  t^f  "'"-f-Woned,  ,vi,h 
"'*•    There    re  st^;,;"''  !'":  ■"-'  i^  I-etred  a  o^''!;,,"'!,^'  "'»•  f-  '-e 

S  nve  times  as  many  biish« 


104 


FND  ua  TKiA  I.  ins  rORV 


n 


fls  of  grain,  were  exported  from  Pliiladelphia  alone.  In  1801  the  total  export 
from  tlie  whole  country  was  but  392,276  bushels.  Its  cultivation  spread  pretty 
o(      generally  over  the  Northern  Slates.     Heing  well  adapted  to  sterile 


Incraate 
cultivation. 


(1 


foothold  in 


Buckwheat. 


soils,  and  not  very  exhaustive,  it  lias  retained  a  good 
the  Mast.  Wheat  so  largely  supplanted  it,  however,  that  the  im  rease  in  the 
(Top  has  been  very  gradual,  no  real  headway  having  been  made  at  all  for  nearly 
forty  years. 

Thus  the  total  product  in  1840  was  18,645,567  bushels;  in  1850  it  had 
Staiisticiof  fallen  to  14,188,813;  in  i860  it  had  risen  to  21,101,380;  but  in 
production.  1870  it  was  down  to  16,918,793,  at  whi(  h  time  Pennsylvania  was 
the  large>il  producer.  New  York  second,  and  Illinois  third.  It  still  has  a  good 
show  in  New  iCngland,  but  is  more  largely  cultivated  in  the  Western  grain 
States.  CJiir  total  product  is  not  consumed  at  home,  and  there  is  a  slight 
export  of  it  to  lOurope. 

Buckwheat,  like  rye,  is  generally  a  secondary  crop  in  this  country.     In 

some  i)laces  it  is  grown  simply  for  the  honey  it  gives  the  bees. 

The  grain  is  useil  chiefly  in  flour,  for  pancakes. 
It  was  brought  to  this  country  by  the  Dutch  West-India  Company,  an<l 
sown  on  Manhattan  Island  for  horse-feed.     The  Swedvs  also  cultivated  it  in 
Early  hii-       New  Jersey  and    Pennsylvania.     It   has   been   grown   chiefly  for 
*"'■>'•  home-consumption,  and  the  extension  of  the  volume  of  the  croj) 

has  been  very  slow.  The  (luaiuity  raised  in  1840  was  returned  at  7,291,74.5 
bushels;  in  1850  it  was  8,956,912;  in  i860  it  was  17,571,818;  but  in  1870 
only  9,821,721,  of  which  New  York  and  Pennsylvania  raised  fully  two-thirds, 
the  former  rather  more  than  the  latter.  The  rest  was  pretty  evenly  distributed 
among  the  Northern  States. 

Pease  and  beans  have  been  grown  in  moderate  quantity  in  this  country 
both  for  the  table  and  for  cattle-fodder.  Gosnold  planted  them  in  1602,  and 
Pease  and  the  Dutch  raised  them  in  1644;  but  it  is  known  that  the  natives 
beans.  cultivated  them  before  the  white  settlers  did.     On  the  South-Atlan- 

tic coast  they  soon  became  jjopular,  and  from  those  colonies  were  exported  in 
moderate  quantities  before  the  Revolution.  Thus  North  Carolina  exported 
10,000  bushels  in  1753;  South  Carolina,  9,16-  in  1754;  and  Savannah,  400 
in  1755.  The  total  exports  of  the  two  for  twenty  years  prior  to  181 7  averaged 
90,000  bushels.  In  1850  the  total  product  of  the  country  was  9,219,901 
bushels;  in  i860  it  was  15,061,995  ;  1/Ut  by  1870,  like  several  of  the  minor 
grain-crops,  it  fell  off  again,  the  census-returns  being  5,746,027. 

The  two  kinds  of  potatoes,  Irish  and  sweet,  are  said  to  have  originated  in 
this  country,  although  the  fact  is  not  established ;  and  the  two  varieties  are 

somewhat  confused  in  early  accounts.     It  is  said  that  Raleigh  took 

back  the  potato  to  England  in  1586  ;  and  the  Spaniards  are  said 
to  have  found  the  people  of  Quito  eating  a  tuber,  which  answers  the  descrip- 
tion of  the  sweet-potato,  thirty  or  forty  years  before ;  and  by  these  explorers 


Potatoes. 


O^   ms    urn  TED   STATES. 


<lH«  plant  was  introduced  to  Kurn...  .  •  '°^ 

-"'  "^"y.  and  even  Koin,.  to  Ar.r "";*"'  ^"^  ""^"'-  '"  Spain   ,•>,,    . 

Krown  extensively  in  N.-w  r..r  .  '^  ""'  '  oimtry,  tho.iL'h  it  i 

em  States,  from  New  -""^ 

Kiigland     westward. 

Nt-Mtlierkin<l  attained 

much      prominence 

until  about  the  mid- 

^Ilt-'  of  the  last  ren- 

l'"-y,  when  we  began 

''J  make  some  slight 

exports,    ^riiX     have 

t-ontinued  to  do   so 

to  the  present  day 

t'Tned    ,08  .n/^.,"'"'^  ^''''  fluctuated  largely       T,  ^^*"   >'''''  the 

«»•;.«  .0  .lisense.     In  .g^o'L,  „ t    '"""'   -"^  '"    '04.056,044    '""•'''- 

™l  4=,O95,o.,0  of  sweet      I„   ,7       '"•'■>^-^''7  l^uslu*  of  IrW,  „„,„ 

n'«.ancU,,7o,S2.of,.     ,  '°  «  produced   .4,  ,„  ''/""'"'"• 

,r.r  '/"y.<^24  Of  tne    alter      In    tC-     .1  "^>»'3,17-47J   of  the    fnr 

of  (lu.  r  ^  '•'■"P  of  187=;  down  tr.  f'q^redations  of 

»"e  from   imported   roots     Tl,  '^  """  ""^^  cultivated  in  A„,  • 

Massaclntsetts   i„  .6.8  or  ,Z  '  T  ^°'™  '°'  homcise    „  ""'^^ 

V-Sinia  i„  „48;  their  ^..^r  'Lei'),        "  '"^    '"  '^■•»'  ™'    "  """• 

^870  the  product  had  increased  to 


IP 


if 


IND  US  TRIA  L    HIS  TOR  Y 


25,456,669  pounds.  A  heavy  export-demand  between  1850  and  i860  rather 
stimulated  the  production  ;  though  the  inauguration  of  the  system  of  stretching 
wires  from  i)ole  to  pole,  instead  of  using  isolated  poles,  by  Thomas  D.  Ayls- 
worth  of  Herkimer  County,  New  York,  and  other  causes,  seemed  to  confine  the 
industry  chiefly  to  that  State.     During  the  latter  part  of  the  next  decade  the 

crop  in  the  East  fared 
poorly  three  or  four 
years  in  succession ; 
and  this  gave  the 
Wisconsin  farmers  a 
chance,  v/hich  they 
handsomely  i  m  - 
proved.  In  1870 
New  York  produced 
only  two-thirds  of  the 
total  yield,  and  Wis- 
consin nearly  one- 
fifth  :  the  rest  was 
distributed  among  the 
Northern  States,  At- 
tempts have  been 
made  recently  to  cul- 
tivate hops  in  the 
Southern  States,  but 
with  little  success.  In  California,  however,  the  hop-crop  is  beginning  to 
assume  prominence,  both  for  quantity  and  quality ;  the  price  being  the  highest 
of  any  hops  raised  in  America. 

Our  exportation  has  been  very  uneven.  American  hops  are  rather  stronger 
and  ranker  than  those  of  England  and  Bavaria,  and  are  not  sought  for,  except 
Export  of  when  the  crops  in  Europe  are  short.  Thus  in  1855  we  exported 
*'°P^'  a  trifle  over  four  million  pounds,  whereas  during  no  previous  year 

had  we  exported  much  more  than  a  quarter  of  a  million  pounds.  In  1856 
the  export  was  but  a  trifle  over  a  million,  and  in  1857  a  trifle  under  a 
million.  During  the  next  twenty  years  the  crop  gradually  reached  and  passed 
the  figures  of  1855.  In  1875  we  exported  5,331,950,  and  in  1876  neady 
9,000,000  pounds. 

Flax,  the  fibre  from  which  linen  is  made,  grows  wild  in  nearly  all  countries 
of  the  globe,  but  was  probably  cultivated  first  in  Egypt.  It  is  very  largely 
grown  in  the  north  of  Europe ;  Russia,  Belgium,  and  I'  eland 
having  a  wide  reputation  for  the  quantity  and  quality  of  their 
pn  duct.  The  plant  has  other  uses  too.  Its  seed  yields  a  valuable  oil  for 
painting  and  burning,  —  namely,  the  linseed-oil ;  and  the  refuse  oil-cake,  as 
also  the  ground  meal,  are  highly  prized  as  fodder  for  cattle.     The  seed  is  used 


FODDER-CITTEK. 


Flax. 


O^    rilE    UA-fTED    STATE.S. 


medicinally,  and  in  several  oth^r «        ^-  '°^ 

cnnsylvania   raised   a  sufficiem  crop  ,0  ex„T'  '"  ''«'  -'«'^"'l  .7  9 

>*c.   to,vee„  ^>e„e,.fi  J:  ™    ;;^^-;;-^y.  0„i„,  I„„ia„,  and  m1  ,„ 

resemb    g  tm,;  Ir'Tr'  °''  "^i''  «->  ^"d  j„te  -  ,  ,  , 

^  "t;mp,  and  used  for  chenn  Kn^  •  J"fe»  —  a  coarse  India  fihr<- 

■•""I  o,.r  i„„«r,a„o„  has  al^va^    &'"»•-'>"' f='"en  short  of  o,;:,,"' 
SSregate  a.  the  „rcse„,  .h„e    o  a   '  I     ''':■  """""""^  '"   ""= 

.10  ars,, he  Department  of  Agrialrelf'""  thirty  ,„(„,„„   J-.=. 

t"   S:T  ;"°""«"'  **  «  t",:™  S-t  atte„tio„  to  ,hese  p,a„,s, 

'H-it  the  India  jute  ,vas  bein,.  lirirelj  !        ™'/™"d  »"":  fifteen  vears  i<-o 

after  removing  the  fl  ^' '"''  ^°""^'  ^^at  four-fifths  of  M  '"^ '''■>^ 

i^vijig  tJie  flax  was  \vnc;f«ri  .       .  •  °^  the  tow  fihrp  i,>a- 

"    Sso  t„e  total  yield  of  flax  was  ,,„..     "*""'"  ^^Wbuted  five-sixths 
-"'^  ■"  '%9'  the  returns  ^en  j rf^rr?:''  »"  '-^^'3-  "u^df^f 

./^''''^l'™"*  of  flax,  and  566,86; 

Census  of  i860. 


io8 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


of  minor 
crops. 


Ramie. 


bushels  of  seed;  but  in  1870  the  crop  was  27,133,034  pounds  of  flax,  and 

Distribution     iJ30>444  bushels  of  seed. 

On  the  opposite  page  we  give  a  table  showing  the  distribution 
of  the  minor  crops  thus  far  treated  for  1870. 

It  is  not  out  of  place  to  say  something  here  concerning  the  production  of 
ramie,  —  a  grass  which  is  now  being  utilized  in  India.'  More  than  seventy 
years  ago,  attention  was  first  directed  to  the  properties  of  a  fibre 
whicli  to  many  persons  has  since  been  made  familiar  as  the 
material  out  of  which  the  fabric  known  as  Chinese  or  Indian  grass-cloth  is 
manufactured.  Experiments  were  soon  after  made,  under  the  auspices  of  the 
British  Admiralty,  to  test  the  strength  of  this  fibre  ;  the  result  of  which  showed, 
that,  in  whatever  way  the  test  is  applied,  the  grass  is  three  times  stronger 
than  the  best  Russian  hemp,  while  it  is  also  much  lighter.  For  all  the 
purposes  for  which  hemp  is  used  it  was  admitted  to  be  very  much  superior. 
In  consequence  of  difficulties  that  arose  in  the  process  of  preparation, 
the  matter  remained  a  long  time  in  abeyance.  It  was  not  until  the  last 
Russian  war  that  the  subject  received  fresh  notice.  International  strife  has 
often  been  the  stimulus  to  new  discoveries.  When  Fr  ach  ports  v/ere 
blockaded,  and  French  commerce  was  destroyed,  in  the  days  of  the  first 
Napoleon,  French  physicians  found  a  good  substitute  for  ipecacuanha  in  the 
root  of  the  violet.  Our  own  civil  war  stimulated  the  production  of  cotton  in 
Egypt,  India,  and  the  Pacific  islands.  The  Russian  war,  cutting  off  the 
supply  of  flax  from  Western  Europe,  led  to  the  increased  cultivation  of  jute 
in  India,  and  to  its  extended  use  and  application ;  at  the  same  time,  it  turned 
attention  anew  to  the  Indian-grass  as  another  substitute ;  and,  although  it  is 
only  recently  that  any  practical  result  has  seemed  likely,  it  promises  now  to 
develop  into  an  important  source  of  industry. 

In  addition  to  the  great  strength  of  the  fibre,  it  has  a  remarkable  power  of 
resistance  to  the  influence  of  moisture.  Compared  with  other  fibres,  it  may 
almost  be  said  to  be  indestructible.  It  is  as  fine  as  flax,  and  presents  a  glossy 
lustre  more  nearly  resembling  silk.  Manufacturers  give  it  an  intermediate 
position  between  animal  and  vegetable  fibres  ;  and  those  who  have  interested 
themselves  about  it  appear  to  consider  it  as  an  equal  if  not  superior  substitute 
for  flax,  and  very  much  superior  in  every  respect  to  hemp.  The  chief  reason 
why  it  has  not  been  sooner  brought  into  use  lies  in  the  difficulty  that  has 
hitherto  been  encountered  in  the  preparation.  Six  years  ago  the  Indian  Gov- 
ernment offered  a  premium  equal  to  twenty-five  thousand  dollars  for  the 
best  machine  for  separating  the  fibre  from  the  stems.  This  was,  however,  or'y 
partially  successful.  Only  one  machine  was  sent  in,  and  that  only  pardy  met 
the  requirements.  At  that  time  it  was  thought  that  only  the  green  stems  could 
be  operated  upon  ;  but  it  has  since  been  shown  that  this  is  a  mistake.  The 
dried  stems  afford  a  fibre  equal  in  strength  and  durability,  and  only  inferior  in 

•  This  account  of  ramie  is  drawn  from  The  New- York  Times,  Aug.  17,  1875. 


9.' 


P 


,s  of  flax,  and 
\e  distribution 

production  of 
;  than  seventy 
-rties  of  a  fibre 
familiar  as  the 
11  grass- cloth  is 
auspices  of  the 
[  which  showed, 

times  stronger 
r.     For  all   the 

much  superior. 

of    preparation, 

)t  until  the  last 

itional  strife  has 

ich  ports  v/cre 
days  of  the  first 
;cacuanha  in  the 
tion  of  cotton  in 

cutting  off  the 
[viltivation  of  jute 
^e  time,  it  turned 

id,  although  it  is 

promises  now  to 

larkable  power  of 
[her  fibres,  it  may 
1  presents  a  glossy 
I  an  intermediate 
lo  have  interested 
luperior  substitute 
iThe  chief  reason 
lifficulty  that  has 
the  Indian  Gov- 
dollars  for  the 
as,  however,  or^y 
[t  only  partly  met 
Teen  stems  could 
1  a  mistake.    The 
only  inferior  in 

1875- 


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3  3 


>.    'I 


I  lO 


INDUSTRIAL    IliSTORY 


I' 


%    -'\ 


gloss,  and  for  these  the  existing  machinery  for  flax  and  hemp  is  found  to  be 
well  adapted ;  so  that,  while  the  best  cloth  will  probably  be  made  in  India,  or 
wherever  the  plant  is  grown,  the  manufacture  can  be  made  to  succeed  wher« 
ever  the  stems  are  imported.  It  is  the  knowledge  of  this  fact  that  has  given  a 
new  impulse  to  the  discovery.  The  Indian  (Government  is  encouraging  the 
cultivation  on  a  large  scale.  Within  the  last  few  months  a  great  deal  of  new 
machinery  for  the  manufacture  has  been  patented.  Practical  men  are  busily 
at  work,  and  in  a  short  time  there  is  little  doubt  but  that  manufactured  articles 
from  this  fibre  will  be  placed  upon  the  market.  It  is  looked  upon  already 
as  one  of  the  most  useful  staples,  and  as  likely  to  take  the  place,  either  as  a 
substitute  for  or  in  combination  with  cotton,  flax,  hemp,  jute,  wool,  or  silk,  and 
to  be  valuable,  also,  in  the  manufacture  of  paper  and  for  other  minor  uses. 

The  discovery  cannot,  however,  be  regarded  as  of  much  value  to  our 
people  unless  the  plant  can  be  produced  here.  If  this  cannot  be  done,  it  will 
be  more  likely  to  benefit  the  British  manufacturer  and  Indian  grower,  at  some 
cost  to  our  own.  This  is,  therefore,  an  important  aspect  of  the  question.  It 
is  not  quite  settled  whether  tlie  Indian  and  the  Chinese  fil)res  are  produced  by 
exactly  the  same  plants.  If  they  are  (which  is  most  probable),  the  Chinese 
product  has  a  little  the  advantage  of  the  other  in  the  market.  This  shows 
that  either  climate  or  cultivation  has,  even  there,  something  to  do  with  the 
finality  of  the  fibre.  The  plant  grows  very  freely,  however,  in  India ;  and 
experiments  on  a  small  scale  indicate  that  it  can  be  made  equally  successful 
in  Australia.  It  also  flourishes  wherever  it  has  been  tried  on  the  coast  of  the 
Mediterranean,  and  some  very  fair  samples  of  the  fibre  have  been  grown  in 
the  south  of  France.  With  care,  it  has  been  grown  in  Phigland ;  but  it  never 
can  be  produced  there  on  any  scale  for  commercial  purposes. 

It  is  reasonable  from  this  to  conclude  that  there  are  many  parts  of  the 
United  States  where  it  could  be  cultivated  on  a  large  scale  with  advantage. 
Its  production  in  the  South  might  become  a  new  source  of  wealth,  second 
only,  if  not  superior,  to  cotton.  It  would  be  necessary,  in  the  first  instance,  to 
start  upon  practical  information,  obtained  in  India,  in  regard  to  the  best 
methods  of  cultivation.  Al)Out  this  there  can  be  no  difficulty  ;  and,  whether 
or  not  it  be  ultimately  found  that  the  soil  and  climate  of  this  country  are 
suitable,  the  subject  is  one  which  eminently  deserves  the  careful  consideration 
of  persons  who  are  interested  in  the  maintenance  of  our  manufacturing  in- 
terests. 

Rice  ranks  next  to  wheat  as  the  grain-food  of  human  beings,  taking  the 
whole  world  into  consideration,  although  it  forms  the  staple  of  the  diet 
of  less  civilized  nations  than  the  wheat-consumers.  It  is  most 
commonly  raised  in  India  and  China,  although  Ceylon  and  Java 
produce  it  in  large  tjuantities  also.  It  is  cultivated,  too,  in  France,  Hungary, 
and  other  parts  of  Europe,  and  in  the  United  States  and  South  America.  It 
is  rather  a  tro])ical  plant,  although  it  grows  as  far  north  as  the  Ohio  River ; 


Rice. 


^^"    77/^    UmTED    STATES. 


and  a  wild  rice  rnvprc  fi,^         ,  * " 

Ijushels  to  the  acre.     Rice  In.  .,      T  ^  ^''^  ''  y^^'f^s  only  fifteen  or 

bushels  an  acre  are  prodnced.  ^         '  '""'^  ""^'^'^  from  forty  to  sixty 

from  Scotland  in  iSn  •  th  ^^'"  ^'■°'"  ^he  straw  were  hr.     ,     .- 

"I    i\cw  YOTK   m venter? 

..ch  cleanec,  fc,,,  ,evc„  „„„;'  5 

,7-    ""''P'-OMss  loaves  tl,emi„ 
-nd,,„„  i,  i,  „„„,  „„„,•'>' 

in   laf /""''.,"""!«« '-'">% 
"   t  a,  fo„„.     ■,.„  comploie  ,ho  ,voA 

°    '=a,„„g,  ,|,e  rice  goes  ,|„.o„„,, 

""    pounders    like    those    of   n 
''"""'^-".iil.       Formerly    rice  V, 
cleaned    Ijv    l„„,i     ■  ^       ■"" 

mortars  I,  1  ,■  '"     P't'^^l'-Pine 

mortars  holding  a  bushel.  |„.  „,',,„ 

ofa„,ro„-,,hodj>estle.    N  arly        ! 

J-  Plantation  has  one  Of  ,h?; 

mill^  for  cleaning. 

'J'fie  climax  of  our  rice-culture 

\^'i^  reached  in  the  ye,,- rSr. 

"■^^raised.!,,,,/        '^50,  when  ■--Hr.ucK. 

^'-^  together  with  less  tha^;    oooV"  ,'"'■   "'""  «°'«"-   -"- 

'  "'^' "^"'"'^  or -860,  showing  the 


113 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


if    III 


■|     !j 


! 


I 


crop  of  the  previous  year,  gave  a  total  of  only  187,167,032  pounds,  of  which 
South  Carolina  produced  119,100,528,  Georgia  52,507,652,  North  Carolina 
7,593,976,  Louisiana  6,331,257,  and  the  other  States  together  less  than  2,000,- 
000.  In  South  Carolina  all  but  2,765,729  pounds  were  raised  in  Georgetown, 
Colleton,  Charleston,  and  Beaufort  Counties,  the  first-named  yielding  nearly 
half  of  the  whole.  Nine-tenths  of  Georgia's  yield  that  year  was  confined  to 
Chatham,  Camden,  Mcintosh,  and  Glynn  Counties,  the  first-named  producing 
full  half  of  the  whole.  In  1870  the  total  crop  of  the  country  was  scarcely  a 
third  of  what  it  was  twenty  years  before.  It  was  returned  at  73,635,001 
pounds,  of  which  quantity  South  Carolina  produced  32,304,825,  —  less  than 
half,  instead  of  three-quarters  of  the  whole,  as  in  1850,  —  Georgia  22,277,380, 
Louisiana  15,854,012,  North  Carolina  but  2,059,281,  and  the  other  States 
less  than  1,000,000  pounds. 

The  effect  of  the  war  was  to  nearly  annihilate  this  industry,  labor  being 
Effect  of  war  demoralized,  the  dams,  gates,  and  mills  getting  sadly  out  of  repair, 
upon  this  and  the  rice-fields  growing  up  with  weeds.  Since  the  war  the 
industry.  recuperation  has  been  slow,  but  sure  ;  the  negroes  coming  to  take 
a  proprietary  interest  in  the  cultuie,  and  Louisiana  doing  much  to  extend  and 
develop  this  branch  of  agriculture. 

Prior  to  the  war  we  exported  from  a  third  to  a  half  of  our  crop,  the  aver- 
age for  1850-60  being  60,000,000  pounds  a  year,  valued  at  nearly  $2,000,000. 
Exports  and  During  and  since  the  war  we  imported  to  nearly  the  same  extent, 
imports.  yxxi\X\  about  1870,  when  the  increased  home-production  cut  down 
the  imports  very  perceptibly. 

Before  concluding  this  chapter,  a  word  or  two  is  needed  in  respect  to 
the  cultivation  of  that  luscious  fruit,  the  orange.  In  Florida  Nature  pro- 
duces this  fruit  in  greatest  perfection,  and  within  a  few  years  the 
cultivation  of  oranges  there  has  rapidly  developed.  It  is  said 
that  almost  everybody  in  the  St.  John's  River  country  is  engaged  in  trying 
to  raise  the  golden  fruit.  Very  few  groves  are  in  bearing ;  indeed,  it  has 
been  asserted,  upon  good  authority,  that  between  Jacksonville  and  Enterprise, 
a  distance  of  two  hundred  miles,  there  are  only  about  two  hundred  acres  of 
producing  trees :  but  the  large  profits  realized  from  the  old  groves  has  in- 
duced the  settlers  to  stake  every  thing  upon  the  venture  of  rearing  orchards 
of  their  own.  Nine  men  out  of  ten  are  nursing  young  orchards,  and  waiting 
impatiently  for  them  to  yield  some  return  for  the  money  and  time  expended. 
It  takes  from  six  to  ten  years  to  bring  an  orange-tree  to  bearing.  The 
cost  of  making  a  grove  is  very  heavy.  In  the  first  place,  the  land,  if  on  the 
river,  is  held  at  fancy  prices.  Comparatively  little  of  it  is  adapted  for  orange- 
culture,  and  a  gooci  site  commands  from  a  hundred  dollars  to  two  hundred 
dollars  an  acre  in  its  wild  state.  To  clear  off  the  heavy  growth  of  timber,  and 
get  the  stumps  out,  costs  from  fifty  dollars  to  a  hundred  dollars  an  acre  more. 
Then    the   young   trees    for  planting   are  worth    from   thirty-five    cents   to   a 


Oranges. 


pounds,  of  which 
,  North  Carolina 
■  less  than  2,000,- 
d  in  Georgetown, 
i  yielding  nearly 
was  confined  to 
lamed  producing 
ry  was  scarcely  a 
d  at  73,635,001 
825,  —  less  than 
Drgia  22,277,380, 
the  other  States 

istry,  labor  being 
:ily  out  of  repair, 
nee  the  war  the 
)  coming  to  take 
:h  to  extend  and 

r  crop,  the  aver- 
;arly  ^2,000,000. 
the  same  extent, 
iction  cut  down 


'^n".  stand  a  grov    or     '  "  ""'""■     "^  "'^  •"  .e    k-  ^""^  "^'""S.  .",„-' 
'I'°"s^n<l  or  scvtn  iL        ,  '"'"■  '•'"''  ''""'  himself,  i'  ''""  P""'  &'  hh 

;°"«a„.  ..,.::izz  t"r  -  '^-^  -^^n  ;:::■;;■ ''•^'  ^""" »« 

■"'"g  his  /ir«  inv«,„,emT,        ''  """'■  '"''  'he  ,„„",    T  "'  "»"^T,  the 
"^""Ses.     Still,  if  ,,'"''  '"  •'  '.vgc  %„,.,  by  „  ^'1  °«  °f  l"s  la,„il,,  „,„ 
'l^snotkill,,;,  J;;     /'7!»"cTa„d,lK.p,,,./„     \;"      '^  '-4™  ,o  sell 
«fovc  of  trees  /„  f,,,,   '      .  ""'  '"  'he  end,  realize  ■,  Z    ,         ""'  '"''  'he  frost 

'he crop;  „„„  „,,  fj,  ."^    °7"-'  «ra„ges  a  ,ear,  .vl"';  ,tl    '  '"'  """"ees 

8-e.     TI,o  prospec       *  .tr,"  ""'  """  '^  "aif  to  ,1  tten':  "°.  ^"""^  "^ 
"■■"'"S-     Co„„,i„  '  ^  ,„'  f "  "«  '"enty  dollars  a  year  fro,,!  "P'^"  «  "'e 

-  «  'his  rate  1,!  ,1^ '  "t^o'"'"  '"  '"^  --'  --     IVT  '^  '"^  f-,- 
'h's  Pict„re  not  so  pie,  '      ,  "-'  °^  •■*  '""'•"'"e.     Tl     "  ?'""  '"'  '"'' 

'he  reader  longs  for  the?         ""'emplate;  ye,  ,e,     ""  '"  °'her  .sides  ,o 
»         'he  s,vee,  .roves  and  ,„e  L,'  fo      S,:-  ^^  -->  »hi,e 

tieiicate  and  healthful 


i  in  respect   to 
ia   Nature   pro- 

a  few  years  the 
)ed.  It  is  said 
gaged  in  trying 

indeed,  it  has 
and  Enterprise, 
ndred  acres  of 

groves  has  in- 
earing  orchards 
rds,  and  waiting 
time  expended. 

bearing.     The 

land,  if  on  the 

ited  for  orange- 

o  two  hundred 

of  timber,  and 

an  acre  more. 
ive    cents   to   a 


114 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


CHAPTER     X. 


NEAT-CATTLE. 


I  I 


!;!i  ; 


i 


THE  history  of  neat-cattle  raising  in  this  country  naturally  divides  itself 
into  the  two  epochs  when  we  bred  only  native  cattle,  and  when  we 
begaii  the  improvement  of  our  stock  by  the  imi)ortation  of  foreign  breeds. 
In  England,  the  country  which  has  g'ven  more  attention  than  any  other  to 
Native  the  improvement  of  this  class    of  live-stock,  comparatively  little 

cattle.  scientific  breeding  to  develop  special  characteristics  was  practised 

until  a  hundred  and  fifty  years  ago ;  and  none  worth  mentioning  was  under- 
taken in  the  United  States  until  after  the  Revolution.  The  catde  which 
iire  commonly  termed  "  native  catUe  "  in  this  country  arc  the  product  of  an 
indiscriminate  mixture  of  several  varieties  of  foreign  cattle,  —  two  or  three  not 
very  distinct  Jkitish  breeds,  Swedish.  Dutch,  French,  and  Spanish;  and  so 
thoroughly  have  these  original  importations  been  crossed  and  intermingled,  so 
poorly  pronounced  were  the  characteristics  of  the  parent  stock,  and  so  modi^ 
fied  were  such  characteristics,  not  only  by  cross-breeding,  but  also  by  the 
hardships  of  the  climate  and  their  owners'  neglect  in  the  early  colonial  days, 
that  our  native  catUe  have  come  to  be  a  distinct  breed  by  themselves. 

The  first  cattle  in  Massachusetts  were  the  heifers  and  a  bvill  brought  thither 
in  1624  by  Gov.  Edwartl  Winslow.  Twelve  more  cows  were  brought  to  Cape 
_..   ^.  Ann  in  iGaO,  thirty  more  in  1620,  and  a  hundred  in  16^0.     These 

First  impor-  '  ■'  ^ 

tations  to  last  were  kept  at  Salem,  and  were  for  the  "  governor  and  com- 
jiany  of  Massachusetts  Hay."  J'he  stock  bred  from  the  impor- 
tation of  1624  was  divided  \v  among  the  colonists  three  years 
later.  The  breed  of  these  cattle  is  not  known  ;  but  they  are  spoken  of  as 
black,  white,  and  brindle.  Several  importations  of  cattle  were  made  by  Capt. 
John  Mason  into  New  Hampshire  in  1631-33  ;  and,  as  he  carried  on  consid- 
erable trade  with  Denmark,  his  cattle  were  mostly  Danish.  They  were  large, 
well  adapted  for  working  in  the  yoke,  and  of  a  uniformly  yellow  color.  Some 
of  the  breed  were  kept  pure  until  1820 ;  and,  though  they  were  crossed  more 
or  less  with  other  stock,  they  gave  a  prevailing  cast  to  most  early  New- 
f'-ngland  cattle.  Connecticut  obtained  her  first  cattle  from  Massachusetts, 
though  perhaps  a  few  from  New  York,  and  a  few  by  direct  importation. 


New 
England 


O^-    7-//A    crj,vr,:D    STATK,. 


lly  divides  itself 
',  and  when  we 
foreign  breeds, 
an  any  other  to 
nparatively  little 
cs  was  practised 
ining  was  under- 
he  cattle  which 
;  product  of  an 
two  or  thn  e  not 
panish  ;  and  so 
intermingled,  so 
c,  and  so  modi- 
but  also  by  die 
y  colonial  days, 
iselves. 

I  brought  thither 
irought  to  Cape 
n  1630.  These 
^rnor  and  com- 
roni  the  impor- 
ists  three  years 
■e  spoken  of  as 
made  by  Capt. 
ried  on  consid- 
rhey  were  large, 
w  color.  Some 
e  crossed  more 
ost  early  New- 
Massachusetts, 
ortation. 


;<-.™i«:":r  ,r  ir;  •• "-"'"- r?  •  ■•■■■ 

brought  cattle  from  tlK.ir  .  ^''^'''''■"^' •^'^"''"ng  in  Dchvi^.r      ^""y '"i- 

^^"^  '  ^'"»  t-'ncouratrcrMl,,   ;  ''^"'^'''"g-oxen  forty   °ther 

':^  ^'-^ttle  on   his  p„rcl,asc  .t  .n  "''P^'^.i^^'on  and  breedin.^  "'°"'"- 

'"  ;^-.  '-ought  fron.  t le  We  "r'f '  '"'"     ^'^^''"'^^  '^-1  ..2  of  U 
''^''''    ^>y  Sir  Ralph  Lane      n      "'''"'  ^''^'-''■^"  ^^^''^  ^i'l-ng  wa     1  ''  "''" 

'"'•onU^evonshire  In.l  HeVtf     n'- "'^'^   ^^'^^  ^  hundred  t^  \'"''^  ^^^"'''■'^- 

«- i."Port:;:t'  r  :rc"T  -^  "^^  -«'tn;  vi;::;.:  rr;  '''-'■ 

ei-%  a  ra,K,|,  vo„ni,„      ,  "'"'•'  "■"<;  from  l',,.-!;,,,,!         :^  '^'-      '''= 

'mportations,  wc-ro   „r  J  '°  ""■'  "''^^st  Indies  i„  , . 

M«ico.  a,„,    Z  ,v  ^'""""    ''^-■•'-     Theso       r    ,  '?,t  "''"'''  '""'  '»'" 

River  are  k„„„.  .t'"'''''^'  ^^*"^'  '^'"0,  .1.0    „:„„;;"";   .»p.«.. 

t«.,la  in  .Cos'  .;""-'■  »'"'  i"'o 
"'«  breed  ,„:/"■"•■"  ••""■""Is  of 

"«-'-,ere  , ,,,,■„„.;:,,;;■" 

cow  .  J  „r    '^''''  ^°  ''"  ^v'tHout  a 
'  and  tliere  was  in  M,.,,,  i-     , 

'r  ^"'>^  '^  ^'o-"esti      ,^r   f  f  ^-^ 

;'-"'^"^'    for    the    ^Vest  ^^'"'' 

,'"''"'''    ^^-'lidi     Jed     to    ■''''"'' 

'"ft   lor  sale.     But   '^^"'^- 

'■'■"'"  fifteen  .„d   ,  "''"'  ^'°^^" 


1x6 


IND I 'S  TK I A  [.    HIS  TON  Y 


iri 


I  !     I 


mi\ 


and  only  20,000  ten  years  later.  Maryland  had  so  many,  notwithstanding  a 
loss  of  25,000  by  pestilence,  in  1O94  and  1695,  ^'^^^  there  was  left  a  great  plenty. 
Just  before  the  Revolution,  the  cattle  of  the  Carolinas  and  (leorgia,  rather 
small  and  neglected,  were  so  plenty,  that  they  wea-  (lri\en  up  to  Pennsyl- 
vania to  fatten  for  the  but(  hers,  and  sold  there  for  one  and  two  guineas  apiece. 
During  the  first  twenty-five  or  fifty  years  of  our  colonial  history,  very  little 
shelter  or  care  was  taken  of  the  cattle  in  the  winter  time.  The  cows  were 
not  milked,  there  being  a  common  belief  that  it  would  kill  them 

Poor  care  " 

taken  of  at  that  se.ison.     No  stables  were  built  for  them,  especially  in  the 

them  in  the      j^fijidi^.  and  South  Atlantic  States;  and   they  wandered  at  large. 

beginning. 

No  special  fodder  was  given  them,  either ;  and  they  were  obliged 
to  pick  up  what  they  could  on  the  roadsides  and  in  the  fields.  Many  a  farmer 
lost  twenty  or  thirty  head  from  neglect  every  spring ;  and  it  is  a  matter  of 
record  that  ten  thousand  head  of  cattle  died  in  South  Carolina,  in  the  year 
1 731,  simply  from  hunger  and  cold.  From  this  same  cause,  pestilence,  or 
the  gradual  decline  of  breeding,  a  scarcity  was  again  noticeable  in  New  Jersey 
and  New  England  along  toward  1  700. 

The  principal  value  attached  to  cattle  for  a  long  period  of  our  colonial 

history  was  for  their  hides.     'I'he  several  assemblies  enacted  laws  to  encourage 

th         ^^^^  tanning  of  leather,  to  prohibit  its  importation,  and  even  regulate 

principal         the  shoeuiakiiig  business.     Farmers  used  to  take  their  hides  to  a 

currier,   have   them   tanned  and  returned,  and  then  let  itinerant 

she  makers  work  them  up  into  foot-gear  for  the  fiimily.  Besides^ 
there  were  tanners  and  shoemakers  who  did  an  independent  business.  0.\en 
were  very  extensively  used,  too,  in  hauling  logs,  ploughing,  carting  stones  and 
farm-produce,  and  in  other  ways.  Cattle  were  used  almost  exclusively  for 
farm-labor  in  the  colonial  days,  so  scarce  and  costly  were  horses  ;  and  even 
in  the  present  generation,  in  New  Fhigland,  working-oxen  are  very  numerous. 
As  the  settlements  grew  in  size,  and  cities  began  to  develop,  there  sprang  up 
Raising  ^  demand   for  catUe  for  beef.      In   1651   the  town   of    Fairfield, 

cattle  for         Conn.,  butchered  100  cattle.     In  New  York,  in   1678,  400  a  year 
'^  ■  was  the  average  number  slaughtered  ;  and  in   1694   it  was  4,0.'"'".. 

In  1680  beef  brought  about  twopence  and  a  half  a  pound.  The  domestic 
dairy,  too,  was  an  important  institution.  The  farmers  all  made  a  little  butter 
and  cheese  for  home  use,  and  took  a  little  to  the  cities  to  exchange  for  other 
merchandise.  Butter  was  quoted  at  sixpence  a  pound  in  Connecticut  in 
1680.  Quite  a  little  cheese-business  was  built  up  too.  There  is  a  record 
of  13,000  pounds  of  cheese  having  been  sold  from  one  farm  in  Rhode  Island 
Scientific  '"  175^5  and  on  another  farm  sevcnty-thrce  COWS  are  reported  to 
breeding  of      havc  yielded  10,000  pounds  of  butter  in  five   months,  or  about 

one  pound  apiece  per  day. 

During  the  last  half  of  the  last  century,  and  early  in  this,  the 
business  of   breeding  cattle   on    scientific    principles  developed   very  rapidly 


value  of 
(.arly  stock 


cattle  in 
England 


O^    THE    U^;rED   ,taTES. 


^'"    ^'"t''^""'-      Among  the  nuK.  "7 

since   hen,   kn.nvM    ,7  '  prominent  breeds  ,i,.„ 

""'"■■-  ".'■ '.":;;:'.  'xr;;;^  --' :^::c:  Tr "-- 

'"   ''"''■"   "vll     „„,   """""-^"^■>l   lioms,   a   ,„,■,    ,„  .,"•    ,"'"    IVvons   arc 
"""■'•-     -IV.  .All.     .,'■'"''  "'  '"'"«.  ^'"'1  aa-  „„     l',,      '^'    '■^'"-"",.s   .-,« 

:;:;:;;';;7;;-"-<X;r'-cv'';7'''-^^^ 

took  .soni..  nf  ,1  ^•^''■•'■""Klillic.s,,,,      '  "  ■^''- ■^''llci-in   ■ivc.yi„. 

!«".«.'  r' ;r'V'-^, ■■  '■™""  »■«•  •  'if- ;"',"  ';'^'': "■"^- "-''">■  ^.-o-,, 

■•">■'  .1.C'  .>v„\4  ?"'-  '"^  ■'-""■•1.  an,l  .Tossc'    ,  '"  "'  "''  "'•'  '^""c-  »n 


».«kTa,si„,.  f„       ,.","■"  "f  >'«■■  "'...Ury  save  ;,:■'■  '""^■'■■■'■^ 


•"'%'s  evam„l  •'""-■™    ""rkct    .,„,r  m,  "'■■""""  ." 

""■"I  .">por.a,io„»  ,,.,„;  "°  ''■^^""-■k-     I..divicl„al.s  m  ,|      ^""-   "'-•■>■"■..■ 


'"nin.',|  ii,  ,■„.  „  .      ',' ""  '"   'S34,   I,  „.|,i,.|,  ,. ,  "'"''■  occa. 


""^  l»o„g|„  ,„  ,'"''"  "■•■"'  ""■'••slecl  abroad  ;„,„,      ,'""■"  ^""'""<-  subscrihcd 

>  "'^  "">Pany  .h^ee  years  afte    o ta'/       ■"*™'=-^-      ''l^ 

'"  organization  „.as  J25^^<, 


iiS 


INP  VS  TN  lA  r.    ins  TOR  Y 


''      >, 


I  .       .<, 


!  'I. 


r;   {' 


This  plan  was  imitati-tl  afterwards  in  Kentucky  and  other  sections  of  the  coun- 
try. Short-iiurns  wltl-  hroii^^lu  into  \\  istclicstt-r  ("ounty,  New  Yorlv,  as  early 
as  1792  and  1796.  The  breed  was  not  kept  pure  long,  though  their  descend- 
ants are  recognizable  to-(hiy.  Other  importations  were  made  into  New  York 
in  »<Si5,  1.S16,  and  1.S22,  and  still  others  more  recently.  In  1S24  Mr.  Powell 
of  Philadelphia  ( ommenced  importing  short-horns,  and  continued  to  breed  and 
sell  them  extensively  for  many  years.  In  iSiS  a  short-horn  bull,  "("lelebs," 
and  a  heifer,  "  Klora,"  were  introduced  into  Massachusetts  by  Mr.  Coolidge, 
and  sold  to  Col.  Samuel  Ja(|ues  of  Somerville  in  1S20. 

Selecting  particularly  fine  native  cows.  Col.  Jaipies  effected  a  cross  with 
this  bull,  and  developed  a  breed  long  ke|)t  pure,  and  called  "Cream-Pots." 
Col.  jaque«'»  They  gave  extraordinarily  rich  milk.  Col.  Jaques  thus  describes 
experiments.  .^,^  experiment  made  with  the  milk  of  one  of  his  cows  by  the  fcjre- 
man  of  his  stock-farm:  ".\i'ter  milking  he  took  two  (piarts  of  her  milk  out 
of  the  pail,  strained  it  into  a  pan,  and  allowed  it  to  stand  twenty-four  hours. 
Having  then  skimmed  the  cieam  into  a  bowl,  he  churned  it  with  a  spoon  ;  and 
in  one  minute,  by  the  clock,  he  formed  the  butter.  It  was  then  pressed  and 
worked  in  the  usual  way,  and  amounted  to  half  a  pound  of  pure  butter.  After 
this,  the  following  practice  was  pursued  for  eight  or  ten  weeks  in  succession : 
At  each  of  four  successive  milkings  two  (juarts  of  the  strippings  were  strained 
into  a  i)an,  and  then  churned.  The  average  time  of  churning  did  not  exceed 
ten  minutes :  in  some  instances  the  butter  was  formed  in  five  minutes.  After 
being  properly  worked  over  it  was  weighed,  and  it  never  fell  short  of  two 
pounds." 

Stephen  Williams  of  Northborough,   Mass.,   imported   a   fine 
short-horn  bull  in   181S,  which  became  ♦'""  sire  of  much  grade 
stock.     Other   short-horns  were   taken   into   that  State  in   1820. 
The  breed  like  luxuriant  pasturage,  and  have  never  proved  very 
popular  in  New  iMigland. 

im  ortation  'iince  1840  short-homs  have  been  imported  in   even   greater 

of  short-        numbers  than  ever  before,  and  so  numerously  that  specific  men- 
tion is  unnecessary. 

In  181 7  the  Hon.  Henry  Clay  of  Kentucky  attempted  to 
introduce  the  Hereford  stock  into  that  State.  They  yield  less  beef,  but  require 
Henry  ^^'^'^  pasturagc  than   short-horns,  and  are   poorly  adapted  to  the 

Clay's  im-  dairy.  The  enterprise  never  suc"eeded  very  well,  and  the  stock 
por  at  ons.  ^^^^  ^^^  Y&y^i  pure  very  long.  Admiral  Coffin  presented  a  Here- 
ford bull  to  the  Massachusetts  Society  for  Promoting  Agriculture  in  1824. 
The  animal  was  kept  at  Northampton,  and  left  a  numerous  progeny.  Five 
bulls  and  seventeen  cows  and  heifers  were  imported  by  Messrs.  Corning  & 
Lotham  of  Albany  in  1840.  Other  importations  were  added  to  this  herd 
later.  Animals  of  this  breed  have  been  introduced  elsewhere  ;  but  they  have 
never  attained  any  marked  prominence  or  popularity. 


Stephen 
Williams's 
importa- 
tions. 


horns  since 
1840. 


01-     THE    I'MTF.n    STATES. 


IIQ 


s  of  the  coun- 
Vork,  ;\s  early 
ihcir  (lesceml- 
nto  New  York 
124  Mr.  I'owcU 
(I  to  breed  and 
uU,  "('(elcl)s." 
Mr.  Coolidge, 

id  a  cross  with 
"  Cream- I'ots." 

thus  describes 
)\vs  l)y  tlie  fore- 
)f  her  milk  out 
cnty-four  hours, 
h  a  spoon  ;  and 
en  pressed  and 
re  butter.     After 
s  in  succession : 
igs  were  strained 
did  not  exceed 
minutes.     After 
U  short  of  two 

imported   a   'i\\\^ 

of  much  grade 

State  in    1820. 

|ver  proved  very 

Jn   even   greater 
It  specific  men- 
attempted   to 
jeef,  but  require 
I adapted  to  the 
and  the  stock 
Isented  a  Here- 
Llture    in   i824- 
I  progeny.     Five 
Issrs.  Corning  & 
Id  to  this  herd 
but  they  have 


I'he  Devons  have  l)ccn  brought  here  and  bred  more  numerously.  The 
impression  tliat  the  native  New  l-lngland  stock  is  of  Devon  extraction  seems  to 
he  (hie  to  the  fact  tiiat  it  is  mosdy  red,  and  not  to  tlie  possession  importation 
of  real  Devon  traits.  The  Massachusetts  .Society  for  Promoting  o»  Oevon.. 
Agriculture  Jias  imported  some  North  Devons  within  the  past  thirty  years;  but 
while  handsome  animals,  good  gra/.iers,  and  fme  working-cattle,  they  have  not 
vhown  the  dairy  (lualities  desired  in  New  England.  Mr.  Patterson  of  Haiti- 
more,  before  the  middle  of  this  century,  ha<l  begun  breeding  Devons  expressly 
for  milk,  and  greatly  improved  his  stix  k  in  this  regard.  'Hie  Devons  are  said 
ti)  be  the  favorite  improved  stock  in  the  South:  but  as  the  farmers  of  that 
section  give  little  attention  to  beef-raising,  the  dairy,  or  even  soiling,  cattle- 
breeding  has  attracted  less  attention  there  than  elsewhere  ;  though  the  exten- 
sive breeding  of  native  cattle  in  Texas  forms  an  important  exception  to  the 
general  rule. 

.Mderneys,  Ayrsliin-s,  and  Jerseys  have  long  been  bred  in  the  old  country, 
with  a  view  to  developing  their  milk-producing  (|ualities.  They  excel  rather 
in  richness  than  in  (|uaiitity  of  milk,  for  which  reason  they  are  prized  more  by 
the  butter-makers  than  by  the  cheese-manufacturers  ;  although  the    _    ,,.,      , 

^  '  "  QUBlitlCB  of 

Ayrsliires  are  good  milkers.     .V  letter  from   Richard  Mavis  to  the   several 
secretary  of  the   I'liiladeluhia  Society  for  the   Promotion  of  Agri-   '"■==''*«'' 

■f  ^  J  "  cows. 

culture,  dated  January,  1.S17,  menticjns  a  pure  Alderney  recently 
im[)orted  and  owned  by  him,  which  so  excelled  in  the  richness  of  its  milk, 
even  upon  poor  feed,  that  he  deemed  it  worth  being  published.  This  cow 
gave  eight  pounds  of  butter  a  week  for  a  long  period.  Alderneys  are  great 
favorites  with  small  farmers,  and  gentlemen  living  in  small  cities  and  keeping 
cows.  Ayrshires  have  been  introduced  into  New  ICngland  and  New  York 
since  1830,  and  rather  more  extensively  since  1850.  So,  too,  with  the  Jer- 
seys. Mr.  John  P.  dishing  of  Massachusetts  imported  an  Ayrshire  which  gave 
3,864  cpiarts  of  milk  in  a  year,  or  an  average  of  nearly  eleven  quarts  a  day  for 
the  whole  twehc  months.  The  Ayrshire  generally  makes  a  better  return  in 
milk  for  her  feed  than  any  other  breed.  The  first  Ayrshire  imported  by  the 
Massachusetts  Society  for  Promoting  Agriculture  yielded  sixteen  pounds  of 
butter  a  week,  on  grass-feed,  for  several  successive  weeks.  (Irade  Ayrshires 
are  almost  as  valuable  as  the  pure-blooded  animals,  and  are  consequently 
much  sought  after.  Jerseys  have  been  imported  by  the  Massachusetts  Society 
for  Promoting  Agriculture  since  1050,  anil  by  individuals  in  New  England, 
New  York,  and  Maryland.  In  1853  there  were  but  seventy-five  pure-bred 
animals  in  Massachusetts ;  but  since  then  they  have  rapidly  multiplied  in  that 
section,  in  the  New- York  dairy-regions,  and  elsewhere. 

There  have  also  been  some  slight  importations  of  Galloways  and  Holsteins. 

There  has  been  rather  more  uniformity  in  the  increase  of  the  number 
of  cattle  in  this  country  during  the  past  century  than  in  some  other  kinds  of 
live-stock.      The  most   marked   development  of  interest  of  which  we   have 


^wm 


M  ^'i 


iff  ■ 


!J'     'i 


w  % 


1 20 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


data  was  between  1850  ami  i860.  We  have  no  record  of  the  number  of 
Uniformity  cattle  in  1840,  unfortunately;  and  it  was  a  little  prior  to  that 
of  increase  time  that  the  great  impulse  in  the  beef-raising  business  began  to 
st^rs'^'^  be  felt.  The  special  start  taken  by  the  dairy-interest  was  not 
until  later.  In  another  chapter  we  consider  the  history  of  the 
cheese  and  butter  business  by  itself. 


Illl'iii"'^''  ! ':!j4V 


The  beef-producing  industry  is  one  of  the  largest  and   oldest-established 
branches  of  American  agriculture.     Beef  is  the  great  staple  among  fresh  meats 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


121 


lumber  of 
or  to   that 
ss  began  to 
it   was   not 
tory  of  the 


^iiiiiii:\  ' 


llest-established 
Mig  fresh  meats 


for  the  better  class^of  people.     As  we  have  already  remarked,  the  opening  up 
of  tlie  extensive  Ohio  and  Mississippi  Valleys  to  emigration  gave   Beef-produ- 
great  impetus  to  stock-raising  in  those  sections :  so,  too,  did  the   t-ng  indus- 
improvements  in  our  grasses  and  in  the  breeding  of  cattle  ;  which     '•  ' 
latter  influence,  together  with  the  growing  custom  of  fattening  cattle  on  corn, 
has  increased  the  weight  and  value  of  our  beeves  very  decidedly  within  the 
past  few  years. 

It  is  almost  impossible  to  estimate  the  value  of  milk  consigned  in  the  fami- 
lies of  owners  of  cattle  ;  nor  is  it  necessary  to  describe  the  milk-  Consump- 
peddling  Inisincss  of  the  smaller  towns,  with  which  everyone  is  t'onofmiik. 
familiar.  The  consumption  of  this  fluid  in  the  larger  cities  necessarily  creates 
a  great  demand,  which  must  be  supplied  from  the  adjacent  country.  Such 
cities  are  i:)rovided  with  stables,  where  the  cattle,  in  immense  numbers,  are 
fed  on  swill  and  distillery  refuse.  Of  laic  years  so  great  objection  has  been 
made  to  the  milk  produced,  on  account  of  ii.i  i.nwholesomeness,  that  greater 
pains  are  taken  to  obtain  milk  from  the  rural  regions.  Thie-  is  now  brought 
into  town  by  railroad ;  the  large  cans  which  are  placed  on  the  morning  milk- 
trains  having  been  picked  up  along  a  route  of  fifty  and  a  hundred  miles,  ft-om 
all  directions,  in  accordance  with  a  preconcerted  plan.  The  city  agents  return 
the  cans  next  day  to  the  owners ;  and  thus  a  regular  and  extensive  business  is 
carried  on. 

Ik'fore  the  great  railroad  era  of  the  West,  the  cattle  were  brought  eastward, 
to  the  more   populous   sections  of  the   country,  in  large  droves.     After  the 
quicker  methods  of  transportation  for  other  freights  were  provided,    Ra.iroads 
use  was  made  of  them  for  cattle.     The  railroads  were  put  into   and  driving 
re(iuisition  by  the  dro\ers  all  the  way  from  Texas  and  the  upper 
lakes  to  Xtw  York  and  Boston.     The  immense  increase   in  stock  in  Texas 
was  unattended  with  improvement  in  quality  ;  but  the  cattle  of  the 
Ohio  basin  and  other  Western  sections  showed  marked  gain   in     "^^^"X^'    » 

o  ment  of  neat- 

weight  and  quality.     In  view  of  the  vast   pasturage  to  be  foimd   cattle  in 
west  of  the  Mississii)])!  and  Missouri  Rivers,  in  tl'.e  buffalo  ramies,    '^^^^^f'"'* 

'  '  °      •     other  States. 

there  is  reason  to  believe  that  our  cattle-interest  is  yet  capable  of 
great  extension  as  the  market  therefor  is  opened. 

Herewith  we  give  a  statement  of  the   number  of  cattle    in   the   United 
Str. .(' s  for  a  few  years  past :  — 


1850. 

6,3^' 3,094 
11,393,289 

i860. 

1870. 

1876. 

Milch  cows       .... 
Oxen  and  other  cattle 

8,585,735 
17,034,284 

8,935-332 
14,885,276 

11,-60,800 
17,956,100 

Total. 

'7,778,383 

25,620,019 

23,820,608 

30,216,900 

3HI 


122 


/NDUSTKI/'L    HISTORY 


\  m  % 


\  m 


II 


From  this  it  will  be  seen,  that,  between  i860  nnd  1870,  there  was  a  slight 
falling-off  in  the  total  number,  although  the  dairy-interest  held  its  own.  The 
incresR-  in  '°^^  ^^^^  chicfly  in  the  States  where  the  civil  war  raged.  Mean- 
number  in  tmie,  in  the  other  sections,  there  was  a  slight  increase  in  the  avcr- 
recent  years.  ^^^  y/eight.  Since  1870  there  has  been  a  marked  increase  in 
numbers,  the  proportion  being  rather  higher  in  milch  cows  than  in  other 
cattle.  At  the  prei:ent  time,  Nesv  York  has  the  largest  number  of  cows,  — 
1,526,200;'  Pennsylvania  comes  next,  with  845,300;  Illinois,  724,900;  Ohio, 
700,000;  Iowa,  665,300;  and  Texas  just  above,  and  Wisconsin  just  below, 
500,000.  Of  other  cattle,  Texas  has  altogether  the  most,  —  3,390,500  ;  Illinois 
ranks  second,  with  1,287,000  ;  California,  which  has  rather  dropped  the  dairy- 
interest  she  took  up  twenty  years  ngo,  and  gone  to  beef-raising,  comes  next, 
with  1,053,500;  Iowa  has  958,800;  Missouri,  846,300;  Ohio,  775,000; 
Indiana,  764,000;  Pennsylvania,  701,000;  and  New  York,  663,200.  Kansas 
is  the  only  other  having  over  500,000. 

As  they  stand,  our  cows  are  worth  $27.32  apiece  on  the  average,  or  $307,- 
Vaiueof  743,211  in  all;  the  other  neat-cattle  are  reckoned  at  ;fIi7.io  each, 
neat-cattle,  qj.  <!307, 105,386  :  making  a  total  capital,  invested  in  this  class  of 
live-stock,  of  $6 1 4,848,59 7.^^ 

As  will  be  seen  from  our  chapter  on  the  dairy-interest,  our  products  in 
that  department  amount  annually  to  $211,000,000.  It  is  estimated  that  the 
average  number  of  beeves  killed  between  1870  and  1875  in  this  country  was 
at  least  5,000,000  annually.  Butchers  estimate  that  beeves  average  1,000 
Value  of  dai-  pounds  live  weight,  and  that  theyfev  quarters  (the  hide  ^  and  tallow 
ry  products,  count  for  a  quarter)  weigh  three-fifths  of  that,  or  600  i)ounds. 
This,  at  an  average  of  seven  cents  for  beef,  hide,  and  tallow,  makes  a  yield  of 
$210,000,000.  Mr.  A.  A.  Kennard  of  Baltimore,  of  the  statistical  committee 
of  the  National  Dairy  Association,  estimates  the  fresh-milk  product  of  the 
country  to  be  worth  $250,000,000.  If  to  these  we  add,  at  a  venture,  $79- 
000,000  for  the  condensed  milk,  fertilizers,  and  lampblack  made  from  the 
blood  and  ofiiil,  the  glue  and  bone  material  derived  from  the  refuse,  we  shall 
have  a  total  income  from  our  neat-cattle  of  3740,000,000. 

A  very  interesting  phase  of  our  cattle-raising  industry  is  the  new  export- 
trade  begun  in  fresh  beef.  Europe,  crowded  with  population  largely  engaged 
Export  of  in  manufacturing,  naturally  calls  on  us  for  agricultural  food- 
''"'•  products.     We  have  sent  her  cereals,  fr'iits,  dairy-producis,  and 

smoked  and  cured  meats,  for  many  years.     In  1875  the  experiment  of  shi[)- 


'  Figures  of  1876. 

'  These  are  the  figures  of  the  commissioner  of  .igriculture  in  his  report  for  the  year  ending  June  30,  1876. 
Mr.  A.  A.  Kennard  of  Baltimore  estimated  the  milch  cows  of  the  r  jntry  to  be  worth  $480,000,000  in  Marcli, 
1878;  .ind  a  like  increase  in  the  estimates  for  other  cattle  would  make  the  total  value  of  all  neal-cattle  in  tli<: 
United  States  little  if  any  sliort  of  $1,000,000,000. 

^  The  extent  of  our  trade  in  hides  we  consider  under  the  head  of  Leather,  in  the  department  of  manufac- 
turers. 


m 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


123 


was  a  slight 
;s  own.    The 
iged.     Mean- 
e  in  the  avcr- 
d  increase  in 
han   in   other 
;r  of  cows,  — 
24,900;  Ohio, 
;in  just  below, 
0,500;  Illinois 
)ped  the  dairy- 
cr,  comes  next, 

)hio,    775.0°°' 
1,200.     Kansas 

erage,  or  S307,- 
at  $17.10  each, 
in  this  class  of 

our  products  in 
timated  that  the 
this  country  was 
average    1,000 
lide  ^  and  tallow 
or  600  pounds, 
nakes  a  yield  of 
stical  committee 
product  of  the 
a  venture,  $79- 
made  from  the 
refuse,  we  shall 

|the  new  export- 
largely  engaged 
ricultural   food- 
try-producis,  and 
triment  of  ship- 


|r  ending  June  30.  'S?"- 
^480,000,000  in  March, 
pf  all  ncal-catlle  in  \\v: 

Lpartment  of  manuCac- 


i 


»«8 


I 

1 


ping  fresh  beef  in  refrigerators  was  tried ;  and  so  marked  was  the  success 
attending  it,  that  a  rapid  building-up  of  this  particular  branch  of  business  has 
ensued. 

The  attempt  was  first  made  to  satisfy  the  demands  of  growers  and  shippers 
for  an  enlarged  market  and  higher  prices  for  fresh  beef.     Yankee   History  of 
ingenuity  and  the  Yankee  spirit  of  adventure  soon  found  a  way  to   ^^^  business, 
meet  this  demand. 

On  the  nth  of  February,  nSys,  John  J.  Bate  of  Nev/  York  shipped  twelve 
quarters  of  beef, 
twelve  sheep,  and  /w 
hogs,  to  Liverpool  by 
the  steamer ''.Baltic." 
The  meat  was  kept 
cool  and  fresh  by  Ian- 
blowers  operated  by 
hand.  It  arrived  in 
good  condition ;  and 
the  attempt  was  re- 
newed in  June  and 
August  on  a  larger 
scale,  the  flins  being 
operated  l)y  steam. 
Taking  the  business 
off  Mr.  Bate's  hands, 
Mr.  Timothy  C.  East- 
man undertook  the 
enterprise  systemati- 
cally in  October  of 
that  year,  when  he 
exported  forty  -  five 
cattle  and  fifty  sheep. 
In  December  he 

doubled  the  number  of  beeves,  and  since  then  has  steadily  increased  the 
(luantity,  and  made  weekly  shipments. 

Mr.  Eastman  ships  to  Queenstown,  Glasgow,  and  Liverpool,  where  arrange- 
ments have  been  made  for  sending  it  to  his  markets  in  Dublin,  London,  Man- 
chester, Sheffield,  Birmingham,  Leeds,  Newcastle,  Dundee,  and  Edinburgh. 
He  keeps  the  meat  fresh  by  a  process  invented  and  patented  by  Mode  of  ship- 
Mr.  Bate.  Special  refrigerators  are  constructed  between  the  ping  beef, 
decks  of  the  steamships  of  the  Williams  and  (iuion.  White  jtar,  and  .-Xnchor 
Lines ;  and  a  fan-blower  run  by  steam  keeps  the  inside  air  in  constant 
circulation  around  the  meat.  The  quarters  are  neatly  wrapped  in  can- 
vas, and  kept  in  "chilling-houses,"  or  large  refrigerators,  before   shipment} 


ClIICACiO    STClCK-YAHns. 


I  ' 


'i '  I  ^' 


124 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


Prices  real 
ized  in  for- 
eign mar- 
kets. 


and,  when  put  aboard  the  vessels,  the  temperature  is  kept  down  to  thirty- 
eight  degrees,  or  six  degrees  above  freezing.  The  cold  to  which  the  meat 
is  subjected  at  first  closes  the  pores,  or  sears  it,  so  that  it  is  not  as  susceptible 
to  heat  and  taint  as  freshly-killed  meat.  Not  a  single  (juarter  of  the  many 
Mr.  Eastman  has  shipped  has  arrived  tainted.  It  also  looks  as  fresh  and  bright 
as  newly-killed  beef,  nor  does  it  lose  any  of  its  flavor. 

(lillett  &  Sherman,  another  large  New-Vork  shipping-firm,  prepare  their 
beef  on  the  New-Jersey  side  of  the  river,  and  use  a  different  process.  They 
send  by  the  Cunard,  Innian,  and  National  Lines.  Samuels  &  Company  and 
Daniel  Toffey  &  Company  are  also  shipping  from  New  York  on  a  smaller 
scale.     Philadelphia  and  I'ortland  are  following  New  York's  example. 

This  beef  sells  in  foreign  markets  at  sevenpence  and  eightpence  a  pound ; 
which  is  twopence,  threepence,  and  fourpence  below  the  price  of 
home-raised  beef  in  England.  Its  introduction,  therefore,  caused 
a  profound  sensation  ;  and  the  British  butchers  combined  to  stop 
the  importation,  but  without  success.  The  Queen,  the  Prince  of 
Wales,  the  Lord-Mayor  of  London,  the  Governor  of  the  Bank  of  England, 
and  the  leading  press,  have  tried  the  American  beef,  and  declare  it  fully  equal 
to  that  raised  at  home. 

An  idea  of  the  sudden  growth  of  this  business  may  be  derived  from  the 
Amount  and  ^'^^^  ^^'^^'^  ''^  October,  1875,  the  shipments  of  fresh  beef  amounted 
value  of  to  36,000  pounds;  the  next  October  they  aggregated  2,719,685 

shipments.  pounds  ;  while  for  the  month  of  March,  1877,  they  were  6,707,855 
pounds.  F(ir  the  year  ending  Dec.  31,  1877,  they  were  55,362,793  pounds, 
valued  at  $5,244,668.' 

Following  up  their  success  in  this  line,  stock-dealers  have  also  undertaken 
the  shipment  of  live  cattle  to  I'airope ;  and  it  is  thought  the  experiment  will 
Export  of  prove  a  success.  Prior  to  the  winter  of  1877  beef-cattle  had  not 
live-stock.  |^^.^>,■^  shipped  to  foreign  countries  from  the  United  States  on 
account  of  the  expense,  the  risk  incurred,  and  the  monopoly  of  the  F^astern 
markets  by  luu-opean  stock-raisers.  Canada,  however,  has  been  exporting  live- 
stock to  the  mother-country  for  some  time,  and  with  such  success,  that  New- 
York  and  Philadelphia  merchants  are  now  trying  the  experiment.  The  ship- 
ment of  live-stock  across  the  ocean  has  made  necessary  the  construction  of 
apartments  on  vessels  cjuite  different  from  any  thing  heretofore  in  use.  Porta- 
ble stalls,  in  which  the  cattle  are  fastened,  have  been  specially  made,  so 
arranged  as  to  give  room  for  eating  and  drinkin^,  and  to  be  movable,  with  the 
cattle  in  them,  to  different  parts  of  the  vessel.  The  stock  is  thus  brought 
upon  deck  for  several  hours  each  day,  and  given  the  benefit  of  the  fresh  sea- 
air.     The  new  arrangement  is  strictly  an  American  invention,  and  its  friends 


I 


1  If  to  tliese  figures  one  adds  $2,847,447,  the  v.iliie  of  salted  beef,  $4,527,452  for  butter,  $13,529,978  for 
cheese,  $122,343  'o''  condensed  milk,  $1,848,555  for  hides,  $6,513,569  for  tallow,  and  $19,356  for  glue,  he  will 
find  that  our  bovine  product  exports  amount  to  about  $35,000,000  annually. 


:lo\vn  to  thirty- 
vhich  the  meat 
)t  as  susceptible 
^r  of  the  many 
fresh  and  bright 

,  prepare  their 
process.     They 

Company  and 
k  on  a  smaller 
.mple. 

)ence  a  pound ; 
i\v  the  price  of 
lerefore,  caused 
mbined  to  stop 

tlie  Prince  of 
ik  of  England, 
■e  it  fully  equal 

rived  from  the 
beef  amounted 
ated  2,719,685 
were  6,707,855 
>2,793  pounds, 

Iso  undertaken 
experiment  will 
cattle  had  not 
ited  States  on 
of  the  Eastern 
exporting  live- 
:ess,  that  New- 
at.  The  ship- 
onstruction  of 
n  use.  Porta- 
ially  made,  so 
/able,  with  the 
thus  brought 
the  fresh  sea- 
.nd  its  friends 


tter,  $13,529,978  for 
356  for  glue,  he  will 


O^    T^fE    UmTED    STATES. 


are  confident  that  its  intrnrl.,  .■  '^5 

»^"*  of  cattle  were  formerlv    h  '"'''"*•  ''"■«'"'<^l'  ••<»  ,l,o„      '  ' 

'"'-.and  Texa.fo„„:r      *'■«;-"'  '"  S""'"  A„,erica,  .   , '    tX""' 

••  extract  of    */;,":'' ,"'■  "■>'  °-  -'o„/.ce„,i  ,  ',  r^'^"   °'  '^^''-"S 

"•■nlry.     It  be-1?        ''°"'P'-««I  cooked  meats  k 

;'  y,  ..Kl  bid  fair  ,0  o,„str  ;  .;,  fo    ?"",",  "*"   '"    '-"S'-"    -.tt: 
™    per  month  are  prodncec  by  it  [^  r'"^'^^-     -^I'o"'  75o.ooo   •"•• 
4.000  cattle  per  week  m  ii       ,  -American  iioiises  an.l  r. 

--""inSofco'rned-beefLtt'  r'  '"  """«°  f-h'  Tr,«:'  T"  ,'" 

■'■>»  <--a   e;t';"r-'-".--l-g,,,ere  :;,  """'^'^  -  >«..«l,t  to 

process.    T|,,.  ,,„„  '    '  '  ™°""^''  "isiKction,  the  meats  ,„        ?    '  """•■■  '"'i 
"'  immense  „ooT  "^^    °'"  °'  ""=  "'ea,  ar;  evposS   ,    ,r'''' '■°''  "'^  "'""? 

..KTly  i„,°;"  :7f  f  ^^^«-     They  ha^-e  none  o    th  J     ^'  ''"'^  ^"^^  ^''-■^'^  'n  any 

'^  Australian  method  of  can- 


126 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


1i!^r 


*..'.< 


'*       '    1  III 


:'(/■ 


ning  differs  from  the  American  in  this,  that  the  former  cooks  the  meat  whole 
in  cans,  while  the  latter  cooks  it  in  small  pieces  in  wooden  vats,  as  already 
described.  The  Australian  cans  often  present  a  peculiar  appearance  after 
the  cooling  process,  as  the  sides  are  sometimes  contracted,  and  look  as  if  they 
had  been  subjected  to  pressure.  The  extent  of  the  American  industry  is  also 
shown  in  the  number  of  employees,  the  salaries,  &c.,  of  a  Chicago  firm.  In 
one  establishment  7,000  men  and  150  girls  are  employed,  and  the  pay-roll  is 
$30,000  a  month.  The  floor  of  the  packing-house  covers  four  acres.  The 
refrigerator  will  accommodate  3,330,000  pounds.  Five  boilers,  with  a  capacity 
of  80,000  pounds,  are  used  for  rendering  tallow  from  marrow,  and  five  for 
furnishing  steam  for  cooking  and  the  elevators. 

Cooked  meats  by  the  Australian  method  have  been  known  in  America  for 
twenty  years ;  but  the  process  is  very  imperfect.  Owing  to  its  inferiority, 
the  sales  of  those  meats  have  been  poor.  The  demand  for  compressed  cooked 
Export  of  meats,  on  the  contrary,  has  been  so  great,  that  there  is  a  prospec- 
compressed  tive  business  with  governments  in  supplying  them  with  .his  article, 
meats.  j^.  j^  j^Qpej  that  something  may  be  accomplished  in  the  way  of 

supplying  the  European  belligerents.  Large  invoices  are  now  sent  to  London, 
Liverpool,  Glasgow,  Belfast,  &c.  (lermany  and  France  do  not  buy  them  as 
readily  yet  as  Great  Britain  ;  but  the  promise  is  good  of  a  large  trade  eventu- 
ally in  those  countries.  "  The  London  Grocer  "  stated  recently,  that,  during 
one  week,  11,270  cases  of  packed  meat  were  received  at  Liverpool  from 
America.  Each  case  contained  twelve  cans,  making  a  total  of  135,240  cans. 
This,  however,  is  an  average  estimate,  as  one  house  in  this  country  has  fre- 
quently sent  out  20,000  cases  per  week. 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


127 


CHAPTER    XI. 


BUTTER   AND    CHEESE. 


THE  history  of  American  dairying  was  a  comparatively  quiet  and  unevent- 
ful one  until  the  middle  of  the  present  century,  and  progress  was  com- 
paratively slow  in  its  development  until  about  that  time.     As  we  have  already 
remarked  in  discussing  neat-cattle,  our  stock  was  of  poor  quality   3,^^  p^^g. 
during  the  last  century,  and  its  improvement  not  fairly  inaugurated   ressinbe- 
until   1825-50.      The   earlier    efforts    at   improvement,  too,  were   2'""'"^' 
direct*^d  rather  to  the  perfection  of  our  beef  than  to  increase  the  quantity  and 
(luality  of  the  milk.     The  importations  of  foreign  breeds  were  mostly  of  short- 
horns until   1850.     A  little   before  that  time  the   importation    of  Ayrshires, 
Jerseys,  and  Alderneys,  was  undertaken.     During  the  next  decade  the  dairy- 
interest  was  confined  mostly  to  New  England  and  the  Middle  States,  with  a 
little  activity  in  the  North-West.      Not  until  the  conception  of  the  modern 
cheese-factory  system,  and  the  demonstration  of  its  marked  success,  did  the 
West  give  much  attention  to  the  subject. 

Cheese  is  altogether  the  older  of  the  two  sister-products  of  the  dairy ;  and 
its  first  manufacture,  more  or  less  crude,  began  away  back  in  the  obscure  past. 
It  was  a  recognized  article  of  food  with  the  Greeks  and   early 

T,  ,  ,  ,  ,  r         s        Cheese. 

Romans,  to  whom  butter  was  known  only  as  an  omtment  for  the 
toilet,  not  as  an  article  of  diet.  Even  yet,  in  many  parts  of  Europe,  butter  is 
sold  by  apothecaries  as  a  vegetable  oil  for  medicinal  preparations,  though  not 
used  ex  lusively  for  such  purposes  by  any  means.  Unsalted  butter,  too,  is 
used  to  a  great  extent  by  Europeans.  The  practice  of  salting  it  —  doubtless 
intended  originally  for  preserving  it,  but  afterwards  resorted  to  for  the  taste  — 
seems  to  be  more  of  an  English  and  American  custom.  Partly  from  the 
nature  of  the  two  preparations,  and  partly  because  of  the  greater  attention 
given  to  cheese-making,  this  article  is  found  in  far  greater  variety  in  Europe 
than  is  butter ;  and  many  of  the  delicate  and  peculiar  varieties  of  foreign 
r'leese  have  been  unequalled  by  any  American  product  for  flavor,  whereas 
no  butter  in  the  world  surpasses  that  of  our  dairies. 

Until  about  1830  cheese  was  made  in  this  country  by  the  farmers  exclu- 


Tf   ; 


% 


128 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


;F'-    1 


ia 


m 


A: 


sively,  and  generally  in  their  own  farmhouses,  in  small  quantities.  The 
Early  histo-  cheeses  were  taken  to  the  neighboring  village  or  town,  and  ex- 
ry  of  cheese-  changed  for  groceries  or  dry-goods,  without  any  thought  of  the 
making.  trade  with  large  cities,  or  the  export  business.     If,  in  the  course 

of  the  season,  the  housewife  made  more  than  a  dozen  cheeses  of  thirty  or 
forty  pounds  each,  she  thought  she  was  doing  unusually  well.  However,  the 
First  exnor-  demand  for  this  i)roduct  continually  increased  among  the  working- 
tation.  classes  at  home  and  abroad ;  and  our  export  trade,  chiefly  with 

England,  began  as  early  as  1 790. 

Along  toward  1830  the  profits  to  be  realized  from  cheese-making,  which 
Progress  in  ^^^"^  more  remunerative  than  any  other  branch  of  agriculture 
cheese-  in  thc   Middle  and    lOastern   States,   began    to    be    realized.      In 

ma  ing.  Herkimer  County,  New  York,  a  change  began  to  take  place  in 

the  methods  of  manufacture  which  had  been  formerly  in  use.     The  herds  had 

been  milked  in  the  open 
yards,  the  curds  were  worked 
in  tubs,  the  cheeses  squeezed 
in  rude  log-presses,  and  laid 
away  to  cure  in  a  corner  of 
the  cellar  or  of  some  "  spare 
room."  Hut  now  more  s)s- 
tem  was  employed  ;  and 
apartments,  ami  even  sepa- 
rate buildings,  were  con- 
structed on  the  farm  express- 
ly for  this  work.  A  contribu- 
tor to  "  Harpers'  Magazine  " 
says  of  this  stage  of  the  in- 
dustry's development,  — 

"The  fiice  of  the  county 
(Herkimer)  became  dotted 
with  dairy-houses  as  with 
corn-cribs.  These  were,  for  the  most  part,  simple,  unpretentious  one-story 
structures,  distinguished  from  the  other  out-buildings  by  closely- 
battened  cracks  and  protruding  stovepipe.  The  apparatus  was 
simple  and  rude,  and  the  system  of  manufacture  a  family's  secret,  imparted 
with  wise  looks  and  an  oracular  phrase.  Skill  was  vested  in  intuition  :  it  was 
the  maiden's  dower,  the  matron's  pride.  ...  It  was  during  this  period  of  severe 
a])i)lication  and  large  rewards  that  Herkimer  County  achieved  that  reputation 
for  fancy  cheese  which  is  still  her  traditional  right." 

Cheese  prod-  '^"  '\(\.Q.^  of  t'^e  distribution  of  the  cheese-production  at  the 
uct  prior  to  end  of  twenty  years  of  this  experience  may  be  gathered  from  the 
'  ^°'  following  statement   of  the  cheese  production,  in  pounds,  from 

the  census  of  1S50  :  — 


Herkimer 
County. 


antities.  Tlie 
town,  and  ex- 
thought  of  the 

in  the  course 
es  of  thirty  or 

However,  the 
ig  the  working- 
lie,  chiefly  with 

■making,  which 
of   agriculture 

realized.      In 

take  place  in 
I'he  herds  had 

in  the  open 
Is  were  worked 
eeses  squeezed 
resses,  and  laid 
in  a  corner  of 
f  some  "  spare 
now  more  sys- 
iployed ;  and 
ntl  even  sepa- 
s,  were  con- 
e  farm  express- 
:.  A  contribu- 
n-s'  Magazine  " 
age  of  the  in- 
)pment,  — 

of  the  county 
)ecame  dotted 
luses  as  with 
tious  one-story 
igs  by  closely- 

apparatus  was 
icret,  imparted 
.tuition  :  it  was 
leriod  of  severe 
that  reputation 

duction  at  tlu- 

hered  from  the 

pounds,  from 


New  'V'ork 
Ohio 
Vermont . 

Massachusetts 
<^'')iinccticiit     . 
^'i-'w  naiiijjshire 
J'cnnsylvaiiia  . 
Afaine 
Illinois     . 
Michifrai, 
Other  States    . 

Total 


O/^    Tf/E    UmTED    STATES. 


129 


49,741,41,3 
-o.«iy,54j 
«,720„S34 
7,oS,S,  [42 
5.36j,::77 
3. '96,563 
--505,034 

--(34-454 
',-:7f<,:;25 

',011,492 

3,366,917 

'°5.535.^'93 


i'rom  this  it  will  he  seen  n^nf  m      ,, 

'h«yic-l<le,l  .,„,  co,„K,„!,|,|e    ".;       ;^"n"-"«'r"'  »"'-  -"e  .Ik.  only  ^ 
n»i>.ed  „.|,id,  n,aclc  over  half  \         ' '       '"■'  ""'>"  "'I'"  Slate  >,e.,ides  the  il  ove 
«■"«  6.4.564  pound.  "  """'""  1»""*  «as  Indiana,  whiel,  i    cedUej" 


SHORT-HOR.V  Bl'LL, 

.  rt  was  just  at   this   time  that  th.  r 
^-;;^;vide.y  imitated,  gave  ^ tT\  ''''''^   ^^   'dented,  which 
^   '••ay  be  remarked  in  this  ronn     .  "'"'"''  ^«  the  business    . 

;;>■;''"',».»  in  Europe, 'ti"";:^;;r' "" "-" '-  "■■■'  --'  - --: 


13° 


IND  L  'S  TRIA  f.    II IS  TOR  Y 


1  :.!•• 


There  lived  in  Oneida  County,  New  York,  near  Rome,  a  ^'entlenian  named 
Jesse  \Viliiams,  wiio  had  acliieved  a  great  reputation  for  iiis  cheeses  ;  and  at  that 
Jesse  Wii-  time  reputation  was  money,  for  it  brouglit  liigher  prices  for  <hury 
iiami.  products.     In  1.S5  i  one  of  his  sons  was  married,  and  went  to  live  at 

an  adjacent  farm.  I'\)r  the  sale  of  his  son's  cheese  product,  Mr.  \Villiams  con 
tracted  with  the  niarketmen  at  the  prices  he  obtained  for  his  owr..  JUit  the 
<|uestion  arose,  how  he  should  insure  its  (|uality.  At  first  he  thought  of  going 
to  his  son's  house  every  day  to  superintend  the  "  make  ;"  but  this  was  imprac- 
ticable. Accordingly,  he  projujsed  that  the  milk  be  brought  to  him.  It  is 
always  the  case,  in  enlarging  a  manufacturing  business,  tliat  the  cost  of  produc- 
tion is  proportionately  lessened  ;  and,  if  the  price  of  the  goods  be  maintained, 
tlie  profits  are  augmented.  A  few  of  Mr.  Williams's  neighbors  brought  milk  to 
his  establishment  for  three  years,  and  realized  these  advantages;  and  then  the 
value  of  the  system  began  to  be  ap))reciated,  and  similar  factories  were  built 
elsewhere.  lUit  up  to  1S60  there  were  not  more  than  twenty  of  tiiem  in 
operation. 

The  influence  of  the  factory  system  was  not  perceptibly  felt  in  i860;  for 
the  total  product  of  that  year  was  a  trifle  less  than  that  of  1850.  (Jnly  a  sliglu 
First effectof  ^'^'Idng  in  its  distribution  was  discernible.  New  York  showed  the 
factory  sys-  niost  trilling  falling-off  in  her  i)roduction  :  so,  too,  did  the  New- 
**"*■  ICngland  States.     \N'hile  there  was  a  corresponding  increase  in  the 

Ohio  basin  and  the  North-West,  Wisconsin  and  California  showed  a  marked 
development,  but  one  of  promise  rather  than  attainment. 

During  the  next  decade  there  was  a  tremendous  springing-up  of  factories. 
Knowledge  of  the  system  had  then  been  well  disseminated.  Enterprising; 
Rapid  in-  farmers  in  every  dairy  district  organized  for  tbe  purpose  of  build- 
crease  of  fac-  ing  a  factory.  The  economy  of  the  plan  was  apparent.  They 
would  bring  their  milk  in  large  cans  every  morning,  or  else  put 
them  where  the  factory  team  could  pick  them  up  on  its  rounds.  Contracts 
were  made  for  so  many  pounds  of  cheese  for  so  much  milk,  and  an  allowance 
Mode  of  ^^  ^°  many  cents  per  pound  for  the  season's  "  make."  A  strict 
operating  account  of  each  day's  milk-deliveries  was  kept,  and  suitable  tests 
^^'"'  and  regulations  resorted  to  in  order  to  prevent  watering,  or  other- 

wise impairing  the  quality  of  the  milU.  The  prosperity  of  one  factory  bciiiL' 
noticed,  often  a  rival  establishment  would  be  erected  in  the  same  neighborhood. 
By  1866  New- York  State  had  more  than  500  factories,  and  in  1870  they  num- 
bered 1,313  in  the  whole  country.  While  the  total  product  had  increased,  in 
round  numbers,  from  105,000,000  to  163,000,000  pounds,  all  but  53,000,000 
of  it  was  made  in  factories,  and  the  rest  on  farms  as  of  old.  As  will  be  seen 
from  a  comparison  of  the  following  table  with  the  last,  the  increase  in  the 
aggregate  was  confined  almost  to  the  increase  in  New-York  State ;  and  the 
slight  gains  in  the  West  were  made  at  the  expense  of  New  England  mostly, 
Vermont  holding  her  own  better  than  her  sister  States. 


I  gentleman  naimd 
hccscs  ;  and  at  that 
her  prices  for  dairy 
I,  and  went  to  live  at 
,  Mr.  Williams  con- 

his  own.  lUit  the 
le  thought  of  going 
)ut  this  was  imimu  - 
ight  to  him.      It  is 

the  cost  of  prodiH  - 
)ods  be  maintained, 
)ors  brought  milk  to 
iges ;  and  then  the 

fixctories  were  built 
twenty  of  them    in 

)ly  felt  in  i860  ;  for 
850.  Only  a  sliglu 
w  York  showed  the 
,  too,  did  the  New- 
ling  increase  in  the 
ia  showed  a  marked 


ging-up  of  factories, 
ated.  Enterprising 
)e  purpose  of  build- 
as  apparent.  'Hilv 
norning,  or  else  put 

rounds.  Contracts 
Ik,  and  an  allowance 
i  "  make."  A  strict 
Dt,  and  suitable  tests 
it  watering,  or  othcr- 
Df  one  factory  bcini; 
same  neighborhoml- 
[  in  1870  they  nuni- 
ct  had  increased,  in 
s,  all  but  53,000,000 
Id.     As  will  be  seen 

the  increase  in  the 
^ork  State  ;  and  iIk' 
few  England  mostly, 


STATES. 

Ohio         .         _"         ■        • 
^'<-'i'moiit  . 

Illinois 

.Mass.itliu.sctts  . 
^'iilifornia 

\\  iscoiisin 
''Liiiisylv.ini.i 
MicliiiLjan  . 

Connctticut 
Iowa 

Afaiiic 

^'<-w  Hamp.s/ii,v 
IiKliana     . 

Other  States  and  TemWs 
TiXal 


O/'    TI/K    UNITED   STATES. 


N".    KAC-      roiNDS    |.A(  lOKV  .. 

TOHias,    ;  MM.,  fn'sun  fahm- 

MAllli. 


'J' 


7S,oori,o.>,S 
'5-'A|.j'jo 

4.072,301 
1,885,436 

'/^96,783 

'■650.997 

-7.-I00 

256,906 


*--7»J«j,<X/4 
«.  1 69,4X6 
4.8  JO. -00 
',60i,7oj 
-•-45.87.1 
3.J95.074 
'.59 '.798 
'.145,209 
67o„So4 
-.0.3',  1 94 
'.087,741 

'.'5^.590 
849.  "8 

2S3„So7 
■557.090 


'09,435.229 


TOTAl.  I'N(.1,|  ,T. 

'  00,776,012 

24. '5,3,876 

7>8'4„S79 

5.734.004 

4.'3',309 

3.395.074 
3,28,S,5,S, 

2,792,676 
2,32',8or 
-058,594 
',344,647 
•'.'52.590 
872,368 

39 ',487 
2,450,362 

'62,927,382 


Although  reliable  dafi  nu.    '  . 
=mo.mt  was  abnormally  k  J""'""   """"""  "'  '^^'"■'«<-'-     Five  year,  h,      , 

"l^'  export  was.  I   7,9  .  ^^'     ^^'  ''l"'-    'S^:.,  i,„f;]   ,0,,        ,  Statistics 

■t  c::r:r^'^-7"''''''^^  »'■  i  xrti,ey:r ""  "^■^'  *■  ^'- 


r 

/ 


132 


IND  US  TRIA  L    HIS  TOR  Y 


\k    '!  ' 


♦'  I.' 


potmn^. 

1861 32,301,4^8 

1862 34,052,678 

1863 42,045,054 

1864 47.7S''.?-9 

1865 53,089,408 

1S66 36,411,985 

1867 52,352,127 

1868 51,097,203 

1869 39.'/'0.3'>7 

1870 57.-')<J..)-7 

187  J 63,698,867 

1872 66,204,025 

1873 80,360,540 

1874 90,611,077 

1875 101,010,853 

1876 97,676,264 

1877 112,430,384 


m 


Our  principal  rivals  in  the  European  market  now  are  Canada  and  Aus- 
tralia. Yet  we  are  al)le  to  dispose  of  more  than  a  third  of  our  pr()du<t 
yearly  at  good  figures,  and  have  little  occasion  to  worry  about  compe- 
tition. 

But  little  attempt  has  been  made  in  this  country  to  manufacture  the  more 
delicate  and  richer  cheeses  for  which  the  Old  World  is  so  famous  :  instead, 
Quality  of  there  is  a  great  temptation  to  rob  the  cheese  of  part  of  its  richuoss 
cheese.  fQj.  L)^tter.     Prol)ably  there  is  more  skim-milk  cheese  made  here 

than  cheese  from  the  i.mskiMmied.  Within  a  few  years,  attempts  have  been 
made,  though  with  sliglit  success,  to  introduce  into  the  skim-milk  the  clean  fat 
from  which  an  imitation  of  butter  is  made  ;  namely,  oleo-margarine.  The 
ol)je(  t  is  to  restore  an  animal  oil  to  replace  that  of  the  cream.  It  is  found, 
however,  that  the  skim-milk  does  not  take  up  the  oleo-margarine  readily,  and 
very  little  such  cheese  is  made  or  marketed. 

The  history  of  .Xmerican  butter-making  is  rather  less  eventful  than  that  of 
cheese-making.  In  (quantity,  we  produce,  perhaps,  three  times  as  much  butter 
American  ^'^  cheese,  although  provision-dealers  pretend  to  say  that  the  ccn- 
butter  mak-  sus  returns  of  butter  making  fall  short  of  the  true  yield.  Butter  is 
'"^'  consumed   in  much  larger  (juantities,  but  probably  by  a  smalKr 

number  of  people  in  the  country,  than  cheese.  Its  use  is  by  no  means  uni- 
versal. 

Among  the  several  reasons  why  this  particular  dairy-interest  has  had  m) 

.  equable  and  quiet  a  growth  in  this  country,  the  most  conspicuous 

provement      ''^^  the  want  of  any  marked  improvement   in  the  apparatus  fur 

making  butter,  the  less  attention  given  to  the  foreign  market,  ami 

the  greater  difficulties  of  insuring  excellence  in  the  (juality  than 

in  the  manufacture  of  cheese. 


in  mode  of 
making. 


Tovnn%. 

t.05:,678 
1,045,054 

^7S'0-9 
},oS9,4('kS 
3,411,985 

-.J5-.'-7 
1,097,203 
),')(>o,it>7 

•,2<i6,]27 

5,698,867 
'),:04,0JS 
5,366,540 
3,611,077 
1 ,010,853 
%676,264 
:,430.3f^4 

lada  and  Aus- 
)f  uiir  profliict 
about    cumpc- 

:turc  the  more 
nious  :  instead, 
L  of  its  richness 
ese  made  here 
ipts  have  been 
k  the  clean  fat 
irgarine.  The 
I.  It  is  founti, 
ne  readily,  and 

\\  tlian  that  of 
as  much  butler 
y  that  the  cen- 
ield.  Butter  is 
y  by  a  smaller 
no  means  uni- 

est  has  had  so 
)st  conspicuoii' 
;  apparatus  for 
jn  market,  and 
lie  quality  than 


O/'    TlfK    UNITED    STATES, 


.       """-"rmity  i,,  ,,„a,i,y,  ,„  „„„^       '  ""!«.■"  have  ,„„  ,„„,,■„,  "--"y. 

"-"■■"'y  -  wrongly  con.^a      ,  ;  rj        "''''  ^'  '""'  »'™''"S.     Tl,„ 
"■■""lymB  ,1,0  evil,  An.crican  dai  y    e  V.^',"",  T'"'"""'"'''''^  ■  a,„u/„o 

"""l»n„ivcly  roccn.  <liscove,y     ",''""'■     '"»  "  „,a„c.r  of  ~,':;'.„, 
vane,  no,  only  i„  ,i,„„^.^    but  in"  ;        ™*.  °'  '"f''"'--"'   cows  -":';,'"" 

""-"«  .nilk,  Ics,  ,„e  fuller  pS'  """"  ''"  ""--'l  ■"      °"" 

ven.  a,,o„  ,„  a,,a„™en,.,  „,,„i ;       ^   e,  Z^^^T'":     ■'''-•  .".Oonance  of 

■in  tiie  earlier  part  of  thp  r. 
principally  conducted  in  the  iS^T-'  "'"'""■'"  '^^'"^•-  '-'"fl  cheese  mnk-ln 
^;;^  and  West  en.a^c/t   •  T  i^ "^^T^  '''''  '^^  ^Z^Z 
l^rhest  to  attain  prominence  in  the     V.  ''"'  "'"^"^  ^^^         ^ 

-<;<<  ...ah-.];  ofThS.^;:"";:''::,;:,  f '.^^ ''™'-"  -'.<"  -  -■■  ° 

-■  ..en  were  pecuharly  artap.ed      r  '°'-"  ^''''''  "<  'hat   '"■ 


\ 


134 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


I  i  '■-_ 


Pl?r" 


STATUS. 

1850. 
79,766,094 

i36o. 
103,097,280 

iSyu. 

New  York 

107,147,526 

rcniisylvaiii;', 

39,878,418 

58.653.S" 

60,834,644 

Ohio  '    . 

34,449,379 

48,543,162 

50,266,372 

Illinois    . 

12,520,543 

28,052,551 

36,083,405 

Iowa 

2,171,188 

If, 953,666 

27,512,179 

Michi,<;aii 

7.065,878 

15,503,482 

?4,4oo,i8s 

Iiuliana  . 

12,881,535 

18,306,651 

22,915,385 

Wisconsin 

3W3.750 

13,611,328 

22,473,036 

Vci-niont 

12,137,980 

15.900,359 

17,844,396 

^lissouri 

7.834.359 

12,704,837 

14.455.^-S 

The  Virginias 

1 1, 089,359 

13,464,722 

12,023,744 

Kentucky 

9.947.5-3 

11,716,609 

11,879,978 

Maine     . 

9.243,811 

11,687,781 

11,636,482 

Tennessee 

8,139.5*^5 

10,017,787 

9,571,069 

Minnesota 

1,100 

^.957.(^7^ 

9,522,010 

N<  w  Jc!■^ev    . 

9,487,210 

10,714.447 

8,266,023 

CuHfornia 

70s 

3.095.03s 

7.969.744 

Connecticut    . 

6,498,119 

7,620,912 

6,716,007 

Massa*:husetts 

8,071,370 

8,-97.93'^ 

6,559,161 

Other  States  . 

38,531,280 

53.761,623 

45.913512 

Total 

313,345.306 

459,681,372 

514,092,683 

It  is  believed,  that,  withi'x  the  past  itw  years,  our  annual  product  of  butter 
has  been  raised  to  900,000,000  pounds,  but  not  by  any  sudden  leap.  It  is 
Value  of  believed,  rather,  that  the  figures  of  1870  should  be  larger  than  in 
product.  this  table.  The  estimated  value  of  the  total  product  annually  is 
now  about  $175,000,000. 

Butter  varies  greatly  in  quality,  according  to  the  season  and  locality  in 
which  it  is  made  ;  and,  as  some  of  the  poor  winter  butter  is  often  adulterated 
Quality  of  with  lard,  the  inferior  grades  generally  called  cooking-butter  are 
butter.  sometimes  little  better  than  soap-grease.     The  choicer  makes  of 

grass-butter,  on  the  other  hand,  are  rather  rare,  and  much  sought  after.  Some 
dairying  States  that  produce  small  quantities  have  excelled  in  quality.  New- 
England  butter  has  always  had  a  high  rank,  especially  that  made  in  Vermont. 
In  New-York  State,  Orange  County  long  held  the  palm ;  but  the  other  large 
producing  counties  —  St.  Lawrence,  Delaware,  Jefferson,  Chatauqua,  Chenango, 
and  Otsego  —  have  also  good  reputations.  Pennsylvania  butter,  especially  that 
made  near  Philadelphia,  has  generally  stood  high.  Even  after  the  Western 
States  became  large  producers,  their  product  did  not  bring  3 s  good  a  price; 
but  of  late  years  the  quality  has  very  decidedly  improved. 

Our  butter  exports  have  not  amounted  to  much  until  within 
a  few  years.     In  1872  they  amounted  to  but  7,746,261  pounds  :  in  1877  they 


Export. 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


135 


7.147.526 
0,834,644 

;0,266>372 

;G,o83,405 

:7.5'-''79 
74,400,185 

22,915-3^5 
22,473.036 
17.^44,396 
14.455.^-5 
12,023,744 
11,879,978 
11,636,482 
9,571,069 
9,522,010 
8,266,023 

7,969.744 

6,716,007 

6, 5  59.' 61 

45.913512 

514,092,683 

duct  of  butter 
n  leap.  It  is 
larger  than  iu 
net  annually  is 

md  locality  in 
|en  adulterated 
dng-butter  are 
)icer  makes  of 
It  after.     Some 
[;iuality.     New- 
le  in  Vermont, 
the  other  large 
lua,  Chenango, 

especially  that 
^r  the  Western 

good  a  price ; 
jroved. 

;h  until  withm 
in  1877  they 


aggregated  23,150,614,  and  were  worth  $4,527,452-     This,  added  to  the  value 
of  the  cheese  export,  makes  $18,057,430. 

^^■ithin  the  past  fue  years  the  manufacture  of  an  imitation  of  butter-  called 
oh'o- III nr:(a rill,',  lias  attained  sufficient  prominence  to  deserve  mention  in  this 
connection.  We  have  alrt;'dy  spoken  of  tlie  attempts  to  /eplace  oieo-marga- 
the  natural  oil  of  cream  with  other  animal  fat  in  making  clieese  """=• 
from  skim-milk.  That  practice  is  resorted  to  only  to  a  limited  extent,  and 
in  such  cases  the  suet-fat  introduced  constitutes  only  a  small  proportion  of 
the  article  produced.  The  substitution,  how  '-er,  is  complete  in  the  manu- 
facture of  artificial  butter,  inasmuch  as  this  substance  is  all  fat,  and  not 
tasein.^  Moreover,  the  business  is  carried  on  to  a  much  greater  extent  than 
the  i)ro>.iuction  of  olco-marganne  cheese. 

The  idea  seems  to  have  originated  in  England  over  thirty  years  ago.  In 
1S46  one  William  Palmer  took  out  a  patent  for  "treating  fat  or  fatty  matters 
from  beef,  mutton,  veal,  and  lamb  :  "  but  the  product  obtained   „  .  .     , . 

'  '  '  ^  .  Origin  of  It. 

was  (juite  unlike  butter  in  color  and  taste  ;  it  looked  more  like 
lard.  The  first  patent  taken  out  in  this  country  was  issued  in  1871  to  H.  W. 
Bradley,  and  the  second  to  one  Peyrouse  in  the  following  November.  These 
both  employed  beef-suet  chiefly,  and  were  intended  rather  for  cooking  than 
for  use  un  the  table.  The  next  improvement  was  that  embraced  by  the  Paraf 
patent,  in  April,  1873. 

The  product  of  this  process  is  called  oleo-margarine,  from  the  supposition 
that  its  two  elements  are  oleine  and  margari.-.e.  The  so-called  margarine, 
however,  is  resolvable  into  stearine  and  palmitine ;  and,  besides  constituents 
these,  the  new  product  contains  butyrine,  one  of  the  oils  of  true  of  oieo-mar- 
butter,  in  a  small  degree.  The  manufacture  is  conducted  s^""'"^* 
secretly,  but  is  said  to  be  cKceedingly  cleanly.  Its  -"rominent  features  are 
the  extraction  of  clear  fat  from  clean  beef-suet,  and  chv  rning  it  with  milk. 
No  coloring-matter  is  used,  inasmuch  as  the  substance  is  already  orange- 
hued.  It  is,  of  course,  salted  like  ordinary  butter.  In  a  jpearance  it  differs 
from  real  butter  only  in  being  less  waxy,  and  in  taste  cl  iefly  in  the  absence 
of  flavor.  Indeed,  t!.e  resemblance  is  so  strong,  that  ^nly  experts  can  dis- 
tinguish between  the  two  compounds. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  oleo-margarine.  The  first  may  be  called  the 
"  original  antl  genuine."  In  making  it  the  oil  is  adulterated  with  just  enough 
cream  to  allow  of  its  being  churned,  the  proportion  of  cream  to  oil  being 
about  one  to  twenty.  The  "original  and  genuine  "  is  made  in  Two  kinds  of 
large  factories  operating  under  the  Mege  patent.  Butter-dealers  oieo-marga- 
(iaim  to  be  able  to  distinguish  this  article  from  dairy  butter  quite  '^'"''" 
readily,  lacking  as  it  does  the  "  texture  "  of  the  latter.  The  second  kind  is 
that  in  which  tlie  oil  has  been  largely  adulterated  with  cream,  —  perhaps  with 
fitty  or  sixty  per  cent  of  cream.  This  kind  is  made  by  country  dairymen, 
and.  it  is  believed,  in  considerable  quantities ;  and  to  detect  its  composition 
baffles  the  skill  of  any  except  the  most  experienced  dealer. 


136 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


in  Philadel 
phia. 


A  Philadelphia  correspondent  of  one  of  the  New- York  newspapers  ^ 
describes  seeing  half  a  ton  of  "ole  "  in  the  QuuKer  City,  fresh  from  New  York, 
_..   ,  and  labelled  "  Philad  a  Best  Print."     He  says  it  looked  exactly 

First  appear-  •'  •' 

anceof'oie"  hkc  the  bcst  buttcr  coiTiing  to  that  market;  but  it  was  made  of 
any  thing  except  pure  cream.  It  tasted  a  little  like  butter ;  but 
when  one  thinks  of  fat  and  stearine  and  suet,  and  a  shade  of 
tallow,  what  would  be  his  thoughts  when  spreading  it  on  a  piece  of  bread? 

It  is  prepared  in  long  flat  rolls  of  a  pound  each,  a  shape  so  well  known 
by  the  lovers  of  butter  made  in  the  counties  of  Pennsylvania,  The  Produce 
Exchange  are  frightened  about  this  new-comer,  and  have  taken  up  arms 
agamst  it.  While  they  fight,  an  agent  has  been  appointed,  and  it  will  be 
sold  in  spite  of  all  opposition.  What  the  proportions  of  grease  exactly  are 
the  correspondent  did  not  know :  but  there  is  at  least  a  candle  of  tallow  in 
every  pound ;  so  that,  when  one  eats  his  penny-dip,  he  may  expect  a  double 
portion  of  '.he  Quaker's  "  light  within."  The  New- York  stockholders  in  the 
new  company  say  they  can,  with  their  present  facilities,  turn  out  seventy  thou- 
sand pounds  per  day.  It  is  intended  for  the  European  market ;  but  the 
first  batch  turned  up  there,  perhaps  for  the  sake  of  getting  references.  In 
appearance  it  cannot  be  distinguished  from  the  very  highest-priced  butter ; 
and,  though  this  is  sold  for  about  ten  cents  per  pound  less  than  the  best  and 
genuine,  it  certainly  cannot  cost  more  than  twelve  cents  per  pound. 

The  success  of  this  latest  experiment  has  led  to  the  manufacture  of  oleo- 
margarine in  New-York  City  on  a  large  scale,  and  the  institution  of  lesser 
Success  of  factories  under  the  same  patent  in  other  cities.  Inasmuch  as  the 
the  industry,  article  can  be  produced  so  much  more  cheaply  than  butter,  it 
proves  a  formidable  rival  to  the  rerJ  dairy  product ;  and  the  dairymen  have 
secured  the  enactment  of  laws  in  New  York  and  Connecticut,  as  they  doubt- 
less will  in  other  States  before  long,  requiring  oleo-margarine  to  be  sold  as 
such,  and  not  as  butter.  Upon  the  first  announcement  of  this  industry,  popu- 
lar prejudice  rose  high  against  it ;  but  the  new  compound  is  already  manufac- 
tured and  consumed  to  a  very  great  extent,  —  probably  not  short  of  two  million 
pounds  annudly. 


'  Journal  of  Commerce. 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


m 


ewspapers  ^ 
New  York, 
ked  exactly 
as  made  of 
butter;  but 
a  shade  of 
[  bread? 
well  known 
["he  Produce 
cen  up  arms 
id  it  will  be 
;e  exactly  are 
;  of  tallow  in 
,ect  a  double 
solders  in  the 
seventy  thou- 
rket ;  but  the 
eferences.     In 
priced  butter ; 
,  the  best  and 
nd. 

icture  of  oleo- 
itlon  of  lesser 
asmuch  as  the 
Ithan  butter,  it 
dairymen  have 
as  they  doubt- 
to  be  sold  as 
.ndustry,  popu- 
eady  manufac- 
of  two  million 


CHAPTER    XII. 

THE    HORSE. 

NOWHERE  in  the  world  is  the  horse  prized  so  highly  as  in  Arabia,  and 
nothing  expresses  an  Arabian's  admiration  for  the  animal  more  clearly 
than  the  story  told  by  an  Arab  concerning  his  origin.     When  Abd-el-Kader 
was  questioned   on    this  point   by  the    f>e;ich  Government,  he  Horse  f 
replied,  "  When  God  wished  to  create  the  horse,  he  said  to  the   Arabian 
south  wind,  '  I  wish  to  form  a  creature  out  of  thee  :  be  thou  con-   °'''^'"" 
densed.'    Afterward  came  the  angel  Gabriel,  and  took  a  handful  of  that  matter, 
and  presented  it  to  God,  who  formed  of  it  a  light-brown  or  sorrel  horse,  saying, 
'  I  have  called  thee  Horse.     I  have  created  thee  an  Arab,  and  I  have  given 
thee  the  color  rouenenita  (red  mixed  with  black) .      I  have  bound    fortune 
upon  the  mane  which  falls  over  thine  eyes.    Thou  shalt  be  the  lord  of  all 
other  animals.     Men  shall  follow  thee  whithersoever  thou  goest.     Good  for 
the  pursuit  as  for  flight.     Thou  shalt  fly  without  wings.     Riches  shall  repose 
in  thy  loins,  and  wealth  shall  be  made  by  thine  intercession.'  " 

Fossil  remains  prove  the  existence  of  the  horse  in  the  New  as  well  as  in 
the  Old  World  before  the  flood.     He  traversed  our  soil  as  the  con-   Geological 
temporary  of  the  mastodon.     While  his  race   here  became  ex-  *b^  °f  horse. 
tinct,  and  he  was  unrepresented  in  the  Western  Continent  at  the  time  of  its  dis- 
covery by  Columbus,  in  the  C)ld  World  he  was  fortunately  preserved. 

When  Columbus  made  his  second  journey  to  the  New  World,  in  1493,  he 
took  horses  along  with  him ;  but  Cabega  de  Vaca  first  introduced  them  into 
the  United  States  in  1527.  Forty- two  were  imported;  but  all  perished  soon 
after  their  arrival  in  Florida.  The  wild  horses  found  on  the  plains  j^  ,^j^^ 
of  Texas  and  the  Western  prairies  sprang  from  a  Spanish  ancestry,  of  hon-.o^  by 
and  probably  descended  from  those  brought  over  by  De  Soto,  °  """  "^' 
which  were  abandoned  when  that  ill-starred  expedition  came  to  an  end.  In 
1 604  a  French  lawyer,  M.  Lescarbot,  brought  over  horses  to  Acadia ;  and 
from  these  the  French,  who  fixtended  their  settlements  into  Canada  in  1608, 
took  the  horses  which  probably  laid  the  foundation  of  what  are  now  known  as 
Canadian  ponies,  having,  no  doubt,  lost  much  of  their  original  size  in  conse- 


138 


/NZ)  US  TA'/A  L    HIS  TOR  Y 


\\    ;i 


Ni     7' 


%\\ 


;  Ui 


11 


quence  of  the  severity  of  the  cHmate  and  scanty  forage.  Though  degenerated 
in  size,  they  still  show  traces  of  Norman  blood,  from  which  they  probably 
sprang. 

Many  improvements  have  occurred  in  the  horse  since  his  re-appearance  m 
this  country.  The  changes  wrought,  esi)ecially  during  the  last  fifty  years,  have 
been  marvellous ;  yet  may  they  not  be  regarded  as  indications  only  of  other 
Improve-  ^^'^^  ^^'"  more  important  improvements,  when  a  still  higher  degree 
ments  in  the  of  knowledge  is  acciuirctl  respecting  the  rearing  and  training  of 
*^°"^'  them?    It  is  a  striking  proof  of  what  may  happen  to  animals  under 

domestication  ;  and,  however  great  or  small  may  be  the  quantity  of  truth  con- 
tained in  Darwin's  flimous  law  concerning  the  origin  of  animals,  no  one  will 
deny  the  magnituile  of  the  changes  wrought  in  the  horse  in  respect  to  his  size, 
speed,  strength,  and  other  c[ualities,  since  special  attention  was  paid  to  these 
matters,  nor  cjuestion  the  agency  by  which  these  results  have  been  produced. 
Great  attention  has  been  given  to  this  subject  tluring  the  last  fifty  years,  which 
we  shall  now  proceed  briefiy  to  sketch. 

TIIK    TKOTTIXC-IIORSE. 

The  trotting-horse  is  very  largely  the  product  of  American  thought  and 
cultivation.  Trotting,  in  most  cases,  is  an  accjuired  gait ;  nor  has  much  atten- 
tion been  paiil  to  it  until  within  sixty-five  years.  The  ancestry  of  the  trotting- 
horse,  however,  goes  farther  back.  Messenger,  from  which  many 
of  the  fast  horses  in  this  country  have  descended,  was  imported 
into  Philadelphia  from  F^nglantl  in  .May,  i  7S8.  Messenger  was  thorough-bred, 
and,  prior  to  his  importation,  ran  races  on  the  l-'nglish  turf  with  moderate 
success ;  and  without  doubt  it  was  the  intention  ot  those  who  brought  htm  to 
this  country  to  make  him  the  sire  of  horses  that  should  gallop  rather  than 
trot.  His  father,  Mambrino,  evinced  a  natural  disposition  to  trot ;  and  this 
trait  was  inherited  by  many  of  his  progeny.  Messenger  was  trained  for  the 
running  turf  in  England;  and  in  1788  the  running  horse  was  popular  in 
certain  sections  of  .\merica,  and  hence  the  inference  is  clear  that  he  was 
imported.  His  color  was  gray,  and  he  was  fifteen  hands  and  three  inches 
high,  and  the  colts  which  were  sired  by  him  showed  fine  form.  In  Pennsyl- 
vania, however,  —  into  which  State  he  was  first  imported,  —  the  legislature 
passed  a  law  prohibiting  racing ;  and  so  the  progeny  of  this  famous  stallion 
was  trained  for  the  road  instead  of  the  track.  In  the  autumn  of  1793  Mes- 
senger left  Pennsylvania  for  New  York,  where  he  remained  until  1808,  when 
he  died  of  the  colic  at  Oyster  P)ay,  L.I.  As  he  had  long  been  famous  and 
popular,  he  was  buried  with  military  honors,  a  volley  of  musketry  being  fired 
over  his  grave. 

As  the  trotting-horse  was  not  flishionable  at  that  period,  the  record  is  not 
very  perfect  concerning  the  descendants  of  this  famous  horse.     "  Many  of  the 


Messenger. 


OF  rui-:  rNiTED  states. 


139 


eratcd 

abably 

nee  \\\ 

s,  have 
f  other 
degree 
ling  of 
s  under 
Ih  con- 
one  will 
his  size, 
to  these 
roduced. 
rs,  which 


light  and 
ch  alten- 
e  trotting- 
u:h   many 
imported 
igh-bred, 
moderate 
Iht  htm  to 
[ther  than 
and  this 
Id  for  the 
opular  in 
It  he  was 


lee  1 


nches 
1- 


Pennsy 


ileeis 


hs 


lature 
stallion 


793 


Mc 


8,  when 


5(V 

Inous  am 


iing 


fired 


|)rd  is  not 


iny 


of  the 


CONKSKK.A    lUlKSK. 


:rt    ..^J'- 


z^'i 


!■       ■J. 


140 


/JVn  as  TRIA  l.    II IS  TOR  Y 


earlier  horses  which  won  distiiK  lion  o\\  tlie  tnuk  —  such  as  Top-Ciallant, 
Early  trot-  VcmX  Try,  and  W'iialcbonc  —  are  known  to  have  descended  from  him. 
ting-horses.  Alxlallali,  the  son  of  Mambrin-  ,  and  the  grandson  of  Messenger, 
l)roved  to  be  one  of  the  best  irotting-sires  that  the  country  has  produced. 
The  horse,  however,  was  not  much  appreciated  in  liis  time.  His  best  daugh- 
ter, prob;  biy,  was  Lady  JJianche,  a  mare  that  ac(|uired  celebrity  on  the  road 
and  turf,  and  which  lived  to  a  green  old  age,  and  literally  died  in  tiie  harness. 
It  is  claimed,  that,  with  proper  lare,  she  would  have  trotted  very  fast.  Thirty 
and  forty  years  ago  the  art  of  training  and  driving  had  not  been  reduced  to  a 
science  as  now.  Abdallah's  best  son  was  the  horse  now  so  widely  known  as 
Rysdyk's  Hambletonian.  Through  sire  and  dam.  Hambletonian  has  four 
direct  courses  of  Messenger  blood.  As  he  is  a  leading  i)rogenitor,  perhaps 
a  tabulated  pedigree  will  interest  the  reader.  This  (jne  jjcdigree  will  illustrate 
the  manner  in  which  the  record  of  eciuine  genealogy  is  kept." 


m 


•-\\i 


WW 


";ili 


'  jl 


fi 


i.'  \\> 


[ 


>    (J 
1    l\ 


I 


m  i 


111 


i 


Ml  i 


Maiiibiino 


Rysdyk's 
I  lambletonian 


(  Messenger. 

rsai 

^  (  Dam    '  i  Whirligig. 

(  .Aiiuizoiiia.  f  I  )am    ; 


L    i*i  I.IHIIJI  HIM   \ 

AbchllalJ  /l)a 


a,  J 


(  Saiierkratit. 

ini 

(  Miss  Slamcrkin. 


Mr.  I'.cll-foiinder. 


Charles  Kent  Mare  <  I  llaiiiblctoniaii. 


(  One  I'lyc 


,  (  Messenger. 

(  Dam  by  Messenger  / 

(  Dam  by  Messenger.' 


By  many  it  is  claimed  tliat  Hambletonian  owes  his  success  as  a  trotling- 
sire  from  his  strong  ini'usion  of  Messenger  blood.  He  was  foaled  May  5, 
Hambieto-  1  J^49,  on  thc  farm  of  Jonas  Seeley,  jun.,  near  Chester,  Orange 
"*an.  County,  N.Y.     When   five  weeks  old,  Mr.  William   Rysdyk  pur- 

chased him  with  his  dam  for  a  hundred  and  twenty-five  dollars.  Mr.  Rysdyk 
was  a  poor  man  then.  The  horse  pr()\ed  a  mine  of  wealth.  Of  late  years 
the  extravagant  price  of  five  hundred  dcllars  the  season  has  been  paid  for  his 
services  ;  and  at  this  figure  his  'ist  has  always  been  more  than  full.  His  colts 
have  usually  commanded  large  prices  ;  and  by  him  was  sired  the  celebrated 
Dexter,  whose  record  is  world-wide. 

In  New  ICngland  thc  Morgan  horse  has  a  fine  rei)utation,  and  his  history 
is  worth  giving  to  our  readers.  During  the  last  (  cntury  a  good  many  English 
or  thorough-bred  horses  were  brought  from  Virginia  into  Connecti- 
cut, and  were  kept  in  the  vicinity  of  Hartford  :  among  them  were 
Highlander,  King  William,  and  another,  called  lieautifiil  lioy,  or  True  Briton. 
He  was  probably  thorough-bred,  and  was  stolen,  so  it  is  said,  from  Gen. 
De  Lancey  at  King's  Bridge.  For  several  years  hi  was  kept  at  Springfield, 
Mass.,  and  became  the  sire  of  Justin  M(jrgan,  which  vas  foaled  in  West  Spring- 
field in  1793,  and  which,  as  another  writer  has  truthfully  said,  '•  has  had  a  post- 

'   Harjiers'  Magazine,  vol.  xlvil.  p.  60.,. 


Morgan. 


OF    Till',     ex /TED    STATES. 


14; 


lUant, 
.1  him. 
enger, 
luccd. 
laugh- 
z  road 
arncss. 
Thirty 
d  to  a 
jwn  as 
as  four 
^jerhaps 
Uistrate 


cssenger.' 

trolting- 

May  5. 

( )rangc 
lyk  pur- 

Rysdyk 
lie  years 
ll  for  his 
IS  colt^ 

;lebrated 

|s  history 
Enghsh 
tonnecti- 
lem  were 
Briton, 
hm   Gen. 
Iringfield, 
It  Spring- 
\\  a  post- 


142 


/Xn [  S TA'/A I.     HIS  70A' ) • 


Mt 


!r 


'ft'  il 


i-\-i 


!i! 


'\ 


v. 


His  iiistory. 


Description. 


m 


luinious  fame  surpassed  by  that  of  no  other  animal  that   ever  stood  in   New 
iMigland." 

When  two  years  old,  lie  was  taken  to  Randolph,  \'l.  Kike  most  of  the 
stock  horses  oi  '.;s  time,  especially  in  the  more  remote  sections,  he  had  to 
work  hard  in  clearing  up  new  land  ;  and  in  this  laborious  kind  of 
work  he  exhibited  the  most  wonderful  strength  and  willingness  at 
a  pull,  and  the  most  remarkable  patience  at  a  dead  lift,  —  a  characteristic,  one 
would  suppose,  strongly  in  contrast  with  his  nervous  playfulness  at  the  end  of 
a  halter  or  under  the  saddle.  He  would  "  out-draw,  out-walk,  out-trot,  and 
out  run  "  any  and  every  horse  that  was  ever  matched  against  him  ;  and  that, 
too,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  nawy  of  them  were  mucli  larger  and  heavier 
animals.  Strength  and  speed,  as  compared  with  the  horses  of  his  time,  and 
endurance,  were  characteristics  in  whi(  h  he  especially  excelled.  He  survived 
the  hardships  to  which  he  was  almosi  constantly  subjected  for  twenty-nine 
years,  and  then  re':eived  a  kick  from  horses  in  the  same  ya;  which  resulted 
in  his  {'eath  in  the  year  182 1. 

He  impressed  his  fine  (iu;>  ities  upon  his  offsjjring  to  an  miusual  degree,  as 
they  still  appear  un([U-:ilion  ihly  in  his  descendants.  He  is  described  as  a 
small  horse,  ony  about  fourteen  hands  high,  and  his  weight,  by 
estimation,  about  nine  hundred  and  fifty  pounds.  He  was  a  beau- 
tiful dark  bay,  with  scarcely  a  white  hair  on  his  body.  His  legs  were  black. 
His  mane  and  tail  were  black,  coarse,  and  thick,  widi  long,  straight  hair  free 
from  curls.  He  is  described  as  having  a  good  head  of  medium  size,  lean  and 
long,  with  a  straight  face,  broad  and  good  forehead,  and  fine,  small  ears  set 
wide  apart.  He  had  a  very  short  back,  and  wide  and  nuiscula''  loins,  but 
rather  a  long  body,  round,  and  close  ribbed  up.  lie  was  compact,  or,  a^ 
many  would  say,  he  was  very  snugly  built  ;  with  a  deep,  wide  chest,  and  pro- 
jecting breast-bone  ;  short,  close-jointed  legs,  wide  and  thin,  but  remarkably 
muscular,  and  with  some  long  hair  about  and  above  the  fetlocks,  —  a  pecul- 
iarity which  ne  imparted  to  many  of  his  ofispring. 

The  old  Justin  Morgan  was  said  to  have  beni  a  ver\-  fast  walker  ;  but  in 
trotting  he  had  a  short,  nervous  step,  a  low  smooth  gait,  square  and  fine  He 
His  speed,  was  uot  rciiiarka' ily  fast  as  a  trotter,  thoUij,ii  his  speed  waS  nevjr 
style,  &c.  developed  as  it  has  been  with  the  greatest  assiduity  in  mt\ny  of  his 
descendants.  In  travelling  he  raised  his  feet  but  slightly,  —  only  enough  to 
clear  the  inequalities  of  the  ground  ;  but,  I'Otwithstanding  this,  he  had  the 
reputation  of  being  very  sure-footed.  His  style  of  movement  w  is  lofty,  bold. 
and  energetic,  full  of  life  and  spirit ;  but  h  ;  was  managed  with  great  ease,  aii'I 
it  was  said  that  a  k'.dy  could  drive  liim  v.-ith  perfect  safety.  He  was  inucli 
admired  as  a  parade  horse. 

Couic  run  Though  not  what  would  now  be  called  a  very  fast  trotter,  tlu' 

^'^''  old  Justin   Morgan  could  run  at  short   distances  with  anv  other 

horse  of  his  time  not  thorough-bred  ;  and  many  an  eighty  rods  accomplishdl 


t'i 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


143 


li'i 


y4!:'li 


%B-^ 

i ' 

',  "1 

"■f" 

1 

^¥: 

\ 

> 

' '■«  ■^■/    i 

\    • 

!■.  H' 

if^ ''  ,'• 

■  1I 

'♦r"!i' 

^  i?- 

ifc 

|;i' 

1'.' 

'  li 

|lr' 

1  .  ■• 

■u 

i'lv 

fj^U 

,  f 

.         !     __ 

:  ,^- 


144 


INDUSTRfAL    HISTORY 


Black  Hawk. 


Description. 


J)y  him  won  nis  kccptr  the  stakes,  payable  at  the  tavern  where  the  scratch  was 
made  in  tne  cn'rt  aciosr.  the  road  as  the  ])oint  from  which  to  start.  Ea(  h 
horse  nad  to  "cunic  up  lo  the  scratch,"  and,  when  the  hat  fell,  to  be  off  as 
fast  as  his  legs  could  cariy  him.  \\\  all  such  trials,  the  "  little  horse  "  was 
always  sure  to  win.  It  is  from  him  that  Bulrush  Morgan  antl  the  Morrill 
horses  have  descended. 

Another  family  of  horses,  to»y  well  known  to  be  wholly  omitted  from  this 
description,  is  the  Hlack  Hawk.  The  first  one  bearing  that  name  was  foaled 
near  Portsmouth,  N.H.,  1833.  At  the  age  of  four  years  he  was 
sold  as  a  roadster  for  the  sum  of  ;il!i50.  In  1842  he  won  a  match 
of  a  thousanil  dollars,  trotting  live  milts  over  the  Cambridge  track  in  sixteen 
minutes.  In  the  year  1844  Mr.  Hill  bought  and  kept  him  as  a  stallion  at 
Bridport,  Vt.,  till  the  time  of  his  death  in  1856.  His  skeleton  is  preserved  in 
the  office  of  the  secretary  of  the  State  Board  of  Agriculture,  at  the  State  House 
in  Boston. 

Black  Hawk  was  not  quite  fifteen  hands  high,  and  weighed  about  a  thou- 
sand pounds.  He  was  remarkably  symmetrical  and  muscular,  graced  with  a 
beautiful  head,  neck,  and  limbs,  and  when  in  action,  whether  in 
harness  or  out,  of  a  spirited,  nervous,  and  elegant  bearing,  which 
could  not  fixil  to  command  uni\x'rsal  admiration  wherever  he  appeared.  He 
could  easily  trot  his  mile  in  two  minutes  and  forty  seconds,  even  without  much 
training ;  and  he  combined  with  great  speed  the  perfection  of  form,  the  intel- 
ligence, courage,  and  endurance  sufficient  to  make  him  a  complete  model  of 
a  roadster.  He  possessed  the  power  of  transmitting  his  characteristics  to  his 
very  numerous  offspring  in  a  degree  surpassed  by  no  other  horse  in  the  country. 
In  the  carriage  or  under  the  saddle,  in  the  quiet  of  a  country  road  or  on  the 
parade-ground,  under  whatever  circumstances  the  descendants  of  Black 
Hawk  a|)pcai,  '-.e  eye  accustomed  to  observe  the  characteristics  of  the  horse 
could  hardly  fail  to  detect  the  relationship.  The  Black  Hawks  are  much 
sought  after  as  light  carriage  and  saddle  horses. 

As  an  evidence  of  their  qualities,  as  well  as  the  celebrity  they  have  obtained 
in  other  parts  of  the  country,  it  may  be  stated,  that  during  the  fair  at  St.  Louis, 

c  brit  f  "^  ^^^59»  ^'^'^  o"*^  °^  ^'^  ^^  ^'^^  ^^^^  stallions  exhibited  in  the  class 
Black  of  roadsters  were  Black  Hawks ;  and  the  prizes,  of  one  thousand 

Hawk's  de-  fioU^^i-;^  fii^^j;  year  and  of  fifteen  hundred  dollars  at  the  fair  there 
in  1S60,  were  awarded  for  the  best  stallions  in  this  class  to  sons 
of  old  Black  Hawk.  At  the  various  fairs  held  in  New  England  —  at  Springfield, 
Boston,  and  elsewhere  —  the  Black  Hawks  have  been  very  largely  represented, 
and  have  generally  carried  off  a  fiiU  proportion  of  the  prizes  offered.  More 
than  one  hundred  horses  of  this  stock  were  entered  at  the  Springfield  Horse 
Show  in  1S60,  and  nearly  half  of  all  successful  competitors  were  Black  Hawks. 
Many  sons  of  the  old  horse  are  now  standing  in  various  i)arts  of  New  England 
as  stock-getters ;  and,  judging  from  the  reports  of  State  fairs  in  other  parts  of 


^^    TffE    UmTED    STATES. 


the  country,  it  is  safe  to  affirm  th-if  h,  '  '^^ 

-^  ;^^  «tock  of  the  Unite,,  ^^'' ^^^^^^^^^-^^<^-^^..C.,  i„n..„., 

»e  must  now  turn  our -,h     .• 
-^tec,  in  America  .as  ^r.:^^:^^^  ^^     :'''-  Hrst  pui.i.  race  ever 
D..nng  a  jockeyclub  dinner  Ik  <I  i     ^  ^'  '^'""^^  '""^''  ^-' ^  tl^ousand  dolhr/ 
asserted  that  no  horse  could  I     r  V''"" '"  ^""'^  ^^--k-  it  was  ^,     '""^''■^• 

'"'■""t^'s.      Two  of  f  I,  '^^'""''  '^'''^'  to  trot  a  mil.-  in  .1  "  """"'= 

,,  ■       *^»^o  01   the  members    l,,>..  ""^ '^ ''Hie  ui  three   •'■ce. 

IslamI,  a„,l  (.:„|.  „„„,,  „f  «,  I '' I  "' ~ "^'J"''  "'"':•">  Jones  of   , 

--  -  good  a»  ,1,0  wo  U     4'  ;    r-T"  '"  '™""-  -'"  .    orsJ     ■  :""^' 
h.»  fame  was  oMablislK.,!.     He™     "',1    ' ''"""-■  ''""  -"""Plisl.e,    .he  fc7 

«'»>  of  these  perhaps  , he  nl   e  f T''"""'  •■""'  ^l'>'  WiUcr.    The'  ,^"r"°"°' 


«-  of  these  Perhaps",he  I,   ,':;?"""■  ';""  ^"^  "'"-    ^ H 

'"S-lwk  Course  in  Philadelph  I  T     '"""'""  ^"  "'«  ""«■   "■""■  ■»- 

horse  hi«  n->„.;f„ '      *•     *'^"''i-' uemp  fmni, i_  clubs 


'"S-lwk  Course  in  Philadelph         Z^l  "'"'""'""  ^"  "'«  ""«■   -"'•-»- 
horse  his  merits  were  recognize,!'  and,       *  ""'""'"'  '■■■''  "  '^^="-   """■ 
"">er  won  as  fine  a  repuhl  ion  ■'  f        "  "''"""ff-^Pce.i  was  developed      s 
*';""»  -wspaper  ann^r ,    ,1," :  ;;  ^  -  '""'.  ^n  OetCer,  If  .  ml" 
'>«  •"..=  »  horse  which  could  tro   a  m  1      '     "  °'  ''"'"='  '»  "<'  nwre,"    A 

''»I)l)carance.     Hq  v^J .  ,  u    .    ,        '^'  -""^^   t'''^  opposite   of    ,   '  'i      ^ 

*»",:."  *  ::,r:™  -""-  •'..>t.v-.wc  si^rnr  -  ^°"  ^°"='-' 

A"«nst,  ,S3,'.  -'^  '--  «»  n-iclen-by  Hiranr   Wood' u/T     This"' ""'"' 

;;-^^ni:h;j:::;»i''-;^' -.™^^^^     „a„„,„  „„^ 

•^'*"-k.a„ds\a!;ding^t«:t„d""'  t  ''"""^'■'  S-^-'*  -   .r^"'" 

"' ''''  '"■""'^■-  ^--  Hi;  sS;' ; :;: ;  r::  f:^ """■  ^'^  ^'-"  - '- 

1  rcpared  and  mounted  by  a  taxi- 


146 


IND  US  TRIA  I.    HIS  TOR  Y 


lU  J:.  : 


I  I 


Truitee. 


Tacony. 


<Icrniist,  and  it  now  docs  duty  as  an  advertist'mcnt  in  a  Tkoadway  harness-store. 
Those  who  knew  tlie  handsome  gray  mare  in  her  prime  claim  that  her  speed 
was  never  developed.  Among  Lady  Suffolk's  competitors  on  the  turf  were 
Washington,  Confidence,  Ripton,  Cayuga  Chief,  Independence,  Heppo,  Oneida 
(!hief,  Lady  Moscow,  Americus,  and  other  horses  dear  to  the  memory  of  the 
sjjortsman  whose  hair  is  now  silvered,  and  who  loves  to  dwell  upon  the  scenes 
of  the  "olden  time." 

In  October,  1848,  occurred  the  fixmous  twenty-mile  race  by  'I'rustee,  the 
son  of  a  thorough-bred  imjjorted  horse  bearing  a  similar  name.  His  driver 
weighed  a  hundred  and  forty-five  pounds,  and  his  sulky  a  hundred 
and  fifty  pounds ;  and  the  twenty  miles  were  trotted  in  fifty-nine 
minutes  thirty-five  seconds  and  a  half.  It  was  a  race  which  thoroughly  tested 
the  endurance  of  the  horse,  and  was  denouiued  at  the  time  as  cruel ;  but  it 
is  affirmed  that  'i'rustee  was  not  injured  in  the  least  by  the  ])erformance. 

In  185 1  appeared  a  new  horse  (Tacony,  from  Maine),  which  won  many 
victories,  scoring  twelve  the  second  year  of  his  public  appearance  ;  at  whic  h 
time  Floni  remi)le  bej^an  her  wonderfiil  career ;  also  Mthan  Allen, 
the  worthy  descendant  of  Morgan.  The  following  season  was 
rendered  exciting  by  a  series  of  races  between  I'lora  Temple  and  Tacony,  in 
Flora  which    the    former  beat   the    latter  seven    times   at  different  dis- 

Tempie.  tances.    Concerning  her  breeding  nothing  is  known.    While  young, 

she  changed  hands  several  times ;  and,  when  first  put  in  the  harnuss,  she  did 
work  in  a  livery-stable  in  ICaton,  N.V.  h\  June,  1850,  she  was  brought  with 
a  drove  of  cattle  to  Dutchess  C'ounty,  where  she  was  purchased  by  Mr.  Velie 
for  $175.  Shortly  after  this  she  was  sold  to  Mr.  (ieorge  I'>.  I'errin  of  New- 
York  City,  who  used  her  as  a  road-mare.  In  1850  she  trotted  a  mat(  ii  race  ; 
but  she  did  not  make  her  regular  appearance  on  the  course  until  two  years 
later.  She  made  her  last  turf-performance  Sept.  5,  1861,  on  the  i''ashion 
Course,  Long  Island.  During  the  eleven  years  in  which  she  was  })rominently 
before  the  jjublic  she  trotted  a  hufidred  and  eleven  races,  ninety-three  of 
which  she  won.  Her  winnings  netted  $113,000.  Prominent  among  her  com- 
petitors were  Princess,  Ethan  Allen,  Ocorge  M.  Patchen,  Lancet,  Taconv,  and 
Highland  Maid.  Her  best  wagon-time,  2.24-^,  was  made  Sept.  2,  1S56,  on 
the  Llnion  Course,  Long  Island.  Her  fastest  mile  in  harness,  which  for  a 
long  while  stood  at  the  head  of  the  record,  was  done  at  Kalamazoo,  Mich.. 
Oct.  15,  1859.  Flora  Temple's  turf-career  was  marvellous.  She  was  a  mare 
of  obscure  breeding,  small  in  stature,  being  fourteen  hands  two  inches  high  : 
and  yet  she  rose  to  supremacy,  and  reigned  for  a  number  of  years  (jueen  of 
the  course. 

It  would  be  impossible  for  us  in  our  short  space  to  recount  the  glories  of 
all  the  fiimous  trotters  in  the  United  States,  or  even  to  mention 
their  names.     IJesides,  as  we  approach  nearer  to  the  present  time, 
there  is  less  need  of  presenting  such  a  history,  as  man}'  are  familiar  with  it. 


Ethan  Allen. 


[larness-store. 
lat  her  speed 
;he  turf  were 
L'ppo,  Oneida 
-■mory  of  the 
n  tlie  scenes 

Tnistee,  the 

His  driver 

ky  a  liundred 

in  fifty-nine 
otighly  tested 
cruel ;  but  it 
nance. 

h  won  many 
:e  ;   at  whic  h 

Kthan  Allen, 
,'  season  was 
id  Tacony,  in 
different  dis- 
W'hile  young, 
'noss,  she  did 
brought  with 
by  Mr.  Velie 
rrin  of  New- 
.  match  race  : 
til  two  years 

the    I'ashion 

prominently 
lety-three  of 
3ng  her  coni- 
Tacnny,  and 
:.  2,  1856,  on 
M'hich  for  a 
lazoo,  Mich.. 
'  was  a  niarr 
inches  high  : 
irs  (lueen  of 

le  glories  of 
1  to  mention 
present  time, 
miliar  with  it. 


mm  slo,,,  huwi.vcr,  to  .,.iv  ■.  „.„',  "'  '''S'  '■•''■  '-u,}    w^   °"»'- 

-'»  of  ICIun  Allen.    Th;;  Tvo^'^T  "'  ""  ""■"  "o'-"  'l«ccncl 
n.-.mc,  and  whose  career  will  ,'':"'""""'■  *'>°«--  mo.her  .ilso  :,ore  .h,. 
»-  P«  of  Robert  lion  ,e  .  1  :  Cl"  '"'T''     ''o-h-^  "  """ 

«.i'l  .0  be  "one  of  ,l,e  be  ,  r„'l',;"    '""'  'T  *^5'°°°-    She  is  """■«"•••■ 
>'"-"■■■■  l-e,l  in  ,„e  ,„4'  ™ '^'^  'n  .he  »rl,l."    Then  .here  i,  , .,  , 
l-rino  Chief.     Her.i„„i„Jf^    Xt."*".'"  "'  '^™"-l'>'.  --1.;/,:,^ 
amounted  to  S6.,,,5      »,.,*""""'-' "f  h" ''areer  in  ,«.     '  "'■""• 
i»  >vhich  she  trot  .d'  .1  "'■''•' "''  "'  ''"»l'<-'«  I'ark  L  f  ^    '  "''°' 

THE   PAClNG-noK.SE. 
Inuring  the  latter  nirt  nr  fu    i 

t'.«l  .™.l,ority  it  „,ay  he  .  t  „  „  '^  '  ^  '^^'^  ■"-■^  X---  U„o„  rS;. 
"•"s.  s„re.foote<l,  and  toughest  Lld^  '  '""'""'''  «"=  "'-.•  easiest  fleeter 
'■'""■'"-vorld.    Theyc'o,      „:'!^;'"°:!;-;^  ""  k""™   in  this  ,   '„    ,?   ' 

""!>'  '"K-  m  which  ,l,ey  excelled     an  ^1,  H     "  r"  '"'  ""•'i''  "atMral  ea  tthi 
"«••  origin  of  this  fa„,o„s  I  ;eed  '  ^       '  "'T  "'"^'  ^''P^'---")'  «.cc     ', 

"-  pro  ably  a  stallion  importe     f  1        j  ^  ''.^'1"  "'^""ct  for  n,.a  .y  let, 

'-;-  -ident.  or  I  ^^hrt^Lr^t;?^"',  "^  -''>-" 

fe  ^c-^t  Punty  and  j)erfection  ;  and  he 


im 


'  » 


U:i 


143 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


was  so  faithful  to  his  trust  as  to  allow  few  very  superior  animals  to  escape  him. 
This  circumstance,  together  with  the  improvement  of  the  roads,  and  the  fact 
that  the  genuine  Narragansett  pacer  was  comparatively  useless  as  a  draught- 
horse,  and  really  good  only  under  the  saddle,  led  to  a  decline  in  the  interest 
in  br^^eding  this  class  of  horses,  especially  during  and  after  the  war  of  the 
Revolution,  when  large  numbers  of  horses  were  wanted  for  teaming  and  trans- 
portation. The  pacer,  as  a  br  ed,  was  wholly  neglected,  till,  in  the  year  1 800, 
it  was  said  there  was  only  one  animal  of  the  real  Narragansett  stock  to  be 
found  in  Rhode  Island. 

In  1854,  however,  the  pacer  found  a  splendid  representative  m  Pocahontas, 
Pocahontas  the  mother  of  anoth;r  mare  bearing  the  same  name,  which  we 
a  pacer.  havc  previously  described.     Notwithstanding  her  dam  was  a  natu- 

ral trotter,  she  perfoiuied  very  striking  feats  as  a  pacer,  her  best  tine  being 
made  in  1855,  when  she  paced  one  mile,  to  wagon,  in  2.1 7|. 


M% 


,  (   c    J 


}S 


OF   THE    UNITED   STATES. 


149 


jcape  him. 
id  the  fact 
a  draught- 
:he  interest 
war  of  the 
and  trans- 
year  1800, 
stock  to  be 

Pocahontas, 
e,  which  we 
was  a  natu- 
t  tine  being 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

SHEEP. 

SHEEP  are  among  the  very  oldest  domestic  animals  known,  though  they 
are  found  wild  in  nearly  every  mountainous  country  of  the  world.  By 
some  authorities  they  are  thought  to  be  related  to  the  goat,  but  Early  history 
are  far  more  timid  than  that  animal,  from  wh'ch  they  differ,  also,  in  °^  ^^'^  soat. 
other  respects.  They  are  intimately  associated  with  ancient  religious  rites,  and 
were  the  symbol  of  gentleness  and  innocence.  The  great  wealth  of  the 
Israelites  and  other  pastoral  nations  was  in  sheep,  which  were  originally  raised 
for  their  milk  and  skins,  as  well  as  for  sacrifice  ;  but  they  have  been  prized  in 
modern  times  for  their  wool,  fle^h,  and  fat,  in  which  regards  the  improvements 
of  breeding  have  been  very  marked  for  the  past  century  and  a  half. 

Tlie  best  breed  of  these  animals  for  fine  wool  is  the  merino,  which  origi- 
nated in  Spain,  and  is  supposed  to  have  descended  from  the  stock  of  the 
patriarchs.     They  are  devoid  of  wool  on  the  head  and  necks,  and 
are  less  fleshy  and  symmetrical  than  the  choice  English  breeds. 
From  the  Spanish  merinoes  are  derived  the  famous  Saxon,  Silesian,  and  Flem- 
ish  breeds.     The  witlcly-known    establishment  for  raising   sheep,  owned  by 
Louis  XVI.  of  France,  at  Raml)ouillet,  was  devoted   to  the  propagation  of 
merinoes  principally.     The  prevailing  breed  in  the  United  States  is  a  more  or 
less  pure  merino.     The  Asiatic  and  African  varieties  of  this  animal  are  of  little 
value.     Probably  Great  Britain  giv^s  more  attention  to  the  raising 
of  sheep  for  wool  and  mutton  than  any  other  civilized  country,   breeding  in 
Her  breeds  are  mostly  producers  of  coarse   wools,  notably  the   °"^* 
Leicester  or  Dishley,  the   Cheviot,  Norfolk,  Suffolk,  and    Dorset 
varieties.      The  South-Do^vns  have    a   shorter,  finer  fleece,  and   yield   good 
mutton. 

Sheep  were  first  introduced  into  thk  country  at  Jamestown.   ^"f°d"'=t'°n 

..         .  ^  J  J  'of  sheep  into 

Va.,  m  1009.      In    forty  years   they  hac!    increased  in  numbers   the  United 
neady  to   3,000.      The   first    importation   to    Massachusetts   was   states, 
in  1633;    and  for  a  time  they  were  kept  on   the  islands  in  Boston  Bay,  to 
protect  them  fiom  wolves  and  bears.      In  1652  Charlestown  had  as  many 


Merinoes. 


|P 


ISO 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


%  m  p! 


V!H!  ' 


as  400  sheep ;  and  Lynn  had  several  flocks,  which  weic  watched  and  kept  by 
a  common  shepherd.  Sheep  were  introduced  into  the  New  Netherlands  in 
1625,  and  again  in  1630  ;  but  such  were  the  depredations  of  wild  beasts,  t!),.t 
in  1643  there  were  not  more  than  sixteen  in  that  colony.  The  Swedes  of  New 
Jersey  were  encouraged  to  breed  sheep,  and  raise  wool  to  send  home,  but  in 
1663  had  no  more  than  eighty  sheep. 


LEICESTER  RAM. 


!Im 


The  sheep  in  this  country,  in  those  days,  were  raw-boned,  coarse-woolled 
animals  ;  l)ut  inasmuch  as  the  mother-country  discouraged  the  exportation  of 
„    ,  them  hitlier.  and  as  the  colonists  felt  the  need  of  producing  their 

Early  meas-  '  '  " 

ures  for  en-     owu  woollen  clotliing,  the  colonial  governments,  by  addresses  to 
couraging        ^j^^,  people,  bounties  for  killing  wolves,  and   by  other  measures, 

the  industry.  1        1       >  &  J 

encouraged  the  importation  and  raising  of  sheep.  Massachusetts, 
in  1645,  ordered  the  appointment  of  agents  in  every  town  to  ascertain  who 
would  buy  sheep,  and  to  urge  the  people  to  write  their  friends  across  the  At- 
lantic to  bring  sheep  with  them  on  emigrating.  In  1648  it  was  ordered  that 
sheep  l)e  pastured  on  the  common ;  and  later  the  selectmen  of  every  town 
were  authorized  to  superintend  the  putting  of  rams  to  the  flocks.  In  1654 
the  Assembly  of  Massachusetts  prohibited  the  exportation  of  sheep,  and  in 
1675  of  wool.     Virginia  enacted  similar  laws. 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


151 


kept  by 
lands  in 
asts,  t'l.t 
;  of  New 
le,  but  in 


Gradually,  but  slowly,  sheep  multiplied  in  numbers.     A  report  on  American 
industries,  made  to  the  British  House  of  Commons  in  1731-32  by  the  Board  of 
Trade,  shows,  that,  at  that  time,  nearly  all  American  farmers  had   ,    ,  ^ 
a  few  sheep,  whose  wool  was  spun  at   home   for  domestic  use.   British  farm- 
There  was  no  ex])ort,  however,     dreat  jealousy  was  felt  by  the   Y^toward 

•  ■"  ^  Americans. 

British,  lest  we  should  compete  with  them  in  wool-production  ; 
and  obstacles  were  put  in  the  way  of  our  obtaining  sheep.  Jared  Kliot,  writ- 
ing in  1747,  says,  "A  better  breed  of  sheep  is  what  we  want.  The  English 
breed  of  Cotswold  sheej)  cannot  be  obtained,  or  at  least  with  great  difificulty  ; 
for  wool  and  live  animals  are  contraband  goods,  which  all  strangers  are  pro- 
hibited from  carrying  out  on  pain  of  having  the  right  hand  cut  off." 


^j-j 


"^^^^S- 


*^^^, 


larse-woolled 
liortation  of 
Tducing  their 
fiddresses  to 
i>r  measures, 
lassachusetts, 
Iscertain  who 
Iross  the  At- 
|ordered  lluit 
every  town 
U.     In  1654 
leep,  and  iu 


sorTii-nnwN  kam. 


On  the  breaking-out  of  the  Revolution,  the  colonists  immediately  recog- 
nized the  importance  of  preserving  their  sheep  for  jiropagation.     The  Colo- 
nial Congress  of  1775  voted  to  discourage  killing,  and  encourage    Measures  to 
the  breeding,  of"  sheep.     The  Pennsylvania  Assembly  did  likewise,    foster  sheep- 

-p,        ,  .      .  r    1,         1  1    '  1    11      .  ^    ■  r     raising  dur- 

I  he  Association  of  Butcliers  voted  not  to  kill  sheep,  and  in   1776    jng  Ameri- 
it  is   said  twenty  thousand  less    sheep  were    slaughtered  than  in   can  Revoiu- 
1774.     During  the  siege  of  Boston,  however,  in   1 775-76.  large 
Mipl)lies  of  live-stock,  including  sheep,  were  sent  from  all  parts  of  the  colonies 


iW 


fi     '>; 


:n\ 


i 


r '" 


152 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


for  the  soldiers'  food.  There  must  have  been  more  than  a  miUion  of  these 
animals  in  the  country  at  that  time. 

Little  was  done  in  the  way  of  importing  choice  breeds  of  sheep  into  this 
country  until  the  close  of  the  last  century  and  the  early  part  of  this.  Men- 
tion is  made  by  Custis  of  two  Leicester  ewes  on  the  csUile  of  \Vashington, 
First  impor-  from  wliich,  by  a  Persian  ram,  were  derived  the  famous  Arlington 
tations.  loug-woolled  sliecp.     Kentucky  gave  preference  to  this  and  other 

English  breeds,  which  were  imported  into  and  still  survive  in  small  numbers 
in  the  Middle  States  and  those  of  the  Ohio  Valley.  The  merino  sheep  had  a 
greater  rage,  and  now  constitute  a  larger  profjortion  of  our  slock. 


ANGORA  GOAT. 


In  1793  Willi;.m  Foster  of  Boston  brought  home  from  Cadiz,  Spain,  where 
he  had  been  staying  several  years,  tliree  full-blooded  merino-sheep,  two  ewes, 
•William  ^^^^  '^  rMw.  He  was  seventy-five  days  on  the  jxissage ;  and  the 
animals  were  taken  sick,  and  nearly  perished  ;  but  a  French  shep- 
herd on  board  the  vessel  cured  them  by  injections.  Mr.  Foster 
says,  "  Leing  about  to  leave  this  country  for  I'^rancc,  shortly  after  my  arrival 
in  Boston  I  presented  these  slieep  to  Andrew  Cragie  of  Cambridge,  who,  not 


Foster's 
efforts. 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


153 


f  these 

ilo  this 
Men- 
ungton, 
rUnglon 
id  other 
lumbers 
p  had  a 


-m^ 


[lin,  where 
two  ewes. 

and  the 
lich  shep- 
llr.  Foster 
Iny  arrival 

who,  not 


knowing  their  value  at  that  time,  '  simply  ate  them,'  as  he  told  me  years  after 
when  I  met  him  at  an  auction  buying  a  merino  ram  for  a  thousand  dollars."  * 

As  early  as   1785  the  newly-organized  Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Agri- 
culture, in  South  Carolina,  offered  a  medal  to  the  first  person  who   p^g^jy 
should  keep    a    flock   of  merino-sheep    in  that  State ;    but  there   offered  by 
seems  to  be  no  record  of  the  prize  being  taken.  South-Caro- 

'  °  Una  Society. 

Four  young  merino-rams  were  sent  to  this  country  from  Paris 
in  1801  ;  but  not  more  than  one  survived,  and  that  went  to  Rosendale  Farm, 
Kingston,  N.Y.     French  merinoes  were  also  imported  by  William 
Taintor   of   Hartford    in    1846.      The  Hon.   L^avid  Humphreys,   tl^ngfro'n, 
American  minister  at  Madrid,  brought  home  to  his  farm  in  Derby,   France  and 
Conn.,  ninety-one  Spanish  merinoes  ir    1802.      Seth  Adams   of  °t'^ercoun- 
Zanesville,  O.,  imported  two  Spanish  ewes  in  1801  ;   and  Chan- 
cellor Livingston  of  New  York  sent  home  two  pairs  from  abroad  the  same 


SOUTH-UOWN   EWES. 

year.  In  1808,  and  later,  his  shce])  attained  a  wide  reputation.  William 
J;ir\is,  our  consul  at  Lisbon,  Portugal,  s<.Mit  a  number  of  Spanish  sheep  to  his 
home  in  Wethersfield,  Vt.,  in  1809-11. 

Just  prior  to  the  war  of  1812-14,  sheei)-raising  took  a  great  star    in  this 

'  Choice  animals  have  sold  as  high  as  ten  thousand  and  fourteen  thousand  dollars  apiece  in  th     country. 


.1 


154 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


': !  m 


■•', 


country,  as  did  also  woollen  manufactures.  After  the  war  there  was  a  brief 
Siheep-  set-back,  in  coisequence  of  competition  with  the  finglish  markets, 

raising  prior  In  1824  a  protective  tarift'  was  laid  on  foreign  wools,  and  sheep- 
■**  *'"■  raising   in   Amerira  quickly  revived.     The    importation   of  the 

Saxon,  the  Merino,  Leicester,  South-Down,  Cheviot,  and  Cotswold  breeds. 
Effect  of  tar-  soon  follovvcd,  and  the  business  rapidly  developed.  The  Saxon 
iff  of  1824.  sheep  were  highly  prized  for  their  fine  wool,  but  proved  imhardy, 
and  yielded  light  fleeces ;  anil  most  breeders  in  New  England,  after  a  thor- 
ough trial,  voted  them  unremunerative. 

Sheep  are  subject  to  many  maladies,  such  as  foot-rot,  scab,  sore  throat, 
and  grubs  in  the  licad  ;  and  they  suffer  to  a  great  extent  from  the  depredations 
Diseases  of  of  (logs.  The  commissioner  of  agriculture,  in  his  rej)ort  for 
1866,  says  that  returns  from  one-fourth    of  the  counties  in    the 


sheep. 


country  for  that  year  showed  tliat  about  a  hundred  and  thirty  thousand  shec,) 
had  succumbed  to  this  single  destroying  influence ;  and  he  estimated  tin; 
number  for  the  whole  country  to  be  halt  a  million  annually. 


THAER's   elector AL-ESCURIAL   KAM   OF   1845. 


Sheep-rats-  Owing  to  these  causes  to  a  slight  extent,  but  more  narticuladv 

ing  increas-  ,  ...... 

ing  in  the        to  the  better  pasturage  afforded  m  the  West,  there  has  been  for 
■West.  nearly  forty  years  a  westward  movement  m  the  centre  of  sheep- 

raising.      Prior  to  1840,  when  there  were  about  eighteen  million  sheep  in  this 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


155 


country,  the  greater  number  were  owned  in  the  Atlantic  States,  from  Virginia 
northward,  and  in  the  Ohio  basin.  Since  then  the  business  of  raising  sheep 
for  any  thing  more  than  the  butcher's  demand  has  sensibly  declined  in  the 
East ;  and  the  pastures  of  the  Western  States  are  our  great  wool-producing 
region.  The  general  tendency  of  the  movement  in  sheep-culture  will  appear 
from  the  following  table,  showing  the  distribution  in  the  principal  wool-growing 
Stales  for  thirty  years  past.  It  may  be  remarked,  however,  that  some  of  the 
Southern  States,  notably  Virginia,  suffered  from  the  war  severely ;  and  that  the 
resources  of  California,  now  the  great  wool  State  of  the  country,  were  not 
developed  until  some  time  after  the  acquisition  of  that  Sta'^e  from  Mexico. 


STATES. 

1850. 

i860. 

1870. 

1875. 

California 

I7-3^S 

1,088,003 

2,768,187 

7,290,000 

Ohio 

3,942,929 

3.546,767 

4,928,635 

3,900,000 

'Icxas     . 

100,530 

753.363 

714,351 

2,826,700 

Micliigan 

746,435 

1,271,743 

1,985,906 

2,100,000 

No'v  \'ork 

3.453.241 

2,617,855 

2,181,57s 

1,897,700 

Pennsylvania  . 

i.S-22.357 

1,631,540 

1,794,301 

1,607,600 

Idwa 

149,960 

259,941 

855,493 

1,680,500 

Wisconsin 

124,896 

332,954 

1,069,282 

1,151,100 

Illinois    . 

894,643 

769,138 

1,568,286 

1,258,500 

Indiana  . 

1,122,493 

999. '75 

i,6i2,6So 

1,175,000 

Virginia  . 

1,310,004 

1,043,269 

922,472  1 

1,011,500 

Kentucky 

1,102,091 

938,990 

936,765 

690,400 

Tennessee 

811,591 

llZ^l^l 

826,783 

345,100 

Vermont 

1,014,122 

752,201 

5^0,347 

475,7002 

New  Mexico  . 

377.271 

830,116 

619,438 

800,000  2 

Other  Stalls  . 

4,733.929 
21,723,-0 

5,862,903 

5.' 13,447 

7,594,400 

Total 

22,471,275 

28,477,951 

35,804,200 

I 


ii 


Statistics. 


The  average  value  of  American  sheep  in  1876  was  two  dollars  and  twenty- 
seven  cents,  and  the  aggregate  value  was  estimated  at  $80,892,683.  While 
ome  few  coarse-woolled  fleeces,  especially  in  England,  have  been 
known  to  weigh  twelve  or  fifteen  pounds,  the  average  fleece  in 
this  country,  in  1850,  weighed  2.42  pounds.  Improvement  in  stock,  or  else 
giving  greater  attention  to  weight  than  to  fineness  of  wool  in  sheep-raising, 
increased  the  average  in  i860  to  nearly  three  poimds,  and  in  1870  to  nearly 
four.  Besides  the  ,vool  from  our  36,000,000  live  sheep,  enough  more  from 
the  slaughtered  animals  is  cbtnined  to  make  our  annual  wool  product  about 
185,000,000  pounds.  This,  at  thirty-five  cents  a  pound,  would  amount  to 
$64,750,000.     Nearly  10,000,000  sheep  are  butchered  annually,  yielding  the 


'  The  two  Virginias. 


'  Estimated. 


f  n 


156 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


■k        I 


<•    '(. 


farmers  a  revenue  of  not  far  from  $25,000,000.  Our  wool  product  does  not 
yet  meet  the  demand  of  home  manufactures ;  and  we  are  obliged  to  import 
over  50,000,000  pounds  of  raw  wool  annually,  and,  in  addition  to  our  home 
manufactures,  import  nearly  $50,000,000  worth  of  woollen  goods  although  the 
average  is  gradually  decreasing. 


.'!  \ 


'I'  1 


■J* 


fs 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


157 


CHAPTER  XIV. 


SWINE. 


THE  hog-raising  and  pork-producing  industry  of  the  Urm  '  Jtates  is  one 
of  the  most  important  of  our  agricultural  interest  Ai  home,  pork 
forms  a  larger  proportion  of  our  food  than  any  other  ^rticl  ol  provision, 
breadstuffs  excepted  ;  while  it  is  also  the  article  of  most  e  ''nsi"e  importance 
export  in  the  line  of  food,  except  wheat.  This  grows  out  a  ;wo  of  hog-crop, 
facts,  —  the  hog  is  altogether  the  most  prolific  breeder  of  our  domestic-food 
animals,  matures  soonest,  and  is  the  most  cheaply  fattened ;  and  we  have 
peculiar  facilities  for  raising  the  food  which  produces  altogether  the  best  pork ; 
namely,  Indian-corn. 

Swine  were  introduced  into  Hispaniola  by  Columbus  in  1493,  and  De 
Soto  brought  them  from  the  West  Indies  to  Florida  in  1538.  The  Portuguese 
had  left  swine  ashore  in  Nova  Scotia  and  Newfoundland  as  early  introduction 
as  1553.  At  Jamestown,  Va.,  we  hear  of  them  first  ^n  1609  ;  but  of  ^wine. 
they  multiplied  so  fast,  that  the  people  were  obliged  to  build  i)alisades  to  keep 
them  out  of  the  town.  Plymouth  Colony  imported  swine  in  1624,  and  New 
Netherlands  (now  New  York)  the  following  year.  In  the  early  days  the  hogs 
were  allowed  to  run  almost  wild  in  the  fields  and  woods,  feeding  upon  beech 
and  hickory  nuts,  acorns,  roots,  and  other  such  vegetation.  The  Indians,  in 
those  days,  fed  extensively  on  hogs  that  had  grown  wild.  This  wandering,  free 
life  tended  to  make  the  early  stock  of  this  country,  especially  in  the  South 
and  West,  lean,  large-boned,  fierce,  and  swift-footed,  —  a  sort  of  degeneration 
toward  the  wild-boar  life  from  which  swine  were  taken  for  domestication. 

Among  the  choicer  breeds  that  have  been  known  to  stock-raisers  for  the 
])ast  century  are  the  Chinese,  which  are  small,  have  slender  bones,  fatten 
easily,  but  are  too  fat  themselves,  and  are  thk./efore  crossed  with   Chinese 
other  species ;   the  Neapolitan,  descended  from  the  best  Italian  •"'"'*• 
breeds  of  two  thousand  years ;  the  Berkshire,  which  yield  much  lean  meat, 
arc  prized  fo'"  hams  and  bacon,  and,  crossed  with  the  Chinese, 
make  splendid  hogs ;    the  short-bodied  Essex,  which  have  taken 
mure  prizes  in  England  at  stock  exhibitions  than  any  other  porcine  breed ; 


Berkshire. 


158 


IND  US  TA'/A  L    HIS  TOR  Y 


;, 


ii  » 


\  ! 


Suffolk. 


the  Middlesex,  long-bodied,  heavy  growers,  often  reaching  eight  or  nine  hun- 
dred pounds  in  eighteen  months  ;  and  tlie  Suffolk,  very  symmetri- 
cal in  shape,  small  and   compact,  light  feeders,  and  with  great 

tendency  to  fat.     All  of  these  varieties  have  been  popular  in  this  country ; 

and  our  best  swine  are  mostly  from  this  jiarentage,  more  or  less  crossed. 

Little  attention  was  given  to  swine-breeding,  with  a  view  to  improving  our 

stock  in  this  country,  until  after  the  Revolution.  Interest  was  first  excited  in 
the  subject  by  the  ])resentation  to  Gen.  Washington  of  a  pair  of 

Improve-  v  /  i  o  i 

mentsin         hogs  by  the  Duke  of  Bedford,     They  were  of  a  new  breed  of  his 

swine-  ^^y,^  raising,  and  called  "Woburns"  after  Woburn  Abbey.     Parkin- 

breeding.  °  ■' 

son,  the  lOnglishman  to  whom  they  were  intrusted  for  conveyance. 

was  dishonest  enough  to  sell  them  on  his  arrival  in  this  country.  They  apjjcar 
to  have  been  a  cross  between  the  Chinese  anil  the  large  ilnglish  native  stock, 
and  were  fine  animals.  The  breed  soon  became  common  in  Virginia  and  the 
neighboring  States  ;  but  of  late  years  it  has  quite  run  out.  y\  breed  known  as 
the  "  Byfield,"  originated  from  Chinese  and  English  stock  by  Gorham  Tarsons 
of  Byfield,  Mass.,  afterwards  had  a  great  j)opularity,  and  became  great  favor- 
ites in  Ohio.  Later  the  other  breeds  above  mentionctl  were  imported  into 
this  country,  and  widely  disseminated.  Comparatively  little  improvement  was 
effected,  therefore,  in  American  stock,  until  about  fifty  years  ago. 

The  value  of  the  pig  for  utilizing  domestic  table-refiise,  and  the  facility 
with  which  he  fattened  on  such  food,  and  at  almost  no  expense,  led  to  his  very 
Increase  of  general  keeping  by  all  farmers,  and  many  towns-people  and  small 
hog-raising,  tenants.  The  cheapness  of  bacon  created  a  great  demand  for  it 
in  the  old  slave  States  likewise,  and  the  business  of  furnishing  wholesale  suj)- 
plies  to  that  market  naturally  grew  with  the  development  of  that  section  of  the 
country.  Inasmuch  as  the  Southern  planters  gave  themselves  almost  exclu- 
sively to  cotton,  tobacco,  and  sugar  culture,  and  did  not  raisf  food  for  their 
families  and  help,  the  labor  and  profit  of  providing  for  them  naturally  fell  tn 
another  section  of  the  country ;  and  the  remarkable  facilities  enjoyed  by  the 
West  for  hog-raising  gave  tnose  States  almost  a  monopoly  of  the  valuable 
Southern  market,  a  conquest  which  they  followed  up  by  extensions  of  their 
trade  in  other  directions. 

The  one  great  cause  to  which  the  development  of  the  pork-industrv  in  the 
West  is  due  is  the  remarkable  protluction  of  corn  in  that  (|uarter,  and  the  dis- 
„  ,  ,.       ,      coverv  that  corn-fed  pork   is  sweeter  than  mast-fed   or  swill-fed 

Relation  of  -  ' 

corn  product  pork.  There  have  been  times  when  corn  was  so  ])lenty  in  the 
to  hog-rais-  -yy^^.^j  ^j.^.^^  j^.  ^^..^^  ^^^^^^  ^^^  ^^^^j^  ^^^^^  ^^,j^^,j.|^  j-^j.  j.^^]^  ^j-  transporta- 
tion, it  was  sold  for  six  cents  a  bushel,  and  that  only  twenty-fnc 
miles  from  the  Ohio  River  in  Illinois.  The  formers  soon  found,  that,  with 
such  abundant  food,  it  was  ciieaper  to  ])en  their  hogs,  instead  of  letting  them 
run  loose  and  to  fatten  them  (]uickly  for  market.  Thus  hog-raising  rapidly 
increased  between  fifty  and  twenty-five  years  igo  in  Kentucky  and -the  three 


OF    rilR    r XI TED    STATES. 


159 


nine  hun- 
symmolri- 
with  gi^eat 
5  country; 

irovins  our 
excited  in 
)f  a  pair  of 
)recd  of  his 
ey.     I'arkin- 
convcyance. 
They  aiJ^ear 
native  stock, 
ginia  and  the 
ed  known  as 
rham  I'arsons 
e  great  favor- 
luiported  into 
irovement  was 

nd  the  facility 
led  to  his  very 
■^^\c  and  small 
demand  for  it 
kvholesale  sup- 
section  of  the 
almost  exclu- 
ibod  for  their 
aturally  fell  !<• 
enjoyed  by  the 
If  the    vahiable 
insions  of  their 


industry  m 


the 


[r,  and  the  dis- 
;d  or  swill-f"^'* 
|,  plenty  in  the 
of  transporta- 
hnlv  t\Nenty-five' 
jund  that,  with 
lof  letting  them 
1-raising  rapitHv 
I  and -the  three 


Slates  next  north  of  the  Ohio  River.  Thence  it  spread  westward  across  the 
Mississippi.  'I'he  rapid  ami  extensive  construction  of  railroads  in  those  Stales, 
about  tlie  miihlle  of  the  present  century,  of  course  affordeil  an  outlet  for  the 
grain  ;  hut  it  diil  likewise  for  the  iK)rk,  live  and  packed  ;  and  so  the  business 
staid  there.  Of  the  seven  or  eight  million  hogs  killed  every  year  in  this  coun- 
try, about  five  or  six  million  are  killed  in  the  West,  and  are  mostly  packed  : 
those  killed  in  the  East  are  mostly  for  immediate  consumption.  The  pork- 
packing  business  of  the  West  is  chiefly  confined  to  six  cities,  which  rank  in  the 
onler  named  ;  C'hicago,  Cincinnati,  St.  Louis,  Indianapolis,  Milwaukee,  and 
Louisville.  Liasmuch  as  Chicago's  grain-business  is  her  chief  industry,  anil 
l)ork-packing  is  Cincinnati's  leailing  interest,  the  latter  city  is  generally  reck- 
oned the  great  pork-producing  centre  of  the  United  States  ;  indeeil,  it  was  so 
for  a  long  time.  The  great  bulk  of  the  business  is  done  in  the  winter-time  ; 
the  season  opening  about  Nov.  i,  and  clcjsing  early  in  ^Llrch. 

Th.'  following  interesting  description  of  the  Cincinnati  slaughter-houses, 
from  the  pen  of  Charles  Cist,  first  appeared  in  one  of  the  newspapers  published 
in  that  city  :  — 

"  The  slaughter-houses  are  in  the  outskirts  of  the  city,  fifty  by  a  hundred 
and  thirty  feet  each  in  extent,  the  frames  boarded  up  with   mova-   Description 
ble  lattice-work  at  the  sides,  ordinarily  kept  open   to  admit  the   of  siaughter- 
air,  but  shut  during  intense  cold,  so  that  the  hogs  may  not  be 
frozen  so  stiff  as  not  to  be  cut  up  to  advantage.     ICach  establishment  employs 
as  many  as  one  hundred  hands,  selected  for  their  strength  and  activity. 

"The  hogs,  being  confined  in  adjoining  pens,  are  driven,  about  twenty  at 
a  time,  up  an  inclined  bridge  oi)ening   into  a  square  room  at  the  lop,  just 
large  enough  to  hold  them.     As  soon  as  the  door  is  closed  a  man    procegg  of 
enters  from  an  inside  door,  and  with  a  hammer  weighing  about   oiaughter- 
two  pounds,  fixed  to  a  long  handle,  knocks  each  hog  down  by  a  '"^' 
single  blow  between  the  eyes.     In  the  mean  time  a  second  apartment  is  being 
filled  witii  as  many  more.     A  couple  of  men  seize  the  stunned  hogs,  and  drag 
them  through  the  insiile  door  to  the  bleeding-platform.     Here  each  gets   a 
cut  in  the  throat  with  a  sharp-pointed  knife,  and  the  blood  falls  through  the 
lattice  lloor. 

'•After  bleeding  a  minute  or  two,  they  are  slid  off  this  platform  into  a 
scalding-vat, — about  twenty  feet  long,  six  feet  wide,  and  three  feet  deep, — 
kei)t  full  of  water  healed  l)y  steam,  the  temperature  being  easily  regulated.  As 
the  hogs  are  slid  into  one  end  of  this  vat,  they  are  pushed  along  slowly  1)\- 
men  standing  on  each  side  with  small  poles,  turning  them  over  so  as  to  get  a 
uniform  scalding,  and  moving  them  onward  ;  so  that  each  will  reach  the  other 
end  of  the  vat  in  a'uout  two  minutes  from  the  time  it  entered.  Ten  hogs  are 
usually  passing  through  this  scalding  process  at  the  same  time,  being  con- 
stantly received  at  one  end,  and  taken  out  at  the  other,  where  there  is  a  con- 
trivance for  lifting  them  out  of  the  water,  two  at  the  same  time,  by  one  man 


i6o 


IND  VS  TA'/A  I.    HIS  TOR  V 


P 


♦  < 


operating  a  lever,  which  raises  them  to  the  scraping-table,  five  feet  wide  and 
twenty-five  feet  lung,  with  eight  or  nine  men  on  each  side,  and  usually  an 
many  hogs  on  it  at  the  same  time  ;  ea(  h  pair  of  men  performing  a  separate 
part  of  the  work  of  removing  the  hair  and  bristles.  The  first  two  take  off 
only  those  bristles  which  are  worth  saving  for  the  brush-makers,  taking  only  a 
double  handful  from  the  ba(  k  of  each  hog,  whic  h  are  deposited  in  a  box  or 
barrel  close  at  hand.  The  hog  slides  on  to  the  next  two,  who,  with  scrapers, 
remove  the  hair  from  one  side,  then  turn  it  over  to  the  next  two,  who  scrape 
the  other  side  ;  the  next  scrape  head  and  legs  ;  the  next  shave  one  side  with 
sharp  knives ;  the  next  ..have  tlie  other;  the  next  do  the  same  to  head  and 
legs,  'i'o  each  pair  of  men  are  given  twelve  seconds  to  do  their  part  of  the 
work,  or  i\vc  hogs  a  miiuite,  for  three  or  four  hours  at  a  time. 

"  When  the  hog  arrives  at  the  end  of  this  table,  all  shvived  smooth,  another 
pair  of  men  put  in  a  gambrel-stick,  and  swing  the  hog  off  on  a  wheel,  which 
is  about  ten  feet  in  diameter,  revolving  on  a  i)erpendicular  shaft  extending 
from  the  floor  to  the  ceiling,  the  height  of  the  wheel  being  about  six  feet  from 
the  floor.  Around  its  outer  edge  are  placed  eight  large  hooks,  about  four  feet 
apart,  on  which  the  hogs  are  hung  to  be  dressed. 

"As  soon  as  the  hog  is  swung  from  the  table  to  one  of  these  hooks,  the 
wheel  turns  one-eighth  of  its  circuit,  and  brings  the  next  hook  to  the  table,  and 
carries  the  hog  a  distance  of  four  feet,  where  a  couple  of  men  dash  it  with 
clean  cold  water,  and  scrape  it  down  with  knives,  to  remove  any  loose  hair  or 
dirt  that  it  may  have  brought  along  off  the  table.  'I'hen  it  moves  again,  and 
carries  the  hog  four  feet  forther,  where  another  man  cuts  it  open  in  a  single- 
second,  and  removes  the  larger  intestines,  or  such  as  have  no  fat  on  them  worili 
saving,  and  throws  them  out  an  open  doorway  at  his  side.  Another  move  of 
four  feet  carries  it  to  another  man,  who  lifts  out  the  rest  of  the  intestines,  —  the 
heart,  liver,  &c.,  —  and  throws  them  on  a  table  behind  him,  where  four  or  five 
men  are  engaged  in  separating  the  tat  and  oth  ••  valuable  parts.  Another 
move,  and  a  man  dashes  a  bucket  of  clean  water  inside,  and  washes  off  all  the 
filth  and  blood.  This  completes  the  cleaning ;  and  each  man  has  to  do  his 
part  of  the  work  in  just  twelve  seconds,  as  there  are  only  five  hogs  hanging  on 
the  wheel  at  the  same  time ;  and  this  number  are  removed,  and  as  many  more 
added,  every  minute.  The  number  of  men,  not  counting  the  drivers  out- 
side, is  fifty ;  so  that  each  man,  in  effect,  kills  and  dresses  a  hog  every  ten 
minutes  of  working-time,  or  forty  in  a  day. 

"  At  the  last  move  of  the  wheel  a  strong  fellow  shoulders  the  hog ;  and 
another  removes  the  gambrel-stick,  and  backs  it  off  to  the  other  part  of  thii 
house,  where  it  is  hung  up  for  twenty-four  hours  to  cool,  on  hooks,  in  rows  on 
each  side  of  the  beams,  just  over  a  man's  head,  where  there  are  space  and 
liooks  for  two  thousand  hogs,  or  a  full  day's  work  at  killing.  The  next  day 
they  are  taken  off  by  teams  to  the  packing-houses." 

The  products  of  pork  are  the  hams  and  shoulders ;  sides  for  bacon,  or  pack- 


.'ft  wide  and 
id  usually  as 
g  a  separate 
two  take  off 
akiiig  only  a 
in  a  l)ox  or 
vhh  scrapers, 
,  who  scrape 
ne  side  with 
to  head  and 
r  part  of  the 

•oth,  another 
kvheel,  which 
ift  extending 
six  feet  froiti 
Mt  four  feet 

e  hooks,  the 

le  table,  and 

dash  it  with 

oose  hair  or 

s  again,  and 

in  a  single 

them  wort  1 1 

ler  move  of 

5tines,  —  the 

four  or  five 

s.     Another 

;s  off  all  the 

s  to  do  his 

hanging  on 

many  more 

drivers  out- 

i  every  ten 

hog ;  and 
part  of  the 
in  rows  on 

space  anci 
e  next  day 


^^'  ru,:  ^vv/r/;/,  sr^^^.^^ 


'■%'  in  barrels;  rumps  and  ioul.      ,■,  '  '^' 

^^"n  •  of  which  is  conver,  '  ''''"''  ^'"  ^'^  «'h-  barrel  with  .;  . 

'"""- r,,;,::;;r  ,;r;::,r '"'/■■■',:'""-^  -"  ™' "'™  '" ;.::"  '-"• 

""r^..T«rca,,e  fr„,„  ,„,  „„;„  ,-,;  '""''•■•  ''.  ^  l"-"'l"<^e  o(  Innl.     So„„  „„  „ 
•n  fm  iziT     Tl„.  I  •   1  ^'^^'""'■"liik  nil  soil)    'n,      ■■      .  ■"""-  "Mlic 

''^"i"'  'S?;  it  «as  .,S,„7;,';„  "^•"  "•"  ^5,7-'6,8o„:  a,  ,1,,  «,„,   ^-.u,,... 
"ic  r,;|,„rt  orn.L.  No».-V„;i,   r.     , 

"iiinry  as  follows  ;  —    of  swine. 


^^'»'  f'-'n-laiul 
^'i'ldlc  States 

^-nMweseof.,eM.,4;;i 
•Soutlicrn   .        .         "        '        ■ 

Total  . 


279.700 

''^■<,).|00 

"•j7::,6oo 

5M. Soo 
"'•"j.S.jOO 


306,000 

'/'79..)00 

7.9(^',Ooo 

6,6^9  500 

6oC),.)oo 

'0.845,500 


25.726,800      I      -So,,,^ 

<-'ncinnati  was   a   frm^t  .     i  "^  ~ — 

''^■'''   pre-eminence   in  d       ^     ''''^'""^'^  centre  as  early  as  rS,c         .  , 
^'^•'"■^nd  for  pork  for  "'""^■'^-      ^^"^'■"'?  the  wnr   h!        '^^'  '"''  '°"fi^ 


1S65-66 
1x66-67 
1.S67-6S 

iS6,S-69 
lS69-;o 
1S70 
1S71-7 


7t 


iS72-' 


73 

'S73-74 
1S74-75 

'S75-76 
'S76-77 


''/'''5.95s 
2.490.791 
2.7'Sj,oS4 

2.499..S73 
-'635-3':: 
3.695,25! 


4.S3r, 


55'i 


5.4 '0,394 
5.466 


>,::oo 


5.566,2-6 


4.SS0, 
5.07 


35 
'339 


i 

1 " 

■      1     ■    : 

162 


/JVD  US  TRIA  L    HIS  TO  k  Y 


In  the  season  of  1876-77  there  were  slaughtered  1,618,084  hogs  in  Chicago, 
523,576  in  Cincinnati,  414,747  in  St.  Louis,  294,198  in  Indianapohs,  225,598 
Numbei  in  Milwaukee,  214,862   in   Louisville,   1,781,274  at  all  other  less 

slaughtered,  important  points  South  and  West,  and  2,336,835  in  the  Middle  and 
Eastern  States;  in  all,  7,409,174.  These  cost  the  packers,  first-hand,  about 
fifteen  dollars  apiece  ;  which  makes  the  total  yield  worth  to  the  producers  not 
far  from  $1 10,000.000,  less  expense  of  transportation.  Killed,  dressed,  smoked, 
tried,  or  packet!,  one-quarter  was  added  to  the  market  value  of  the  product. 

The  marked  development  of  the  Western  pork  raising  and  packing  business 
Export-  is  largely  due  to  the  steady  increase  of  our  export-trade  in  hog 

trade.  products  for  the  pa::t  few  years.     During  the  fiscal  year  ending 

J;nie  30,  1876,  we  exported, — 


'1% 


i|^, 


liacon  and  h.nms 
15ari-cllcd  pork  . 
Lard  . 


Total   . 


POUNDS. 


327,730,172 

54,195,118 

168,405,839 


$39,664,456 

5,744,022 

22,429,485 


550,331,129       !       $67,837,963 


w 


!'!' 


n 


This  was  ten  and  a  half  per  cent  of  our  total  exports ;  and  it  ranks  next 
after  cotton,  petroleum,  and  wheat.  The  great  bulk  of  the  lard  and  bacon  go 
to  England  and  Ireland,  which  take  a  small  proportion  of  the  barrelled  i)ork. 
Germany,  France,  and  Belgium  are  our  next  best  foreign  customers. 


I'  ,i 


1% 


i  I'll 


OF    rilE     UNITED    STATES. 


163 


next 


pork. 


; 


i 


f  ^ 


3   * 


164 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


CHAPTER  XV. 


HORTICULTURE,    NURSERIES,   AND    FRUIT-RAISING. 


f?,  1. 


li.i 


MM 


?    :. 


V 


THAT  branch  of  the  agricultural  industry  which  most  closely  approaches 
to  fine  art  is  horticulture  ;  under  which  term  we  include  ordinary  market- 
Horticulture  gardening,  landscape-gardening,  flower  and  fruit  culture.  Fruits 
a  recent  and  flowers  are  mosdy  luxuries,  rather  than  necessities,  and  in  the 

pursuit.  early  days  of  our  history  were  scarcely  thought  of  by  the  mass  of 

colonists.  Only  a  few  gentlemen  of  social  jjosition,  culture,  and  wealth,  gave 
attention  thereto  ;  and  fruits  and  flowers  were  introduced  more  for  the  gratifi- 
cation of  individual  taste  and  pride  than  for  the  general  good.  Like  the 
development  of  the  taste  and  pursuit  of  litc'ature  and  painting,  iiorticulture  is 
one  of  those  civilized  avocations  to  which  the  human  mind  turns  only  after 
the  necessities  of  life  are  well  provided  for:  consequently  horticulture  is  of 
comparatively  recent  birth  and  development  in  this  country. 

To  market-gardening  it  is  unnecessary  to  give  especial  attention  here.  The 
raising  of  a  few  kitclien  vegetables  for  domestic  use  began  on  a  limited  scale 
Market-  ill  early  colonial  days ;    and,  with  the  growtli  of  our  large  cities 

gardening.  sime  the  Revolution,  the  business  of  purveying  to  the  needs  of 
the  people  has  -jJ-T-dually  grown  up  to  be  a  respectable-sized  trade  aU  over  the 
country,  in  many  cases  the  cultivation  of  plants  for  seed  being  a  branch  of  the 
business. 

Landscape-gardening,  or  the  improvement  of  lands  by  trees,  flowers, 
shrubbery,  patlis,  and  architecture,  has  been  practised  to  a  marked  degree  for 
Landscape-  about  a  ccntury  only  in  England  and  other  foreign  countries, 
gardening.  Little  attention,  therefore,  was  given  to  it  here  until  after  the 
Revolution.  Taste  wps  then  manifested  in  the  laying  out  of  the  grounds  of  a 
few  prominent  gentlemen  in  and  about  our  large  cities.  Downing  speaks 
particularly  of  the  elegant  arrangement  and  excellent  keeping  of  the  celebrated 
seats  of  the  Hamilton  family,  near  Philadelphia,  which  was  fixmed  for  its  beauty, 
in  1805;  Judge  Peters,  near  Philadelphia,  a  little  later;  Chancellor  Living- 
ston, at  Clermont,  on  liie  Hudson ;  the  Hon.  Theodore  L.  Lyman,  nine  miles 
out  of  Boston ;  Beaverwyck,  a  little  norlh  of  Albany,  the  home  of  William  P. 


\\w-- 


O^-    THK    UNITED    STATES. 

Van  Rensselaer  -xy^A  fU„  ,  '^^5 

suburbs  of  that  chv  "''^"""^^"'-^  -^  the  " patroon  "  of  thu  ,  • 

Island,  DaniewS'  ''^' '-''^"^^^'^-^^'■^■^J-^^-cs  of  Vilham  H    As  T  '"  ^'^^ 

Col   S    r     P    , /'^'•^^^"'■t'^  of  Martford,  and  Innes         ii         ^'"^''"  ""  ''^''■^ten 
,7    •^-  ^•.^'^''•'<'ns  at  IJrooklinc  near  I V  f^'"'^"".^^'  of  New  Haven  • 

the  same  vicinage.  ''  '''■'''  '^"^'^on ;  and  J.  i>.  Cushing's  place   in 


HKDIiE-IKi.M.Mi 


^"  -ape-gardening.      Abour       ^^      ^  ^I^'"^  ^'^  P--iples  of  "^S^^' 
P'^'Iadelph.a  u-nn.  a    boo,,    ,,„,,     'i;^    ^f  "^-^'-'I    McMahon    of  --. 
^''o>it  i84o..\ndreu'r   iw.'  American    (Jardener's    r^      . 

"'"  ^vith  greater  M.f.   u  '   ''''"^  buildini;s  he^^an  to  ]>n  l^    °^°-*"  °f 

.  ,'  ";  ">"ro  -„.„„„.,„,„„,    „  on      »„,,,;'f' "-""""I  «>CK.,i«  lH.,:,„  ,„  „,, 

,';;--■■'  ^i-in,i„,.  ,„,  ,,„,  .„;   :'; .  ™-'  ™""»  -'I  ii<n;-c, -.:„„;; 

'I'hcn  th    •]  county 

''^'t^^>u/.flo™,andwalks  to  the 


i66 


[ND  L  \S  TRIA  L    HIS  TOR  Y 


''\  \  J' 


'M 


Public  parks. 


undulations  and  other  characteristics  of  the  ground's  surface,  and  so  on,  took 
Public  possession  of  a  few  cultured  minds,  and  spread  rapidly.     The  first 

cemeteries,  prominent  city  of  the  dead  so  laid  out  was  Laurel  Hill,  near  Phila- 
delphia, the  enterprise  being  successful  largely  through  the  taste  and  persever- 
ance of  John  Jay  Smith  of  that  city.  Other  burial-places  about  that  time  — 
the  middle  of  the  present  century  —  became  famous  from  an  application  of 
the  same  idea.  Almost  every  one  has  heard  of  Mount  Auburn,  near  Boston ; 
Greenwood,  just  out  of  Brooklyn,  N.Y. ;  Spring  (irove,  Cincinnati;  and  the 
beautiful  cemeteries  near  Pialtimore  and  New  Haven.  Within  the  past  twenty- 
five  years  the  newly-laid-out  cemeteries  of  the  country  have  nearly  all  been 
greatly  beautified. 

Still  another  manifestation  of  the  same  taste  and  culture  is  the  laying  out 
of  parks  in  and  about  our  cities,  which  shall  be  more  than  the  old  "  common  " 
of  a  New-ICngland  town.  Perhaps  the  most  important  work  of  this 
sort  undertaken  in  this  country  is  Central  Park,  in  the  upper  part 
of  New-York  City.  It  is  half  a  mile  wide,  and  two  miles  and  a  half  long,  and 
includes  what  was  originally  very  wild  and  beautifiil  scenery.     The  land  was 

appropriated  to  this  use  by 
the  New- York  legislature  in 
1857,  largely  through  the  in- 
fluence of  Downing's  writings. 
The  next  year,  in  pursuance 
of  plans  submittal  by  Fred- 
crick  Law  Olmstead  and  Cal- 
vert Vaux,  the  improvement 
of  this  free  park  was  begun, 
pnd  has  been  continued  at 
enormous  expense  even  until 
the  present  time.  By  a  ju- 
dicious i)reservation,  altera- 
tion, or  utilization  of  the 
characteristic  features  of  the 
land,  and  by  extensive  and 
costly  work,  an  arrangement 
of  lakes,  lawns,  flower-beds, 
proves,  rocks,  glens,  caverns, 
footpaths,  driveways,  terraces, 
bridges,  chalets,  and  other  ar- 
chitectural devices,  has  been 
perfected,  which  makes  the 
p V^ct  ijPiP  of  tl".  Ki'Mt  deligi.iiul  public  resorts  in  the  world.  Llewellyn  Park, 
j.«.;u  O.vn^ic,  l;  J.,  laid  oat  by  Bauman,  a  famous  Philadelphia  botanic  gar- 
dent'-,  c''ai!:noi  it  P.'  k  near  Philadelphia,  and  Prospect  Park  near  Brooklyn, 


SNOWIIALL. 


O^    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


are  among  the  more  recenf  .    ,  '^^  '^7 

^>"  ail  departments  of  hortir-r,/f 

"■■"Low,  ,l,e  Win,  orof    ;    '°™  '""*'  -  -,l,  a  li.t     IZ,," "  """^er's 

peace."    •1V„I„„  ?    ""■  """^^s  in  ivhosc  henr,       .      ,       '"S'Wm  of 

I  r"'>  "'=  production  and  cir,^  „f  n  """"  "«=  covenant  of 

«ame  characteristics  i's  '  "        r^^^  "^  ^''^^''^''-      Something  of  H       ^^^'^'*"'"- 

\f   r     .     ^  "■■'tJCS    IS    to   be   found    in    fl        ■•  '-•^"Ulg    ot     the    and  iioricui 

•'^  ';''''  ^°^vers  were  thought  of  1       ^  ^^'■^^°^>' «^  florict.It.re.    --• 

--"..-™a.d3p.jdfort,::X:::r:r 

Prior  t^        7    ,  ^'  ^°^  accord- 

i  nor  to  and  durino"  th*^  i^       . 

'f  *-  of  ,l,e  last  ee  ,  ;  „^";:';°",  ">*  e^-xls.  Tow 
Phne».  generally  „,n,|«,  J,"''  '  '^S-n-ng  of  thi,,  „„„,, 
bea....ne<l  s„|„„|,,„  e,t.te,  o4  f  ''°'*'"  '°  P^'''  on 

>>«l^.  either  ,„ade  in  the  t  ,rf  o,       T  ""'"^''  «'-'""'--">™  ^  the. 
"'«'  l^y  paths,  began  t  .^pe;   "  """  ^°"-  "'">  "-Tc-e  L. 

■"  "-  "^-r  :?Te~  "^  "-■■^-^  -^  '.on,e  ca,  e  .  he  pra  f     , 

^^        ^  ut  at  all  common.  ^  "'^  ^'"'^  domestic  flower 


No  attention 
to  subject 
before  the 
Revolution. 

'^'giilar  flower- 
rs,  and  sepa- 


i    :K 


'fO  ? 


1 68 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


r- 


It. 

V  - 

i'  '-' 

iiffi^ 

if'  '' 

i 

i'«  '        !^!i  i- 

b 

ll 

i-l; 

the  larger  cities  for  festal  occasions,  funerals,  and  sentimental  remembrances, 
led  to  the  extension  of  the  professional  florist's  trade  all  over  the  country ;  so 
that  now  scarcely  a  city  or  town  of  fifteen  thousand  inhabitants  is  without  an 
establishment  of  this  sort. 

When  the  gentlemen  of  the  earlier  days  began  to  introduce  the  choicer 
and  more  tender  plants  to  their  estates,  the  greenliouse,  for  shelter  and  for 
Green-  forcing  plants,  was  here  and  there  erected,  the  idea  being  taken 

houses.  ixom  the  foreign  forcing-houses  for  fruits.     Of  necessity,  the  pro- 

fessional florist  requires  a  greenhouse  at  the  very  outset  of  his  business.  Be- 
tween 1825  and  1850,  when  landscape-gardening  and  domestic  architecture 
took  such  a  stride  in  this  country,  the  erection  of  conservatories  as  ornaments 
to  a  lawn,  as  well  as  permanent  shelters  for  choice  plants,  came  into  vogue, 
both  as  independent  edifices,  and  as  additions  to  the  proprietor's  mansion. 

It  was  during  this  period,  too,  that  a  literature  devoted  to  flower-culture 
began  to  make  its  appearance.  In  1832  Robert  Buist  of  Philadelphia,  pro- 
Literature  prictor  of  the  Roseland  Nurseries,  published  a  book  on  this  sub- 
on  the  sub-  ject,  which  was  among  the  earliest  and  best  publications  of  the 
^^^  '  sort.     It  reached  several  editions.     During  the  next  decade  A.  J. 

Downing  adapted  to  American  use  Mrs.  Loudon's  "  Ladies'  Companion  to  the 

Flower-Garden  ; "  and,  still  later,  Hen- 
ry Carey  Baird  got  out  an  American 
edition  of  "  Fruit,  Flower,  and  Kitchen 
Gardening,"  written  by  Dr.  Niell,  sec- 
retary of  the  Royal  Caledonian  Horti- 
cultural Society.  These  and  other 
American  works  v>-ere  widely  dissemi- 
nated. Agricultural  and  horticultural 
journals  gave  more  attention  to  flow- 
ers, and  the  ordinary  newspapers  re- 
published extracts  bearing  upon  flori- 
culture. Within  a  few  years  leading 
florists  have  got  into  tlie  way  of  pub- 
lishing descriptive  catalogues  of  their 
seeds,  bulbs,  and  plants,  together  with 
valuable  hints  and  suggestions  con- 
cerning their  cultivation,  for  gratuitoi'.s 
distribution,  like  the  almanacs  of 
patent-medicine  makers. 

During  all  this  time  there  has  been  a  quiet,  steady  improvement  —  though 
not  very  great  or  startling  in  the  aggregate  —  in  the  methods  of  propagation 
and  care  of  flowers.  There  has  been  a  perceptible  improvement 
in  the  character  of  varieties,  and  a  multiplication  of  species  by 
hybridization  and  other  scientific  processes ;  and,  in  addition  to  the  increase 


SriK.i:.\    I.ANCl-'llATA. 


Progress. 


Jn  numbers  and  bei.itv  j         ,  ^69 

The  ,c.„clc„cy  ,0  „e"^    r  ">'l-"r.a,ion  of  foreign  ,1o«r  1.     ;"■■■"  """»"• 

Scarcely.-,  |,o„,e  is  „„'  ,     ,      .       '"•■'''  °"'--'»  ""'vcts  ll,r  '  1,  '""'"■'"S 

'-.c::'C  .t\:r--  ---^^^^^^^^^^  ■ '"-r-'^  ^"""■°^- 

™prove„,enfof  ;;k'r,T"""°"-     ^'--Tic,"  vc  t    :;':    !""  ™--    '^"d 
\  -'-nal  po,„„|  ^„  ^,     .  f  °f  'he.e  was  fo^ecl  °      Lr'^'f'""  °' 

"-'  Of  "*„  a ;  .r,,^^^  ,^".„„„/„„ -;„„  ^^^^^  n„....  i 

■    ''°»™"g's  book  „„..;*.;"      ,r""'^    '"    "''--h    ea       ;,!"'•''",'"«''=' 
"■"•'ins.s  Ad  a  great  de^    ,    "',    '^""■■-■'>«^  of  Americ    "        ,?'  ""^'"<=''- 

■'^'■"«-  hut  notably  in         '  T""""^  •"  ""aAers  l^  ,^ l      ''i     ^'""  "■''" 
"'•  .l,e  fnnV.re es  L      '  """'  ■•'"''  >>«<"„  Ne„    "„t    "-.  "f  ->''  >*'e,,tern 

-' '-h.g Rod,    ™;;" '^'™' "»■"- County ii-.a/^t;'; ''""'™* 

™"  '-■^^-pt.^iLrar;:  "^"-  ^™n,;:L  -r  -■' ;-4 

c^>untrv    frnm  ,  i  ■  ,  "°^^  something  ov<.r  n  .i  '  ■^'^'"I'ijbery, 


i ' 
1 1 

I  f 


j--.j:ai^->::»^.a==._  ^,^:^_ ._.,  ,.^ 

»*=^--t' ■-■.!.■     ,.l-«,,„  .  ,  ..    ^_,, V.,^ 

ftji' 


!      \f 


i^'i'iMi! 


'Ui  .H 


i!l! 


170 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


The  grape  is  one  of  the  oldest  known  fruits  of  the  world,  though  it  has 
had  comparatively  little  prominence  in  this  country  imtil  within  a  generation. 
There  are  many  varieties  native  that  have  provetl  valuable  and 
popular  besides  the  many  choice  imported  varieties.  'l"he  Isabella 
and  Catawba  both  originated  in  North  Carolina ;  the  Muscatel,  long  known 
as  the  "  Cape,"  and  incorrectly  imagined  to  be  an  importation  from  South 
Africa,  was  indigenous  to  Tennsylvania ;  the  Scui)p(Tnong,  at  one  time  thought 
to  pron'ise  well  for  wine-making,  is  a  Carolina  grape  ;  the  Sweetwater,  wlii('h 
with  the  Catawba  is  widely  cultivated  in  California  for  wine,  and  also  in  the 
Eastern  States,  is  a  native.  Texas  produces  a  grape  widely  known  as  the 
Mustang ,  and  there  are  other  varieties  almost  too  numerous  to  mention. 

Long  after  the  Revolution,  grapes  were  raised  in  this  country,  principally 
to  be  eaten  fresh,  as  a  dessert  fruit.  Hardy  varieties  were  grown  principally, 
Recent  cui-  though  a  fcw  ciioicc  foreign  kinds  were  raised  under  glass.  About 
tureofgrape.  ji^^y  ^3^  1850  the  growing  interest  in  fruit-culture  led  to  a  larger 
cultivation  of  hothouse  grapes  by  fanciers  and  wealt'iy  gentlemen.  Downing 
mentions,  that,  at  about  this  time,  thousands  of  bushels  of  grapes  were  raised 
near  New  York  and  Philadelphia  for  the  market,  and  that  large  (juantities  of 
the  fruit  were  packed  in  cotton  for  preservation  during  the  winter. 

But  it  is  for  wine-making  purposes  that  the  grape  is  to  be  principally 
regarded.  The  (iothic  seamen  who  touched  our  shores  before  Columbus's 
Wine-mav-  day  called  America  "  Wineland  the  Good,"  because  of  its  grapes 
*"*•  and  their  dreams  of  its  possibilities.     Very  early  in  our  colonial 

history,  higl>  expectations  were  entertained  by  emigrants  of  the  wine-making 
possibilities  c*  this  country;  and  numerous  experiments  were  made  in  that 
direction.  Vines  were  imported  to  Virginia  in  1610,  and  wine  thus  produced 
was  sent  to  England  in  161 2.  Cov.  Winthrop  gave  attention  to  the  subject 
in  Massachusetts  before  1630,  at  which  time,  he  ownea  a  fine  vineyard  ;  and 
in  1634  Governor's  Island,  in  Boston  harbor,  was  rented  on  condition  that  the 
lessee  should  jilant  a  vineyard  or  orchard,  and  pay  a  hogshead  of  wine  yearly, 
—  a  condition  that  probably  was  not  fulfilled.  Attempts  were  made  to  intro- 
duce wine-grapes  into  the  New  Netherlands  in  1642  ;  but  the  frost  killed  them. 
Grape-culture  was  especially  contemplated  by  the  grantees  of  the  Carolinas ; 
but  it  took  a  poor  hold  at  first.  Debware  gave  some  little  attention  to  wine- 
making  in  earlv  days,  and  in  1753  a  wealthy  citizen  offered  a  prize  of  forty 
shillings  for  the  best  artick'  produced.  Maryland  in  1715  protected  her  home 
industry  by  imposing  a  tax  on  imported  wine.  But  all  these  movements 
proved  virtual  iailures,  except  in  North  Carolina,  where,  in  1750,  wine-making 
was  quite  a  prosperous  though  small  industry. 

We  hear  little  further  until  1845,  when  Downing  mentions  that  the  attempts 
Swiss  adven-  of  Swiss  adventurers  at  Vevay.  Ind.,  to  raise  grapes  and  maki" 
turers.  \s'\\\c  on  a  large  scale,  had  failed  ;   and  that  Mr.  N.  Longworth  ot" 

Cincinnati,  after  experimenting  for  thirty  years  with  foreign  vines   from    tlic 


<'^'-  rna  umrnD  statics. 


""cyanls  i„  .Miss„„j  „,,,,,•.  '"■    /*^'-'  »'«'  hear  of  some  smill   y'"",""" 

^'iiicr  instances   -irc 

't-°S5;  NottI,  Carolina   ,,o.,;r'°''    ''™syl,ania,  ,5  ,„o .    ,„  , 
""""g  the  nexr  ell  ;^f    '  "T"''  '°'S63:  ami  Ne,v  Vol' „  ' 

'^"f,ucs,  ban  JJernardino  and  S,,.   rv  ^"''^'^  counties  •  mmelv   t 

«,.,,.  -^'  -"■'  —  -no.  aji  cor:.;j:;;rr;,:;:- :::; 
;*.  »nci  u,e  coveio,,,.::::;  :°:r;;,^;^,  •"'^- '-  ^-.e  h:c:r  - .  :;f - 

M'«.n',s  progress,  loo,  „a.  sj,    "         '*'."«  "o--"-'/ elihtfold.   ^ 
;*■=  .;mes  ,vl,at  i.  had  ,.ee„  i        fc"'  ';"  ''f''  '"   "'^^o   being  .T'^f '       ' 

" .;'  ^s„,,5,  ,„„,^ ;;;::!.  't:;;t  "7"-'  -■•'•  -ear,,,™- 

',0,52,   i'ennsyvana  07  rr.r  .        1  xr      ^'     '^73.    Ohio,    212  or?-    tii-     • 

''eiore  very  loner  k,  .    .    -,         "^mands  for  domestic  rnn«.„     .•        P^«entwi„e 
trie.      i7-       ^'     '^  '''^^''  soon  be  exportin,.  „  •      '"'^''^"^""ipt'on   product  of 

'^^-      Ih's    is    now  one  of  the   ,Z7    ^       "" '" '^'^^''^^"  <^o""-    "'--"'^v- 
''^^^"stres.  '"Oi't    promsinjf  of  Am^.- 

^  ^^   American   agricultural 


1 1 


w,,,. 


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172 


/A'JJ  ( 'S  TKIA  L    //AS-  70  K  Y 


mm  i 


♦I 


I'assing  now  to  tlic  fruits  i-rown  in  our  country,  \\\v.  apple  ranks  first  among 
then),  because  it  is  the  most  ct)mmon  of  all  in  this  country,  and  the  most  iise- 
Eariy  his-  lul.  It  is  not  the  oldest  in  development  and  culture,  however  :  the 
toryofappie.  grape,  the  fig,  and  the  jjomegranate  flourished  in  Palestine  long 
before  the  apple  was  mentioned  in  Scripture.  And  even  the.\  as  also  in  the 
Cireek  fables  which  tell  of  the  golden  apples  of  the  gardens  of  I  lesperidcs  and 
of  the  apple  of  discord,  it  is  probable  that  the  word  "ap[)le"  was  used  in  a 
generic  sense,  meaning  fruit  rather  than  this  i)articular  variety.  In  the  early 
<lavs  of  Rome  the  apple  was  well  known  ,  and  Pliny  states,  that,  in  his  day,  no 
less  than  twenty-nine  varieties  were  cultivated  in  various  parts  of  Italy.  At 
the  present  time  there  are  about  two  hundred  distinct  varieties  of  this  delicious 
fruit  recognized,  of  which,  however,  about  thirty  constitute  the  staple  product 
of  the  Uniteil  States. 

The  parent  stock  of  all  our  apples  is  the  wild  crab  of  Europe.     Doubtless 

the  first  great  step  taken  in  its  cultiue  and  its  utilization  was  the  invention  of 

grafting  by  the  Romans.     It  will  be  remembered,  that,  after  the  establishment 

of   the   Roman   empire  upon  the  wreck  of  the  republic  by  Augustus  Ca;sar, 

the  i)oet  Virgil  was  employed   by  the  cmpeior  to  write  a  series  of  poetical 

treatises  on  agricultiu'e,  intended  to  educate  the  nation  in  the  foremost  of  all 

the  arts  of  peace.     In  the  course  of  his  suggestions,  that  never-to-be-forgotten 

^vriter  sa^■s,  — 

"  flnift  llic  tender  shoot : 

Tliy  cliililrcn's  chiklrcii  shall  enjoy  the  fruit." 

In  the  luxurious  days  oi  later  Rome,  fruit-culture  was  extensively  indulged 
in  by  wealthy  gentlemen  ;  and  nearly  every  person  of  means  had  a  walled  fruit- 
Progress  in  g^^''<l>-'i"i  inuviediately  connected  with  his  dwellingdiouse.  In  the 
culture  of  middle  ages,  too,  the  monks  of  luu'ope,  from  Southern  Italy  to 
^'''''^'  the  Highlands  of  Scotland,  gave  great  attention  to  fruit-culture ; 

the  practice  of  pruning,  setting  large  flat  stones  untlerneath  the  young  trees, 
and  some  other  devices,  coming  into  more  or  less  permanent  use.  Yet  the 
fact  tliat  a  generation  of  time,  or  more,  must  elapse  before  the  setting  out  of  a 
yoimg  orchard  yielded  its  fiill  reward,  disc-oiu'aged  even  those  who  grew  apples 
for  luxury,  much  more  the  poor  rustic  who  lived  from  hand  to  mouth.  The 
modern  inventions  of  budding  and  dwarfing  have  enabled  the  horticulturist  to 
get  a  (luicker  return  for  his  labor,  and  they  have  therefore  given  a  remarkable 
stimulus  to  apple-culture. 

The  first  record  wc  have  of  the  cultivated  apple  in  England  was  the  announce- 
ment that  pii)pin-seed,  brought  from  France  in  1524,  was  planted  in  Sussex. 
_    ,       ,,.      :\  trifle  later,  the  Lrolden  pii)i)in  was  develoi)ed  from  this  stock,  and 

Early  culti-  '  a  i    \  \  1  ' 

vation  of  ap-  soon  became  famous  in  England.  The  early  colonists  found  it 
pie  in  New      aJiiiost  impracticable  to  Ijrinir  vountr  trees  or  even  scions  to  .America  ; 

England.  '  r^  .  ft 

and,  as  we  had  no  nati\e  apples,  they  were  compelled  to  rely  pretty 
much  on  seeds  for  our  first  stock.     Naturally  enough,  therefore,  t''    introduction 


"'■  "'"■   ^'^'ri-n  sr„r^s. 


ofthe  fruit  was  rare  and  sUv      v  '73 

'^39.  "ten  fair  pi,mi„s '-  '        ,   ^'■^•^"'■"'^•'^'■ss,  it  is  a.sserte<l  ,1,.^ 

f'^'-intl,   in    the    n.iin ''"'  '''-'■'" 


f'"i;n-.Mii.i., 


^■^'^;»''.  'n  the  a.ljnc-cnt 
''^^'•'^o'--  'l"lK.  following 
y^'.'ii-  (Jov.  rjndicott  ),a<i  a 

"'"•^^"'•y     of     yo„„^.      ,,,„^, 

"■^■^'^'11  what  is  now  Dan- 
vers,  Mass.,  and  sold  five 

"'"'''•^■^b-oungapplc-trecs 
^'"  '^^o  'Huidrcd  and  fiAv 
acres  of  land. 

''"r  '"ore  tlian  a  een- 
^'"•^  ^'»''  a  half,  J,„,vever 
a|>plcs  were  cultivated  -u' 

"'"'■^icxclusivelyfor.nler 

^''^'  "■<->-'«   for  fruit   to    bj 

eaten  hein-^  as  rare  lor  a 
'';"^^  f'-'^e  as  orange  and 
^"■^••-  tropical  plants  ate 
""-ntheXorth.    UKl,cd, 

final  lo  Not  i.-|,„|.„,  I  l"<-«'iu   ccM.in.    „.,.,. ,    ,„    ,,         *'   Cuiuvauon 

i.o«K..,„„;e " '"" ""'  >■"  '■^■" "- ""!-.» .sou,, , ;  ,,';*;■-  '\""  v..*,  ,.,„.„, 

f"-  '849   indicates   ,1,;,    "iT""'  ""•' '""""i-io,,.,. ,,  ^  ',   ,-;;-"-»' 

'-  <     ",t"'"-"^""  ''-""'"s-,,  So,:,.  \ :  '",;,',■";">';■':  --  f-ndd  i„ 

I'"™--"  -e  i,     1,"",  """"■■'■""»  ■■  K«l>-.  T    N  V       '*"'  '"  •''^'■-     ^m- 


^  -"-n  e..peaally  to  winter  apple. 


IMAGE  EVALUATION 
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23  WEST  MAIN  STREET 

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174 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


I 


Jl!,. 


about  this  time,  and  some  slight  experiments  in  connection  with  trans- Atlantic 
steam  navigation  suggested  to  far-sighteil  men  the  possibility  of  our  doing 
quite  an  export  business  in  apjiles.  ICven  then  the  American  apple  was  begin- 
ning to  assert  its  superiority  over  the  F^nglish ;  and  in  the  winter  of  1858-59 
no  less  than  a  hundred  and  twenty  thousand  barrels  of  aj)ples.  mostly  Bald- 
wins, were  exported  from  Boston  alone.  Scientific  discovery  regarding  the 
culture  of  the  apple  seemed,  moreover,  to  take  a  stride  about  thirty  or  forty 
years  ago.  (Growers  began  to  recognize  that  varieties  which  thrived  well  on 
tiie  granite-bedded  soil  of  New  ICngland  did  not  do  so  well  in  the  soft  loam 
of  New  Jersey  and  the  Western  States,  and  that  the  limestone  ledges  of  Cen- 
tral and  Western  New  York  called  for  still  different  varieties.  Adaptability  to 
place  and  climate  was  more  carefully  studied.  Moreover,  it  began  to  be 
imderstood  how  to  improve  varieties.  Seeds  from  good  fruit  had  almost  inva- 
riably yielded  poor  fruit  when  the  new  trees  got  tc  bearing;  and  this  poor 
return,  after  many  years'  waiting,  was  eminently  discouraging.  I5ut  growers 
not  only  found  that  by  crossing  old  varieties,  as  the  Netherlanders  did,  could 
be  produced  new  ones  even  superior  to  die  parent  stock,  but  also  that  by 
taking  seed  from  young  'seedlings,  and  replanting,  permanent  varieties  could 
be  established  in  four  generations.  These  trees  too,  as  also  the  dwarfed 
trees,  could  be  made  to  yield  early  in  life ;  and  thus  labor  and  money  returned 
interest  upon  investment  fiir  (luicker  than  of  yore. 

These  various  influences,  with  the  conseciuent  popularity  of  our  fruit 
abroad  and  the  establishment  of  fruit-stores  and  apple-stands  in  our  cities, 
have  of  late  years  rapidly  developed  our  apple-culture,  and  given  our  country 
pre-eminence  in  the  whole  world  for  the  superiority  of  this  fruit. 

It  does  not  come  within  the  scope  of  this  work  to  give  in  detail  the  dis- 
tribution of  the  varieties  of  apples  in  this  country.  It  may  not  be  out  of 
place,  however,  to  say,  that  the  Rhode-Island  greening,  the  Rox- 
bury  russet,  the  Baldwin,  the  gillynowe;,  and  the  Hubbardston 
nonesuch,  are  the  best-known  winter  apples,  and  the  early  harvest,  sweet- 
bough,  the  I  ^rter,  and  the  Coggswell  pearmain,  among  fall  apples,  in  New 
England.  New  Jersey  is  noted  for  its  sound,  tart  Swaar ;  New  York  for  the 
Newtown  pippin,  king,  greening,  russet,  Spitzenberg,  and  seek-no-farther ;  and 
Michigan  for  her  seek-no-farthers,  Northein  spys,  pippins,  and  pound  sweet- 
ings. It  is  generally  admitted,  that,  for  flavor,  the  fruit  of  New  York  is  the 
richest ;  but  the  light  soils  of  Michigan  and  Ohio  yield  the  largest  specimens. 
Owing  to  the  backward  state  of  apple-culture,  little  had  been  done  in  the 
South  iJrevious  to  the  war  ;  although  it  is  well  established,  that,  were  adaptation 
of  varieties  to  soil  and  climate  studied  more,  the  Oulf  States  might  produce 
apples  abundantly.  Since  the  depression  of  the  war,  little  activity  has  been 
manifested  in  that  section.  California  is  almost  the  only  State  west  of  the 
Upper-Mississippi  and  Lower-Missouri  Valleys  that  has  gone  much  into  fruit- 
culture  as  yet ;  and,  in  that  unusually  fertile  soil  and  balmy  climate,  the 
ai)i)le,  like  all  other  fruits  of  the  temperate  zone,  flourishes  exuberantly. 


Varieties. 


OF    rilE    UNITED    STATES. 


J  75 


ins-Atlantic 

our  doing 

was  begin- 
of  1858-59 
nostly  Bald- 
garding  the 
lirty  or  forty 
Acd  well  on 
le  soft  loam 
iges  of  Ccn- 
laptability  to 
began  to  be 
almost  in\a- 
nd  this  poor 

But  growers 
:rs  did,  could 

also  that  by 
arieties   could 

the    dwarfed 
loney  returned 

^  of  our  fruit 
.  in  our  cities, 
en  our  country 

etail  the  dis- 
lot  be  out  of 
ling,  the  Rox- 
Hubbardston 
larvest,  sweet- 
)l)les,  in  New 
w  York  for  the 
o-farther;  and 
pound  sweet- 
:w  York  is  the 
;est  specimens, 
n  done  in  the 
■ere  adaptation 
might  produce 
tivity  has  been 
te  west  of  the 
inch  into  fruit- 
ly  climate,  the 
)eranUy. 


According  to  the  census  of  1870  our  orchard  i)roducts  that  year  amounted 
in  value  to  $47,335,189,  or  two  and  a  half  times  what  they  did  in  i860,  and 
six  times  those  of  1850;  and,  inasmuch  as  our  agricultural  and  Quamity 
liorticultural  industries  have  developed  more  than  any  other  since  "°^  raised. 
tlien,  it  would  be  safe  to  reckon  the  same  products  for  1877  —  though  an 
off-year  in  some  localities  —  at  not  far  from  ;r!6o,ooo,ooo.  Now,  as  berries 
and  grapes  are  not  included  in  this  estimate,  antl  as  pears,  peaches,  plums, 
<  herries,  and  oranges  are  our  only  other  leading  orchard  products,  it  would 
be  reasonable  to  say  that  the  total  annual  apple-crop  of  the  country  to-day  is 
v.orth  $40,000,000. 

The  name  of  the  quince  clearly  indicates  that   it  grew  naturally  in  the 
Island  of  Crete,  though  it  probably  did  not  originate  there.     It  has  been  found 
growing  wild  along  the  Danube  and  in  France.    It  was  also  known 
at  an  early  day  in  I'^ngland  and  Portugal.     \\'hen  first  known,  it 
was  more  nearly  shaped  like  a  ])ear  tiian  now  :    indeed,  it  is  distantly  related 
to  both  pear  and  apple.     The 
ancients  were  wont  to  regard 
it  as  a  symbol  of  love  and 
hai)piness;   and  in  the  rab- 
binical writings  it  is  referred 
to  as  the  forbidden  fruit.    The 
fruit  has  never  had  a  very  ex- 
tensive culture  in  this  country, 
although  highly  prized  for  jel- 
lies and  preserves ;  but  the 
stock  has  been  quite  gener- 
ally used   for  grafting  dwarf 
trees,  especially  pears. 

Probably  no  fruit  has  been 
so  greatly  improved  by  the 
horticulturist,  nor  been  the 
subject  of  so  much  study 
antl  experiment,  as  the  pear. 
Though  not  a  native  of  this 
country,  it  was 
early     cultivated 

here,  not  only  for  the  fresh  fruit,  but  also  for  its  juice,  which  is  called  "  perry," 
and  was  often  more  highly  esteemed  than  cider.  There  were  no  less  than  442 
varieties  of  this  fruit,  according  to  the  catalogue  of  the  London  Horticultural 
Society,  in  1842  ;  but,  during  the  fifty  or  sixty  years  prior  to  that  date,  much 
had  been  done  to  improve  and  develoj)  the  fruit,  and  form  new  varieties. 
Probably  more  attention  was  given  to  this  matter  by  Van  Mons,  tlie  Belgian 
fruit-culturist,  in  the  early  part  of  this  century,  than  has  been  given  it  by  any 


iivi>i;.\N(.i;.\  orASK\. 


II 

\\\ 


176 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


Seckel. 


Other  one  man  ;  and  he  thd  much  to  start  new  kinds  of  pears  himself,  and  to 
stimulate  others  to  do  so,  by  hybridizing,  and  experiments  with  seedlings. 

Thus  it  will  be  readily  seen  that  but  few  pears  raised  in  this  country  prior 
to  the  Revolution  were  particularly  choice.  There  was  one  tree,  however, 
Stuyvesant  i)lanted  in  New-York  City,  in  the  dooryard  of  Peter  Stuyvesant, 
pear  tree.  when  govemor  of  the  old  Dutch  Colony  of  New  Netherlands, 
more  than  two  centuries  ago,  wiiich  remained  growing,  or  at  least  alive,  until 
about  1875  ;  when,  having  died,  and  become  not  only  unsightly,  but  an  ob- 
stacle to  building,  it  was  cut  down,  the  wood  being  preserved  as  relics  of  an 
interesting  historic  age.  The  fruit  was  a  bon-chretien,  and  of  good  quality ; 
and  grafts  were  obtained  for  much  other  stock. 

lOven  more  valuable  than  the  fruit  of  this  tree  was  that  of  the  fiimous 
Sj(  kel  pear-tree.  The  late  Bishop  White  of  Pennsylvania  narrates,  that,  when 
he  was  a  boy,  —  about  1760,  —  there  was  a  (lerman  cattle-dealer 
who  used  to  sell  to  Philadelphians  some  small  but  particulady 
delicious  pears ;  but  from  what  source  he  obtained  them  he  would  not  tell. 
Not  long  after,  the  tract  of  land  belonging  to  the  Holland  Land  Company,  on 
the  Delaware  River,  just  south  o^  Philadelphia,  was  sold  in  parcels;  and 
"  Dutch  Jacob,"  as  he  was  called,  bought  a  section  on  which  stood  the  tree 
from  which  he  had  procured  this  fruit.  Soon  after,  the  farm  was  sold  to  a  Mr. 
Seckel;  and  ultimately  the  property  became  part  of  Stei)hen  (lirard's  estate. 
The  tree  itself  lived  until  quite  recently.  From  that  tree  have  come  the 
Seckel  pears  so  widely  known  and  prized.  Doubtless  the  tree  was  a  seedling 
raised  by  early  German  settlers ;  but,  while  the  Seckel  somewhat  resembles 
certain  known  German  varieties,  it  is  distinct  from  them,  and  is  a  strictly 
American  fruit. 

A  less  generally  known  but  excellent  pear,  the  Petre  so  called,  was  a 
seedling  raised  by  John  Hartram,  a  well-known  Philadelphia  horti- 
culturist, in  1735,  from  the  seed  of  a  butter  pear  obtained  from 
Lord  Petre  of  l^ngland. 

Another  tree  famous  for  productiveness,  and  size  of  its  fruit  than  for  the 
quality  of  it,  was  planted  by  Mrs.  Ochiltree,  ten  miles  north  of  Vincennes,  in 
Ochiltree  Illinois,  somewhere  about  1800.  It  bore  no  less  than  184  bush- 
pear  tree.  gig  q[  f^yj^  j^  1 834,  and  140  bushels  in  1840  ;  at  which  latter  time 
its  trunk  was  ten  feet  in  circumference,  —  a  remarkable  growth  for  a  pear- 
tree. 

.Among  other  American  seedling  pears,  the  Bloodgood,  an  early,  high- 
flavored  fall  fruit,  raised  by  James  Bloodgood,  on  Long  Island,  about  1820  or 
1830;  the  Dearborn,  originated  by  the  Hon.  H.  A.  S.  Dearborn  of  Boston  in 
iSiS  ;  and  the  Bufflim  pear  of  Rhode  Island,  —  are  the  most  prominent. 

Van  Mons  produced  many  kinds  of  the  beurre  or  butter  pears.  Tiic 
Beurre  Anjou  was  introduced  to  this  country  about  1840  by  Mr.  Wilder,  presi- 
dent of  the  Massachusetts  Horticultural  Society.     The  Barllett,  identical  with 


Petre. 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


»77 


ielf,  and  to 
llings. 

)untry  prior 
e,  however, 
Stuyvesant, 
vletherlamls, 
;  alive,  until 
but  an  oh- 
rclics  of  an 
ood  qviality  ; 

the  famous 
:s,  that,  when 

cattle-dealer 
t  particularly 
3uld  not  tell. 
Company,  on 
parcels  ;    and 
itood  the  tree 
.  sold  to  a  Mr. 
'.irard's  estate. 
ave  come  the 
,vas  a  seedlinji 
A\^i  resembles 
d  is  a  strictly 

called,  was  a 
idelphia  horti- 
obtained  from 

it  than  for  the 
Vincennes,  in 
lan  184  bush- 
lich  latter  time 
di  for  a  pear- 
early,  high- 
I  about  1820  or 
of  Boston  in 
l-ominent. 
[r  pears.     The 
Wilder,  presi- 
identical  with 


the  Williams  bon-chrdtien  of  England,  was  introduced  to  this  country  by  Enoch 
IJartlett  of  Dorchester,  Mass.  This  has  proved  one  of  the  most  BarUett  and 
popular  of  dessert  pears  in  the  United  States.  The  doyenne,' —  other  varie- 
known  as  the  virgaloo  (or  bungalow)  in  New  York,  butter  pear  *"*' 
in  Pennsylvania,  and  St.  Michel's  near  Boston  —  is  an  old  French  variety,  and 
was  brought  here  quite  early  in  the  century.  Within  the  past  twenty-five 
years  the  importations  have  been  almost  innumerable,  the  beurrds,  Duchesse 
D'Angoulcme,  Flemish  beauty,  and  Vicar  of  Winkficld,  being  most  prominent. 

The  culture  of  pears,  to  be  successful,  requires  careful  adaptation  to  soil 
and  climate.  These  points,  as  well  as  the  improvement  of  varieties,  have 
been  closely  studied  by  the  nurserymen  and  horticultural  societies ;  culture  of 
and  since  1830  or  1S40  the  fruit  has  been  very  widely  grown.  P'*""' 
California  has  been  particularly  productive  of  choice  pears,  and  at  certain 
seasons  .he  Eastern  markets  depend  almost  entirely  on  that  section  for  their 
supj)'ies. 

Besides  being  sold  from  the  street-stands  in  cities,  to  be  eaten  out  of  hand 
and  for  dessert,  large  quantities  of  pears  are  dried  or  canned  for  the  market. 
The  business  is  regarded  as  highly  profitable,  many  trees  yie'.ding 
fifty  or  sixty  dollars'  worth  of  fruit  a  year,  and  one  tree  in  New 
York  having  a  record  of  an  aggregate  product  worth  $3,750. 

In  quantity,  and  perhaps  in  lalue,  the  fruit-crop  which  ranks  next  to  the 
apple  in  this  country  is  the  peach.  It  is  also  one  of  our  oldest  fruits.  Peaches 
originated  in  Persia,  and  grow  wild  in  Asiatic  Turkey.  'I'hey  have 
been  long  and  widely  cultivated  in  Europe  in  sheltered  spots,  and 
their  improvement  has  received  coi ;siderable  attention;  not,  however,  so  much 
as  the  pear,  than  which  the  peach  'las  much  fewer  varieties. 

It  is  impossible  to  say  whe'i  the  peach  was  first  brought  to  this  country; 
but  it  was  pretty  generally  known  in  all  the  Atlantic  colonies  before  the  Revo- 
lution. Northern  winters,  however,  have  been  rather  too  much  for  History  of 
it ;  and  the  principal  peach-orchards  of  the  country  are  now  con-  **•"  pe«ch. 
fined  to  New  Jersey,  Delaware,  Pennsylvania,  and  Maryland.  It  is  generally 
conceded  that  American  peaches,  on  the  whole,  are  rather  better  than  English 
ones. 

There  were  several  varieties  known  in  this  country  previous  to  the  Revo- 
lution, and  there  is  a  record  of  the  yellow  clingstone  ha\'ing  been  taken  to 
New  York  from  South  Carolina  before  the  war  for  independence.   ,,    .  ,. 

*  varieties 

Most  of  our  best-known  varieties  have  been  developed  since.     The  before  ana 
large  white  clingstone,  long  popular  in  New  England,  was  raised  in  l'"^^  *^f 
1805  by  David  Williamson  of  New  York.     The  Morris  red  and 
Morris  white  varieties  were  produced  by  Robert  Morris  of  Philadelphia  nearly 
a  century  ago.     William  Crawford  of  New  Jersey  originated  the  yellow-pulped 
l)each  that  bears  his  name,  about  1820.     Two  kinds  of  nectarine,  raised  from 
l)each-stones  by  H.  Bloomfield  of  Harvard,  Mass.,  in  18 10,  and  by  T.  Lewis 


Peach. 


i7« 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


Peach- 
culture  at 
close  of  last 
century. 


i.:  :l 


of  Boston  about  1815,  were  cultivated  and  disseminated  by  Col.  S.  G.  Perkins 
of  Brookline.  This  gentleman  sent  .  lecimens  of  the  former  to  Ixindon  in 
1821,  which  attracted  great  attention.  The  peach  is  really  the  choicest  dessert 
fruit  known.  In  the  early  part  of  the  century  it  was  very  extensively  dried  for 
pics  and  sauce. 

Downing  says  that  peach-culture  in  this  country  reached  a  climax  about  the 
year  1800.  At  that  period  the  insidious  disease  called  the  "yellows"  began 
to  destroy  the  trees  gradually.  It  first  manifested  itself  in  Pennsyl- 
vania. The  fruit  was  carried  north,  and  widely  scattered.  It  was 
then  customary  for  seedsmen  to  plant  the  stones  of  peaches  indis- 
criminately, and  without  regard  to  the  quality  or  health  of  the  trees 
from  which  they  came.     Thus  by  degrees  the  malady  became  constitutional  in 

the  young  peach-orchards  of  the  North- 
ern and  Eastern  States.  The  difficulty 
and  its  cause  were  not  understood  ;  and 
the  evil  operated  slowly  for  twenty  or 
thirty  years,  all  remedies  having  been 
tried  in  vain.  This  difficulty,  and  the 
severity  of  the  Northern  winters,  had 
pretty  much  exterminated  the  New- 
England  and  many  of  the  New- York 
peach-orchards  by  1850;  since  which 
time  little  effort  has  been  made  to  re- 
store them. 

In  the  region  above  referred  to, 
now  forming  the  chief  centre  of  pro- 
duction, there  has  been  a  marked  de- 
Marked  velopment  of  peach-culture 
development  within  twenty  years,  largely 
tur^wUhin''  flue  to  the  development  of 
twenty  the  canning  industry,  and 
years.  ^.j^^  gready  improved  and 
special  facilities  for  transportation  by 
rail  and  steamer  for  this  class  of  freight. 
From  that  comparatively  limited  region 
peaches  are  now  sent  all  over  the 
country  in  immense  quantities  at  a 
trifling  cost,  and  in  a  good  state  of 
preservation ;  and  in  the  height  of  the 
season  the  carrying  trade  forms  a  big  item  in  the  business  of  certain  freight- 
lines. 

Plums  are  a  much  less  prominent  crop  in  this   country.     The   fruit   is 
derived  from  the  bullace,  which,  in  turn,  is  the  offspring  of  the  wild  sloe,  anil 


ROSK-COI.ORED   WIGELIA. 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


179 


i.  Perkins 
xjndon  in 
2St  dessert 
^  dried  for 

L  about  the 

ws  "  began 

in  Pennsyl- 

ed.    It  was 

iches  indis- 

of  the  trees 

titutional  in 

,f  the  North- 
he  difficulty 

irstood ;  and 

or  twenty  or 

having  been 

ulty,  and  the 

winters,  had 

id   the   New- 
lie  New-York 
since  which 

n  made  to  re- 
referred   to, 
entre  of  pro- 

a  marked  dc- 
peach-cuUurc 
years,  largely 
;velopment  of 
industry,  and 
improved  ami 
ksportation  by 
:lass  of  freight, 
[limited  region 
all    over    the 
luantities   at  a 
I  good  state  of 
height  of  the 
;ertain  freight- 

The  fruit  is 
wild  sloe,  and 


is  said  to  have  originated  in  the  Caucasus,  near  the  Volga  River.  It  has 
spread  all  over  F^urope  from  Norway  south,  and  extended  even  into  Barbary. 
English  catalogues  enumerated  no  less  than  two  hundred  and  seventy-four 
varieties  a  few  years  since. 

Plums  were  known  and  grown  slightly  in  this  country  before  the  Revolu- 
tion, though  not  much  is  heard  of  them  until  tlie  dawn  of  the  present  century. 
The  venerable  Cliancellor  Livingston  was  the  first  to  biing  to  this 
country  the  greengage,  which  was  known  in  France  ;is  the  Reine 
Clautle,  having  been  named  after  the  v  of  I'rancis  I.  From  that  stock  a 
seedling  was  developed  by  Judge  liu  of  Albany,  which  was  called  the 
"  Jefferson."  It  is  one  of  the  most  bei  tiful,  delicious,  and  widely-known 
plums  in  this  country.  Its  birth  was  probably  not  far  from 
contemporaneous  witli  that  of  the  Washington  ])lum,  another 
spontaneous  American  product,  derived  from  the  greengage.  Concerning 
the  Washington  plum,  it  is  recorded  that  the  parent-tree  grew  on  Delancey's 
farm,  on  the  east  side  of  what  is  now  the  Howery,  in  New- York  City.  A  sucker 
from  it  was  bought  from  a  market-woman  by  Mr.  Holmar,  a  Chatham-street 
merchant,  in  1818;  and  from  this  came  the  new  variety.  The  Washington 
plum  was  soon  introduced  into  luirope,  where  it  has  never  been  equalled. 
The  Lawrence  favorite  and  Columbia  plums  were  also  seedlings  of  green- 
gage extraction,  raised  by  L.  U.  Lawrence  of  Hudson,  N.Y.  Other  less 
important  varieties  have  been  developed  in  this  coimtry ;  and  numerous 
foreign  varieties,  including  the  common  blue  ])lum,  the  damson,  and  the 
apricot,  have  been  imported.  We  have  also,  in  this  country,  several  wild 
native  varieties.  Among  them  are  the  Chickasaw,  peculiar  to  Mississippi,  a 
wild  yellow  and  red  plum  to  be  found  along  river-sides  from  Canada  to 
(leorgia  and  Texas,  and  a  beach-plum  that  grows  on  sandy  coasts  from 
Massachusi  '<  to  New  Jersey,  and  occasionally  farther  south. 

Plums  have   never  been   cultivated   extensively   for   the   market   in   this 
country,  but  generally  by  farmers  and  city  residents  for  domestic  Cultivation 
use,   and   by   fruit-fanciers  as   a   special   luxury.     The   common   ••w"**''- 
varieties  are  often  pitted  and  dried,  and  the  choicer  ones  pickled  and  i)re- 
scrved.     The  fruit  is  also  used  fresh  for  dessert  to  some  extent. 

The  cherry  is  a  fruit  of  Asiatic  origin,  and  was  introduced  into  Italy  from 
Pontus  during  the  Mithridatic  war,  70  B.C.     Thence  it  spread  all 
over  Europe.     Within  the  past  century  or  two  its  varieties  have 
multiplied  and  improved  remarkably.     There  are  now  over  three   hundred 
varieties  cultivated. 

The  blackheart  variety  was  early  introduced  to  this  country,  and  seedlings 
were  raised  from  it  without  number.     The  Black  Tartarian,  one  of  its  Russian 
descendants,  was  brought  here  in  1825,  and  has  proved  a  great 
favorite.     The   early  whiteheart  was  brought  here  from  France 
by  R.  Arden,  who  lived  on  the  Hudson,  opposite  West  Point.     It  has  been 


i8o 


INDUSTRIAL    HI  STL 


Strawberry. 


widely  cultivated.  The  bigarreau  cherry  was  brought  to  the  United  States  by 
Other  varie-  William  PriiKc  of  Long  Island  in  1800.  Chancellor  Livingston 
*'•••  introduced  a  white  bigarreau,  and  about  1825  Andrew  Parnientier 

of  Brooklyn  brought  the  Napoleon  bigarreau  from  Holland.  Daniel  IJlood- 
good  of  Flushing,  L.L,  M.  1*.  Wilder  of  Boston,  A.  J.  Downing  of  Newburgh, 
N.Y.,  and  Robert  Manning  of  Salem,  Mass.,  brought  several  new  varieties 
here  between  1830  and  1850,  The  mayduk.;,  supposed  to  be  the  medoc  of 
France,  was  among  the  earliest,  most  valuable,  and  most  widely-diffused 
varieties  in  this  country,  and  many  new  varieties  have  been  deduced  from  it. 
The  morello,  or  Kentish  sour  red  cherry,  used  chiefly  for  pies,  was  raised 
chiefly  in  New  York  along  the  Hudson,  and  in  New  Jersey.  The  fruit  has 
never  been  cultivated  largely  for  the  market,  but  chiefly  for  local  and  family 
consumption.  Besitles  being  eaten  fresh,  the  cherry  is  canned,  dried,  made 
into  pies,  and  macerated  with  brandy  or  rum  for  medicinal  purposes.  The 
wo'  J  is  also  highly  prized  by  cabinet-makers. 

Strawberries  take  their  name  from  the  old  custom  of  putting  straw  under- 
neath the  plants  to  keej)  the  fruit  from  touching  the  ground.  The  Romans 
called  them  "  fragraria,"  on  account  of  their  delicious  fragrance. 
They  grow  wild  almost  the  world  over.  Little  attention  was 
given  to  their  improvement  in  foreign  countries  until  this  century,  nnd  not 
much  was  done  by  American  horticulturists  until  about  1830.  Hovey's 
seedling,  proiluced  by  a  famous  Boston  seedsman  in  1834,  was  among  the 
very  first  and  most  popular  of  choice  American  varieties.  In  1837  Alex- 
ander Ross  of  Hudson,  N.Y.,  developed  an  improved  variety  from  the  Keen 
(English)  strawberry.  Thereafter  varieties  and  plants  rapidly  multiplied,  and 
the  culture  of  this  delicious  fruit  rapidly  increased.  Within  the  past  ten  or 
fifteen  years  strawberries  have  been  grown  in  small  garden-plats  rather  less 
than  formerly,  inasmuch  as  the  immense  quantities  raised  by  market- 
gardeners  in  the  Central  States,  especially  on  Long  Island  and  in  New 
Jersey  and  Delaware,  and  the  improved  facilities  for  transportation,  have 
cheapened  and  made  very  plenty  this  delicious  early  summer  fruit  in  all 
parts  of  the  country. 

Raspberries  (which  are  said  to  have  originated  on  Mount  Ida,  in  the  Island 
of  Crete)  and  blackberries  grow  wild  all  over  the  northern  and  eastern  part 
of  this  country.  Most  of  our  cultivated  berries  were  introduced 
from  Europe.  They  have  not  been  very  extensively  grown  in  the 
United  States,  however,  the  market  being  supplied  quite  as  much  by  the  wild 
fruit  as  by  the  improved.  Horticulturists  have  given  these  berries  compara- 
tivel7  little  attention. 

Oranges   grow  to  a  very  limited   extent   in   this  country,  and  chiefly  in 
Florida.      The  fruit  is  essentially  a  tropical  one,  and  has   been 
known  there  from  time  immemorial.    The  principal  planting  and 
conduct  of  orange-groves  for  mercantile  purposes  is  of  recent  date,  under 


Raspberry. 


Oranges. 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


i8i 


ates  by 
/ingston 
rnienlier 
I  Ulood- 
iwburgh, 
varieties 
Kdoc  of 
yr-cliffiiscd 
I  from  it. 
/as  raised 
fruit  has 
md  family 
ried,  made 
jses.    The 

raw  under- 
he  Romans 
i  fragrance, 
tention   was 
ry,  nnd  not 
3,     Hovey's 
among  the 

1837  A^*-''^' 
m  the  Keen 
[iUi\)\ied,  and 
past  ten  or 
|s  rather  less 
by   market- 
tnd   in   New 
■tation,  have 
fruit  in  all 

lin  the  Island 
^eastern  part 
introduced 
[grown  in  the 
by  the  wild 
les  compara- 
nd chiefly  in 
id  has  been 
[planting  and 
date,  undet 


Figi,  Ac. 


the  auspices  of  Northv-rners  who  went  to  Florida  after  the  war.  Labor  and 
society  are  as  yet  so  demoralized,  that  the  industry  is  still  in  its  infancy, 
Florida  oranges  are  large  and  sweet,  and  are  highly  and  justly  prized  ;  and 
there  would  seem  to  be  a  deal  of  wealth  in  store  for  those  who  shall  systemati- 
cally supply  Northern  markets  therewith. 

Some  idea  of  the  growth  of  the  fruit-producing  business  in  this  country 
within  the  past  few  years  may  be  formed  from  the  census  returns  of  orchard 
products,  which  exclude  grapes  and  wine  and  the  various  kinds  of  berries. 
In  1850  the  total  value  was  stated  at  l!!7,773,i86  ;  ten  years  later,  519,991,885  ; 
and  ten  years  still  later,  547,335,189.  This  is  a  more  marked  increase  than 
in  our  sugar,  tobacco,  cotton,  or  cereals ;  and  these  simple  figures  contain  a 
significant  summary  of  horticultural  history. 

Besides  the  fruits  named  in  this  chapter,  there  have  been  attempts  to 
domesticate  others,  mostly  belonging  to  warmer  climates,  —  such  as  the  pome- 
granate, date-palm,  fig,  olive,  lemon,  mulberry,  almond,  and  other 
nut-trees.  But  such  attempts  have  met  with  but  little  success. 
The  mulberry,  however, 
be  it  remarked,  was  grown 
chiefly  for  the  silk  indus- 
try, which  proved  so  sig- 
nal a  failure.  Currants 
and  other  small  fruits 
have  too  little  a  history 
to  entitle  them  to  specific 
mention. 

It  may  be  remarked 
in  this  connection,  that, 
besides  fruit-trees,  such 
economic  plants  as  tea 
and  coffee  have  been 
introduced  by  the  horti- 
cultural branch  of  the 
Agricultural    Bureau    at 

Washington,    Tea  and  cof. 

but  not  with  '**  p'»"*'- 
much  success.   The  pres- 
ent commissioner.  Gen. 
Leduc,  is  putting   forth 
more     vigorous      eflbrts 

than  did  any  of  his  predecessors  to  render  tea-culture  not  only  possible,  but 
also  a  profitable  industry. 


COFKRE-H11L1.ER. 


II 


i 


■? 


^    . 


i 


\\v 


BOOK    II. 


MAIvUFACTURES. 


n 


\ 


m 


CHAPTER   I. 


MANUFACTURE   OF    IRON    AND   STEEL. 


EARLY    HISTORY. 

NATURE  has  fitted  the  United  States  to  become  the  centre  of  a  great 
iron   industry  by  the   lavish   endowment   of  her  territory  witK  all  the 
materials  required   in   the  production  and  manuliicture    of  that  superiority 
valuable  metal.     Iron,  coal,  and  limestone  are  found  in  every  part  *•'  United 
of  our  domain  ;  and,  in  the  region  lying  east  of  the  Rocky  Moun-   other  coun- 
tains,  the  country  is  so  full  of  them  as  to  present  the  appearance   *''«• '"  '*=h. 
goologically  of  a  gigantic   basin  filled  to  the  rim  with  mineral  var'e'vof 
treasures.     It  is  said,  by  those  who  have  examined  the  mineral   »'«»>  orei. 
resources  of  other  countries,  that,  were  the  coal  of  the  rest  of  the  world 
deposited  within  the  iron  rim  of  this  great  basin,  it  would  not  occupy  one- 
quarter  of  the  area  of  our  own  coal-fields.     What  is  true  of  coal  is  true  of 
iron,  which,  by  the  help  of  coal,  will  be  utilized  still  more  extensively  in  the 
future  of  the  world  for  the  purposes  of  man.    The  deposits  of  the  ore  in  this 
country  exist  in  such  enormous  quantity  as  fairly  to  stagger  the  imagination. 
The  ores  are  more  accessible  than  in  England,  which  now  supplies  half  the 
iron  consumed  by  the  world ;  and  they  exist  in  close  proximity  to  the  coal  and 
limestone  used  in  extracting  the  metallic  iron  from  them.     Their  abundance 
insures  to  the  United  States  the  ability  to  supply,  not  only  its  own  people,  but 
the  world  at  large,  with  all  the  iron  that  could  be  consumed  for  centuries  to 
come,  if  it  were  necessary  to  do  so.     There  appears  to  be  no  other  country  so 
fortunately  endowed  with  respect  to  iron  and  coal.     England,  now 
the  resource  of  Europe  and  Asia,  and  once  of  America,  supplies 
at  ])rcsent  half  the  iron  and  coal  of  the  world ;  but  her  mines  are  deep  and 
(litticult,  and  costly  to  work,  while  in  the  United  States  they  lie  upon  the  top 
of  the  ground,  or  near  it.     Sweden,  with  an  inexhaustible  supply  of  the  richest 
and  best  ore,  has  no  coal.     Russia,  Austria,  Italy,  Algiers,  and  some  of  the 
German  States,  have  ore,  but  no  coal.     France  is  deficient  in  coal,  and  only 
maintains  her  iron  manufacture  by  importing  both  coal  and  iron.     Prussia  has 

.85 


England. 


Il 


1 86 


^  > 


Pi  ^ 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


materials 


her  own  needs,  but  has  little  surplus. 
Hrazil  has  iron,  but  very  little  coal,  and  can  only  manufacture  her  ore  by  burning 
iier  forests  in  her  furnaces,  and  cannot,  therefore,  lon^'  maintain  a  competition 
with  a  country  whose  very  foundations  are  planted  on  beds  of  coal,  if,  indeed, 
she  can  ever  seriously  enter  into  one.  Spain  has  iron  and  coal ;  but  they  are 
widely  separated,  and  little  has  been  done  to  utilize  either.  The  United  States, 
on  the  other  hand,  not  only  enjoys  incalculable  supplies  of  the  best  ores,  anil 
of  coal  and  limestone,  but  in  some  States  —  as  in  Ohio,  Pennsylvania,  Alabama, 
and  Kentucky  —  is  able  to  point  to  all  these  materials  so  close  together,  that 
they  exist  within  a  radius  of  a  mile  and  a  half  of  the  furnace,  all  lying  on  or 
near  the  surface  of  the  ground.  The  mineral  deposits  of  the  United  States  will 
be  more  fully  described  in  the  book  on  "  Mines  and  Mining ; "  and  it  need  only 
be  said  here,  that  in  a  country  filled  with  such  exhausUess  stores  of  coal  and  of 
iron  ores  of  every  variety,  so  convenient  of  access,  nothing  except  the  grossest 
apathy  and  ignorance  on  the  part  of  the  people  could  possibly  prevent  it,  in 
time,  from  becoming  a  leading  source  of  the  world's  supply  of  iron  and  iron 
maiiufactures ;  and  that  as  our  people  are  not  ignorant  and  apathetic,  but  are 
eager,  intelligent,  and  enterprising,  the  desti  ly  of  the  country  as  the  seat  of  a 
great  iron  manufacture  is  assured.  Indeed,  the  industry  has  already  reached 
magni*i..ent  proportions,  and  not  only  has  now  the  capacity  to  produce  enough 
to  supply  the  wants  of  our  own  inhabitants,  but,  within  the  last  two  or  three 
years,  has  begun  to  furnish  a  surplus  for  export.  In  the  world  at 
large  the  United  States  now  stands  second  on  the  list  of  iron- 
producing  countries,  as  will  appear  from  the  following  table  of  the  product  of 
pig-metal,  compiled  by  the  American  Iron  and  Steel  Association  for  1877  from 
the  latest  accessible  statistics  :  — 


Statistics. 


COUNTRIES. 

YEAR. 

IRON,  TONS. 

Great  Britain 

1875 

6,365,462 

United  States . 

1876 

1,868,960 

Germany 

1874 

1,660,208 

France     . 

1876 

I.449.S37 

Belgium  . 

1875 

541,805 

Austria    . 

1875 

455.227 

Russia     . 

IS74 

5 '4.497 

Sweden   . 

1875 

350.525 

Luxemburg     . 

1874 

246,054 

Italy 

1872 

26,000 

Spain 

1872 

73,000 

Norway   . 

1870 

3.975 

Mexico    . 

1876 

7,500 

Canada    . 

1876 

7,500 

Japan 

1874 

5,000 

T'i 


CF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


Z87 


ttle  surplus. 
;  by  burning 
competition 
1,  if,  indeed, 
but  they  are 
nited  States, 
est  ores,  and 
lia,  Alabama, 
together,  that 

lying  on  or 
ed  States  will 
\  it  need  only 
)f  coal  and  of 
)t  the  grossest 

prevent  it,  in 
iron  and  iron 
dietic,  but  are 

the  seat  of  a 
[ready  reached 
roduce  enough 
t  two  or  three 
In  the  world  at 
Ke  list  of  iron- 
he  product  of 
I  for  1877  from 


^'<^'f^^-;-.il' 


T»S 


^^^^^^H  0.'  r^H    '^- 


^.^.^;, 


IRON,  TONS. 


6,365,462 
1,868,960 

i,66o,2oS 

1,449-537 
541,805 

455.-7 
514.497 
350.525 
246,054 
26,000 
73,000 
3.975 
7.500 
7.500 
5,000 


."»         -W?     =     i. 


":m-^^. 


IRON   AND   STEEL   MANUFACTURE. 


1 88 


IND  US  TRIA  L    II IS  TOR  Y 


CcmNTKIKS. 

VEAK. 

IKON,  TONS. 

Switzerland     . 
Turkey    . 

Australasia 

All  other  countries . 



IS72 
•  •  •  • 

7,500 
40,000 
10,000 
50,000 

Total 

■  •  •  • 

13,682,750 

»(. 


y 


production 
of  iron. 


The  first  discovery  of  iron  in  this  country  was  in  the  South.  Ore  was 
fount!  by  Raleigh  in  Carolina ;  and,  on  his  return  to  England,  that  eminent  man 
_..  reported  that  this  metal  formed  one  of  the  resources  of  the  beau- 

Discovery  ' 

and  early  tiful  region  referred  to.  It  did  not  prove  a  special  attraction  to 
emigration  at  the  time ;  for  iron  was  not  among  the  things  in 
which  the  territory  of  England  was  deficient,  and  the  world  was 
not  then  using  a  hundredth  part  of  the  metal  which  it  consumes  now,  and 
tl  ere  was  no  great  demand  for  it.  The  steam-engine  had  not  been  invented, 
and  very  little  machinery  was  in  use.  Even  after  the  practical  settlement  of 
the  country  by  the  English  race  had  begun,  in  1607,  in  Virginia,  it  was  a  great 
many  years  before  iron  was  thought  to  be  of  sufficient  account  to  expend  any 
time  on  its  manufacture.  Tobacco  was  a  much  more  profitable  product,  and 
for  fifteen  years  was  about  the  only  product  of  the  colony ;  the  men  sent  over 
by  the  London  Company  to  introduce  industry  themselves  turning  agriculturists, 
and  raising  that  valuable  plant.  That  minerals  abounded  in  Virginia  was,  how- 
ever, noted  at  a  very  early  day.  In  16 10  "iron  oare  "  was  sent  to  England  by 
the  Jamestown  Colony,  and  found  to  yield  an  excellent  quality  of  metal.  Atten- 
tion was  called  to  the  matter  repeatedly.  Finally  the  London  Company  deter- 
mined to  make  use  of  the  ore  ;  and  about  1620  they  sent  to  Virginia,  as  appears 
from  "A  Declaration  of  the  State  of  Virginia,"  "out  of  Sussex,  about  forty,  at] 
famed  to  iron  workes."  These  people  established  in  Virginia  a  forge,  or,  more 
properly,  what  is  now  called  a  "  bloomary."  Reference  is  made  to  it  by  Bev- 
Manufacture  ^^'x*  '"  ^'^  "  History  of  Virginia,"  as  the  "  iron  work  at  Falling 
of  iron  in  Creek,  in  Jamestown  River,  where  they  made  proof  of  good  iron 
irginia.  ^^^^  ^^^  brought  the  whole  work  so  near  a  perfection,  that  they 
writ  word  to  the  company  in  London  that  they  did  not  doubt  but  to  finish  the 
work,  and  have  plentiful  provision  of  iron  for  them,  by  the  next  Easter ; "  namely, 
in  the  spring  of  1621.  Thus  iron  was  actually  manufactured  from  the  ore  in 
Virginia  as  early  as  1620.  The  fuel  used  was  charcoal.  In  1621,  three  of  the 
master-workmen  having  died,  the  company  sent  over  Mr.  John  Berkeley,  with 
his  son  Maurice  and  twenty  experienced  workmen,  to  carry  on  the  works. 
Op  the  22d  of  May,  1622,  the  works  were  destroyed  by  the  Indians,  and 
the  whole  company  massacred,  with  the  exception  of  a  boy  and  a  girl,  who 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


189 


IRON,  TONS. 

7,500 
40,000 
10,000 
50,000 

13,682,750 


1th.     Ore  was 
t  eminent  man 
s  of  the  beau- 
il  attraction  to 
the  things  in 
the  world  was 
ames  now,  and 
been  invented, 
1  settlement  of 
a,  it  was  a  great 
to  expend  any 
,le  product,  and 
men  sent  over 
:ig  agriculturists, 
rginia  was,  how- 
t  to  England  l)y 
f  metal.    Atten- 
Company  deter- 
^inia,  as  appears 
I,  about  forty,  all 
forge,  or,  more 
ide  to  it  by  Bev- 
|work  at  Falling 
,f  of  good  iron 
■ction,  that  they 
|but  to  finish  the 
:aster ; "  namely, 
from  the  ore  in 
21,  three  of  the 
Berkeley,  witli 
on  the  works. 
,e  Indians,  and 
tnd  a  girl,  who 


escaped  by  hiding.  Three  hundred  and  forty-seven  of  the  other  settlers  were 
killed  besides.  This  bloody  event  put  an  end  to  the  making  of  iron  in  Virginia 
for  nearly  a  hundred  years.  The  business  was  not  resumed  until  1 7 1 2,  although 
the  rocks  of  this  ancient  and  well-settled  State  were  known  to  be  full  of  valuable 
deposits,  and  the  attention  of  capitalists  in  London  was  from  time  to  time 
called  to  the  fact. 

It  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  coincidences  in  the  history  of  the  iron 
manufacture,  that  a  mob  in  civilized  England  destroyed  a  blast-furnace, 
erected  there  by  Dud  Dudley  for  the  smelting  of  iron  by  means  Dudley's 
of  coal  fuel,  almost  at  the  same  time  that  the  savages  of  the  woods  experiments, 
burned  the  little  pioneer  factory  in  Virginia.  Experiments  had  been  making 
in  England  for  many  years  to  utilize  coal  in  producing  iron.  The  forests  of 
the  kingdom  were  being  destroyed  rapidly  by  the  insatiable  demands  of  the 
forges  and  blast-furnaces,  which  then  could  only  be  worked  with  charcoal  fuel. 
In  1619  Dud  Dudley  had  succeeded  in  making  iron  with  coal  by  means  of 
his  skill  in  the  use  of  bellows  and  in  coking  coal.  Iron-masters  tried  to  obtain 
his  secret,  and  working-men  were  incited  to  jealousy  of  him.  He  built  five 
separate  works,  was  tricked  out  of  three,  and  lost  one  by  a  flood ;  and  one 
was  destroyed  by  a  mob.  Dudley  kept  his  secret,  and  it  died  with  him ;  and 
the  manufacture  of  iron  with  the  aid  of  hard  coal  was  postponed  First  use  of 
for  over  a  hundred  years.  It  was  not  until  about  1 735  that  Darby,  '=*''"=• 
having  discovered  the  process,  put  it  into  use,  and  began  making  iron  with 
coke  regularly.  That  process  and  the  new  blowing-engines  then  quadrupled 
the  product  of  iron  in  England  in  fifty  years. 

The  next  attempt  at  making  iron  in  the  colonies  was  in  the  North.  It  was 
part  of  the  object  of  colonizing  Massachusetts  to  produce  iron.  In  the  journal 
of  the  Court  of  Assistants  at  London  for  the  meetinc;  on  March  2,   „      ,    ^ 

°  '    Manufacture 

162S,  it  is  recorded  that  "also  for  Mr.  Malbon  it  was  propounded,   of  iron  in 
he  having  skill  in  iron-works,  and  willing  to  put  in  twenty-five   J*'"'  ^"2* 
pounds  in  stock,  it  should  be  accounted  as  fifty  pounds,  and  his 
charges  to  be  borne  out  and  home  from  New  England  ;  and  upon  his  return, 
and  report  what  may  be  done  about  iron-works,  consideration  to  be  had  of 
proceeding  therein  accordingly,  and  further  recompense  if  there  be  cause  to 
entertain  him."     Three  days  after,  the  court  made  arrangements  with  Thomas 
Graves  of  Gravesend,  Kent,  "a  man  experienced  in  iron-workes,"  to  go  out  to 
New  England  at  the  expense  of  the  company,  and  serve  the  company  for  six 
or  eight  months,  provision  being  made  for  his  staying  three  years  if  desirable. 
i'iie  result  of  the  expedition  of  these  two  men  is  not  known.     It  could  not 
have  been  very  satisfactory ;  for  no  furnace-fires  appear  to  have  been  estab- 
lished in  consequence   of  it.     The  Court  of  Assistants  in  London  got  no 
iioa  from  this  preliminary  attempt.     Fifteen  years  later  the  subject  of  ivon- 
making  was  agitated  again,  and  in  1637  the  General  Court  of  Massachusetts 


190 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


granted  to  Abraham  Shaw  one -half  the  benefit  of  any  "coles  or  yron 
stone  w*"'  shall  bee  found  in  any  comon  ground  w'''  is  in  the  countrye's 
disposing." 

The  first  iron  made  in  the  colony,  however,  was  not  from  stony  ores,  but 

was  taken  from  the  bottom  of  the  peat-bogs  and  ponds  near  the  coast.     These 

bogs  are  found  all  along  the  eastern  coast  of  the  country  as  far 

Bog-iron  ore.  00  / 

south  as  Maryland.  Water  filtering  through  the  neighboring  hills 
brings  down  into  the  ponds  large  quantities  of  sesquioxide  of  iron  in  solution,  and 
deposits  the  same  at  the  bottom  of  the  pond,  along  with  vegetable  mould,  in  soft, 
spongy  masses  which  go  by  the  name  of  "bog-iron  ore."  The  ore,  once  taken 
out,  is  renewed  again  by  gradual  deposit.  After  the  Falling-Creek  experiment, 
the  iron-works  of  the  country  were  supplied  for  a  long  period  principally  with 
bog-ore.  The  large  furnaces  of  the  present  day  could  not  be  supplied  with  it, 
because  it  does  not  exist  in  sufficient  (luantity ;  but,  for  the  uses  of  the  early 
colonists,  it  supplied  pretty  nearly  every  want.  The  iron  cast  from  it  is  brittle, 
but  very  tliiid  when  melted,  taking  every  minute  mark  of  the  mould  ;  and  is, 
therefore,  still  made  to  the  present  day  in  North-west  New  Jersey  and  in  Mary- 
land for  stove-castings. 

In  1643  specimens  of  the  bog-ores  from  the  ponds  near  Lynn  were  sent 
to  England  for  trial,  and  found  to  be  so  good,  that  a  "  Company  of  Undertak- 
ers for  the  Iron -Works  "  was  immediately  formed,  with  a  thousand 
pounds  capital,  by  John  Winthrop,  jun.,  and  others.  Winthrop 
came  to  New  England  in  1643,  with  a  corps  of  workmen,  to  begin  the  regular 
manufacture  of  iron.  The  company  built  their  furnace  on  the  banks  of  the 
Saugus  River,  within  the  present  limits  of  Lynn,  at  a  spot  which  they  called 
Hammersmith,  after  the  place  in  England  from  which  some  of  the  workmen 
had  come.  The  General  Court  of  Massachusetts  greatly  favored  this  work  by 
grants  of  three  square  miles  of  land  wherever  the  company  put  up  works, 
and  by  special  privileges  and  charters.  Subscriptions  toward  the  stock  were 
encouraged  among  the  inhabitants.  The  work  was  very  successful ;  and  011 
Oct.  14,  1645,  the  General  Court  granted  to  the  company  a  charter  "on  tlic 
condition  that  the  inhabitants  of  this  jurisdiction  be  furnished  with  barr-iron  of 
all  sorts  for  their  use,  not  exceeding  twenty  pounds  per  tunne."  In  1648  the 
Furnace  at  furnace  at  Lyun  was  turning  out  eight  tons  of  iron  a  week,  and 
Lynn.  appears  to  have  been  kept  busy  for  a  long  time  casting  cannon, 

shot,  pots,  and  other  hollow-ware,  for  which  the  bog-iron  is  so  well  adapted. 
The  first  article  cast  was  an  iron  pot ;  and  this  historic  and  intrinsic  treasure 
was  handed  t;own  for  generations  in  the  family  of  the  man  who  bought  it, 
who  happened  to  be  Thomas  Hudson,  of  the  same  family  as  the  Dutch 
explorer,  Thomas  having  been  the  original  owner  of  the  lands  on  the  Saugus 
upon  which  the  foundery  stood. 

The  company  built  another  forge  about  1648,  in  the  town  of  Braintreo ; 


Winthrop. 


OF  THE   UmTED  STATES. 


191 


:s  or  yron 

countrye's 

ny  ores,  but 
>ast.     These 
)unlry  as  far 
liboring  hills 
solution,  and 
lould,  in  soft, 
e,  once  taken 
ic  experiment, 
incipally  with 
iplied  with  it, 
i  of  the  early 
m  it  is  brittle, 
lould ;  and  is, 
and  in  Mary- 

,ynn  were  sent 
^  of  Undertak- 
^ith  a  thousand 
ers.    Winthrop 
gin  the  regular 
banks  of  the 
ich  they  called 
(f  the  workmen 
d  this  work  by 
put  up  works, 
the  stock  were 
essful;  and  on 
barter  "  on  the 
ith  barr-iron  of 
In  1648  the 
)n  a  week,  and 
;asting  cannon, 
well  adapted, 
[trinsic  treasure 
who  bought  it, 
as  the   Dutch 
on  the  Saugus 

of  Braintree ; 


and  in  1652  a   forge  was   established   at  Raynham  (now  Taunton)   by  the 

two  Leonard  brothers,  Henry  and  James,  from  whom  have  since   Braintree 

descended    so    many   of  the   well-known   iron -masters   of  the  and  Taun- 
ton, 
country. 

John  Winthrop,  jun.,  went  to  New  London  in  Connecticut  in  1645,  and 
in  1 65 1   obtained   a  grant  of  privileges   from   the   Assembly  to  pirst  iron- 
enable  him  to  make  iron  there.     He  did  not,  however,  carry  out   works  in 
his  intention  of  establishing  the  business  then  ;  and  the  first  iron-     o"n«=*'C"t- 
works  in  this  colony  were  erected  at  New  Haven,  where  they  were  established 
by  Capt.  Thomas  Clarke  in  1656. 

Rhode  Island  made  iron  at  Pawtucket  and  elsewhere  as  early  as  1675. 
There  were  several  furnaces  and  forges  in  the  State,  all  of  them  Rhode 
running  wit:i  bog-ore  taken  from  the  ponds  on  the  border  of  Bris-  's'and. 
tol  County,  Massachusetts.  The  works  at  Pawtucket  were  started  by  Joseph 
Jenks,  jun.,  from  Lynn.  The  Indians  interfered  with  their  infant  enterprises 
a  great  deal ;  and  the  iron  industry  has  not,  even  to  this  day,  reached  any 
special  development  in  the  State.  The  energies  of  the  people  were  directed 
at  a  very  early  period  to  cotton  spinning  and  weaving,  antl  that  has  since 
engrossed  them  almost  entirely.  Yet  Rhode-Island  hills  contain  unlimited 
quantities  of  the  most  important  iron  ores. 

Iron  ore  had  been  discovered  in  New  Jersey  by  the  Dutch  ;  and  a  com- 
pany of  people  from  Connecticut  began  the  production  of  metal 
from  it  as  early  as  1664  in  Shrewsbury,  Monmouth  County. 
Henry  Leonard  went  to  Shrewsbury  about  that  year  from  Lynn,  and  is  said  to 
have  set  up  one  of  the  first  furnaces  of  the  provinces.  Several  bloomary-fires 
were  started  in  Sussex  and  Morris  Counties  in  1685  by  immigrants  from  Eng- 
land and  the  northern  provinces  of  this  country.  The  ore  was  brought  to 
the  forges  many  miles  in  leathern  bags  on  pack-horses. 

There  is  some  dispute  as  to  whether  the  pioneer  works  in  New  England,  at 
Lynn,  were  of  the  character  of  a  blast-furnace  or  a  bloomary-fire  ;  but  there  is 
no  doubt  at  all,  that,  during  the  first  fifty  years  of  practical  iron-   Biast-fur- 
uiaking  in  this  country,  the  fiirnaces  were,  in  general,  what  are  called   naces  and 
"bloomaries."    The  blast-furnaces  were  exceedingly  rare.     They  '''°°'""'"- 
were  in  use  in  England,  but  not  here,  except  at  Lyun  (where  Mr.  Swank  believes 
there  was  one  as  early  as  1644),  and  at  Shrewsbury,  N.J.,  where  one  was  set  up 
about  1680.     These  bloomaries  were  simply  an  improvement  upon  the  primi- 
tive mode  of  making  iron  direct  from  the  ore,  in  use  in  India  from  the  most 
ancient  times,  and   still   employed   by  the   natives  of  Asia  and   „   , 

.  f  .  Early  pro- 

Afnca.     The  original  bloomary  was  merely  a  hole  in  the  ground,   cess  of  mak- 

in  which  charcoal  was   burned   by  the   aid   of  a  bellows  made  '"B'^o" 
r  ,  •      .  1     .  Ill  ,      -       .  described. 

trom  a  goat-skm,  iron  ore  being  added  to  the  fire  m  small  quan- 
tities.    It  is  the  peculiar  property  of  iron,  and  the  ore  quality  above  all  others, 
which  has  made  it  of  such  extraordinary  utility  to  man,  that  its  particles  agglu- 


192 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


\  \ 


!^    \ 


tinate  at  a  white-heat.  In  those  primitive  fires  it  was  found,  that,  the  stone 
being  burned  out  of  the  ore,  and  the  iron  heated  almost  to  incandescence,  the 
metal  gathered  together,  and  settled  at  the  bottom  in  a  glowing  and  more  or 
less  compact  lump,  or  bloom,  and  might  be  got  out  and  worked  by  breaking 
away  the  clay. 

Tliis  method  of  making  iron  served  the  world  for  centuries.  It  was  finally 
improved  in  Catalonia,  in  Spain,  and  made  much  more  effective ;  and  the 
Iron-making  works  there  perfected  took  the  name  of  Catalan  bloomaries,  or 
in  Spain.  forges,  from  the  province  in  which  they  were  first  set  up.  The 
original  form,  used  in  the  Pyrenees  since  1 293,  was  a  furnace  two  feet  high, 
with  a  hearth,  or  crucible,  to  receive  the  heated  lump  of  metal,  eleven  inches 
deep.  The  blast  was  fed  to  the  fire  through  two  openings,  called  tuyeres, 
about  eleven  inches  from  the  bottom.  In  five  hours  a  hundred  and  forty  pounds 
of  iron  could  be  made.  In  time  the  furnace  became  enlarged,  and  the  hearth 
was  made  twenty  inches  deep  :  one  tuyere  was  discontinued,  and  the  produc- 
tion was  increased  to  three  hundr::d  pounds  of  metal  in  five  hours.  The  pro- 
Process  cess  was  as  follows :  In  the  fire-clay  hearth  a  bottom  of  slag  and 
described.  charcoal  was  laid,  and  glazed  over  at  a  high  heat :  the  hearth  was 
then  half  filled  with  charcoal.  On  the  side  opposite  to  the  tuyere  coarse  ore 
was  heaped  up  to  the  top  of  the  hearth,  and  the  rest  of  the  space  was  filled 
with  charcoal.  Then  the  blast  was  started  at  a  low  pressure  of  about  three- 
quarters  of  a  pound.  In  six  hours  the  pressure  was  raised  to  a  pound  and  a 
half,  and  tiie  whole  of  the  fire  heaped  over  with  fine  charcoal  and  ore,  except 
over  the  coarse  ore.  The  gas  and  flame  from  the  fire,  meeting  with  difficulty 
in  escaping  through  the  fine  charcoal,  were  forced  principally  to  find  an  outlet 
through  the  interstice?  of  the  coarse  ore,  and  they  gradually  reduced  it.  Tiie 
melted  slag,  settling  down  below  the  tuyere,  was  tapped  off  every  hour.  At  the 
end  of  the  operation,  or  in  about  six  hours,  the  bloom  was  pried  out  of  the 
fire,  and  put  under  a  fourteen-hundred-pound  hammer  for  manufacture.  The 
heat  could  be  so  increased  as  to  melt  the  iron,  and  run  it  off  to  make  castings. 
In  the  Catalan  process,  three  tons  of  ore,  and  two  and  three-quarters  or  three 
tons  of  charcoal,  were  consumed  to  make  a  ton  of  iron  ;  the  process  being  very 
wasteful,  but  the  metal  extremely  pure  and  good. 

The  principal  trouble  with  the  Catalan  forge  was,  that  the  fire  had  to  be 
re-made  after  each  heat.  This  objection  led  to  an  improvement  upon  it, 
Defect  of  invented  by  the  Germans  in  Alsace.  These  people  went  back  to 
Cntaian  the  old  plan  of  throwing  into  the  fire  alternate  layers  of  fine  ore 

°'^^'''  and  charcoal,  using  larger  fires,  and  making  the  blast  continuous. 

By  this  means  they  were  able  either  to  run  off  the  melted  metal,  or  pry 
out  the  heated  bloom,  without  re-making  the  fire.  The  principle  and  form 
of  both  bloomaries  were  substantially  the  same,  and  the  product  equally 
good. 

This  was  the  general  style  of  forge  which  found  its  way  into  America  in  the 


mm 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


»93 


at,  the  stone 
iescence,  the 
and  more  or 
[  by  breaking 

It  was  finally 
ive ;  and  the 
)loomarics,  or 
set  up.    The 
two  feet  high, 
eleven  inches 
:alled  tuyeres, 
X  forty  pounds 
ind  the  hearth 
d  the  produc- 
irs.    The  pro- 
m  of  slag  anil 
the  hearth  was 
!ere  coarse  ore 
space  was  filled 
af  about  three- 
X  pound  and  a 
ind  ore,  except 
with  difficulty 
find  an  outlet 
Iduced  it.     The 
hour.     At  the 
•ied  out  of  the 
lufacture.    The 
make  castings, 
luarters  or  three 
•cess  being  very 

fire  had  to  be 
-ment  upon  it, 
le  went  back  to 
■yers  of  fine  ore 
last  continuous, 
metal,  or  pry 

:iple  and  form 
Iroduct  equally 


America  ui 


the 


infancy  of  the  iron-manufacture,  and  by  which  the  manufacture  was  estab- 
lished.    Professor  T.  Stcrry  Hunt  says  of  it  in  a  recent  paper,  —      t.  sterry 

"  This  furnace  had  the  great  atlvantage,  tliat  its  construction  """*• 
re(|uired  but  little  skill  and  outlay.  A  small  waterfiill  for  the  blast  and  ham- 
mer, a  rude  hearth  with  a  chinmey,  antl  a  sup|)ly  of  charcoal  and  ore,  enabled 
the  iron-worker  to  obtain,  as  occasion  recpiired,  a  few  hundred  pounds  of 
iron  in  a  day's  time  in  a  condition  fitted  for  the  use  of  the  blacksmith  ;  after 
which  his  primitive  forge  remained  idle  until  there  was  a  further  demand.  To 
this  day  such  furnaces  are  found  in  the  mountains  of  North  Carolina,  and 
Airnish  the  bar-iron  recjuired  for  the  wants  of  the  rural  population.  .  .  .  Still 
more  worthy  of  note  is  it,  that  this  primitive  bloomary-furnace,  discarded  in 
Kurope,  has  been  improved  by  American  ingenuity, — enlarged,  fiti.-'l  with  a 
hot  blast,  water,  tuyeres,  and  other  modern  appliances, — so  that,  in  the  hands 
of  skilled  workmen  in  Northern  New  York,  it  affords  for  certain  ores  an  eco- 
nomical mode  of  making  a  superior  malleable  iron.  A  large  part  of  this 
product  is  consumed  at  Pittsburgh  for  the  manufacture  of  cutlery-steel  of 
excellent  quality." 

Pennsylvania,  so  marvellously  stored  with  the  materials  for  iron-making,  did 
not  begin  the  manufacture  until  171 7,  —  the  year  before  William  Penn's  death. 
I'enn  came  to  the  province  which  was  named  after  him  in  1682.  pennsyi- 
He  was  familiar  with  the  iron-business,  and  he  accordingly  soon  v*"»"- 
had  furnaces  in  New  Jersey  at  various  places  in  Sussex.  He  discovered  in 
time  that  his  own  province  was  rich  in  minerals ;  but  it  appears  that  the  indus- 
try was  not  developed  there  until  the  year  before  his  death.  The  record  of  the 
event  is  found  in  a  letter  of  Jonathan  Dickinson,  written  in  171  7,  in  which  he 
says,  "  This  last  summer,  one  Thomas  Rutter,  a  smith  who  lived  not  far  from 
(lermantown,  hath  removed  farther  up  in  the  country,  and  of  his  own  strength 
has  set  up  on  making  iron.  Such  it  proves  to  be  as  is  highly  set  by  all  the 
smiths  here,  who  say  that  the  best  of  Swede's  iron  doth  not  exceed  it ;  and  we 
have  heard  of  others  that  are  going  on  with  the  iron-works."  A  beginning 
once  made,  the  industry  developed  with  great  rapidity.  In  1728  four  furnaces 
were  in  full  blast ;  one  being  at  Colebrookdale  on  the  Maxatawny  Creek,  and 
one  being  in  the  present  county  of  Lancaster.  By  the  time  of  the  Revolution 
many  others  had  been  built  in  Eastern  and  North-eastern  Pennsylvania. 
These  were  regular  blast-furnaces  run  with  charcoal  fuel. 

Virginia  resumed  the  manufacture  of  iron  about  1715.  Col.  Alexander 
Spottswood  opened  some  mines  in  Spottsylvania  County,  on  the  Rappahannock, 
and  put  up  a  blast-furnace  there  about  that  year.     The  owner  told   „ 

'■  '^  '  Resumption 

Col.  Byrd  in  1 732  that  he  was  the  first  m  America  who  had  erected  of  iron- 
a  regular  furnace,  and  that  "  they  ran  altogether  upon  bloomaries   manufacture 
in  New  England  and  Pennsylvania  till  his  example  had  made  them 
attempt  greater  workes."     This  is  believed,  by  Mr.  Swank  and  others,  to  be  a 
-nistake,  because  there  was  a  furnace  at  Lynn,  and  another  at  Shrewsbury,  long 


•94 


fND  US  TRIA  I.    Ills  rOK  Y 


hcfore  Col.  Spottswood  developed  hi;;  largo  and  flourishing  works.  The  erec- 
tion of  the  Rappahannock  fiirnare  was,  however,  an  important  event  in  the 
history  of  the  iron-trade.  It  certainly  led  to  the  hiiiMing  of  larger  works  in 
the  North  than  had  been  put  up  previous  to  that  time.  Col.  Spottswood  had 
four  furnaces  in  1732  ;  the  largest  being  at  i'V.'dericksburg,  thirteen  miles  from 
tlic  mine.  .\n  idea  of  the  sort  of  work  the  furnaces  ran  on  at  that  day  may 
be  gathered  from  the  journal  of  (!ol.  Byrd,  who  says,  that  at  the  furnace  at 
Massapony,  on  tlie  Rappahannock,  there  were  cast  "backs  for  chimneys,  and- 
irons, fenders,  plates  for  hearths,  pots,  skillets,  mortars,  rollers  for  gardeners, 
boxes  for  cart-wheels,  t'tc,  which,  one  with  another,  could  be  delivered  at 
jjeople's  doors  for  twenty  shillings  a  ton." 

]5y  I  735  all  the  large  coast  provinces  were  busily  manufacturing  i)ig  and 

bar  iron  and  castings,  except  New  York.     New  York  came  lagging  in  the  rear 

of  the  train,  and  did  not  make  iron  until  about  i  740.     The  bcLnn- 

NewYork.  .  ^    ,       .     ,  ,  ,  ,  ,        ,        , 

rung  of  the  UKUistry  appears  to  have  been  due  to  the  development 
of  the  famous  jrown  hematite  doi)osits  in  Salisbury,  Conn.,  in  1732.  No  iron 
of  any  conseciuence  had  been  found  within  the  limits  of  the  i)rovince  itself; 
and  the  city  of  New  York  had  been,  up  to  that  time,  supplied  with  iron  from 
the  adjoining  provinces.  In  i  740  Philip  J.ivingston  built  the  first  iron-works 
of  the  province  on  Ancram  Creek  in  Columbia  County,  obtaining  his  ore  :-om 
Salisbury  in  Connecticut,  twelve  miles  away.  The  works  consisted  only  of  a 
bloomary-forge.  In  1751  a  blast-furnace  was  built  in  Orange  County  to  work 
up  the  ores  of  Sterling  Mountain.  The  celebrated  mines  in  the  northern  i)art 
of  the  State  were  not  opened  until  1800.  The  oldest  forge  in  the  Champlain 
region  is  said  to  have  been  built  no  earlier  than  1801. 

The  iron-manufacture  began  in  New  Hampshire  about  i  750,  where  several 
bloomaries  were  built  to  make  use  of  the  bog-ores.  A  good  deal  of  iron  was 
made  during  the  Revolution  ;  but,  after  that,  the  business  died  out.  There  is 
to-day  only  one  furnace  in  New  Hamphire ;  namely,  the  one  belonging  to  the 
rolling-mill  at  Nashua. 

Vermont  entered  upon  the  industry  at  the  same  time  as  her 

sister-province,  making  use  of  the  magnetic  and  hematite  ores  in 
the  northern  and  western  parts  of  the  State.     Maine  had  a  few  bloomary-forges 

in  York  County  during  the  Revolution,  the  war  giving  an  energetic 

Maine.  .....  .    ,  -vt       1 

development  to  this  busmess  m  every  part  of  the  country.  North 
North  Carolina  exported  a  little  iron  as  early  a;;  1728,  and  during  the 

Carolina.  Revolution  had  a  great  many  bloomaries  and  forges  in  operation. 
In  South  Carolina  the  first  forge  was  erected  in  1773,  •"  the  north-western 
South  part  of  the  State  :   it  was  burned  by  the  Tories  during  the  war. 

In  Kentucky  the   first  works  were  built  in   1791   by  government 
troops,  on  Slate  Creek  in  Bath  County.     In  Tennessee  a  blooni- 
ary  was  established  at  Emeryville  as  early  as   1790;  and  in  both 
that  State  and  Kentucky  a  large  number  of  works  sprang  up  immediately  after, 


Vermont. 


Carolina. 


Kentucky. 


where  several 


<"■■    T„K    CA-ITED    STATF.^. 

anil  were   operated  for  mmv  „„  '  '" 

-'■e  .he  l,„sin,,,  „„,J3/  G '  ""'"  '"'  '"^'^'P"  -<>"  of  ,he  North 

can  Revolution.                  '""^'    '^™Wa  made  no  iron  ,,ri„r  ,„  ,\^  ZZ 

—  ....  „,  ^^^^^^  ^^^^ 

llius,  bydieniidclieoltii,.,.,-,,!,,        , 
'akcn  a  very  favorable  .start  "''"f'"""'  «n'"0-.  the  ,„an„fact„re  of  iron  h.H 
■"-<'  'O  »p,„yi„«  the  ,,I,J        ;i;r:-,-<'.f-«-  -re  s.„a,|.  all,'  y 
lien,  w,..,  har.iron,  ami  to  castin  "  '  '"'"'">'  ^''rronn.iin,,  '^ 

f"rnil„re  for  (ireplace,      .".'""'"*-'  "  f  ""'d'.-s  "C  llollow-ivare    „„l   '-"'■ 
'or  e.„„r..  Ito.eler,  ;:can "^  ,  '*r'"  f  ""-■'^  "'  < "."e'  iZ   '^«M. 
""s  material  into  cutlery,  tool,  „n,l        "'■"'!"■■"  '°  '""nnttcture   '"-"■■"• 
••«  at  f,r.,.  exi.,t  in  M,  cmnttn;  r''"",   '°°"'  °'  ""^  '>'«h"  .yp«  did 

"f   "'e   demands   „r  „„.   ij^^     , f^'  P™'"'"""  "as  .so,„e,that  i    Se 

-.l..ce„,    century,  .teel  furnace      'L  ..^T'f  '"""'^  •"^-   "'«''"^'  "f  X 
'"•^an  to  be  erectcrl  m  fi  •        "'""^^  •»»"  slittiiiL'  mills  anri  ..i  .•       . 

»'..";a.ere:oiti;:i:;,:;,  :^'-;;^^;  n,oti,er.co,u,,:r:,ie;,trror 

England  towarti  the  colonies      n  ,""'"■     '^  P«"«a'  ffelin.  exis  L 

»  .<.e  fact,  and  ,vere  ,mn  ^ngly  |'oVri''r,  "'"  «-  '^"S«*m™.  t  r^^l™ 
of  "liose  banners  they  ,vere  ,  t        *  "■'  SO'^nnient  under  the  nrr  J? 

«™.P  of  flourishing  Ld     i         5  :o:;"""'."'»  "■■'"""-^.  -    b  °a" 

l-otected  by  the  arms  of  E^^^^f  J^^J'^^-  .  '^^  '-glishmen   tltey  :L 

'■'"  l«y  had  the  misfortune  to  ivt,,  T'  '"""")■  »Tvice  and  oth  nvi« 

»velv  to  ,!  '"''"o«  Ihe  colonists  to  r„„fi       f        °'  agricultural 

to  agnculture,  and  to   depend   en  L  "^  "'"''  "ttcntion  excl,,- 

d  r'th     ?"'■'■-"«•     Parlia^'e    '  ,es  r  d  o,""""    ""  '"other-cotunr;  for 
the   shadow  of  gi,a„t,c  forests,  ^Ip       S'jhi^.^  f  '"^>  "■<' 

i        even  tJieir  timber  to  Eng- 


196  INDVSTKIAL    HISTORY 

land,  and   ol)tain   from   that   country,   in   return,  our  wooden-wares,  chairs, 

tables,  carriages,  and  wooden 
bowls.  Tlie  development  of 
the  local  industries  of  Eng- 
land, and  the  promotion  of 
the  carrying-trade  to  the  colo- 
nies so  as  to  insure  to  England 
a  great  deal  of  shipping,  were 
aimed  at  stei  (lily.  The  growth 
of  industry  here  was  looked 
upon  with  impatience ;  and 
when  it  was  seen  that  the  colo- 
nists refused  to  be  dependent 
forever,  and  that  they  were 
?  showing  great  vigor  and  enter- 
,:  prise  in  putting  up  their  own 
;.     factories     and     forges,     I'arlia- 

•  ment  interposed  with  a  regu- 
'i  lation  of  the  sort  above  re- 
\     ferred  to. 

\  The  law  of  1750  restricted 

a  the  iron-making  of  the  colonies 
J  to  the  production  of  pig  and 
i  bar  iron  and  to  castings.  Nails 
>  were  made  in  a  small  way  by 
%     the  people,  in   their  chimney- 

*  corners,     evenings ; 

a       Law  of  1750.  ,  ,,       ,  ,      ,         .,, 

and  the  blacksmiths, 
still  worked  away  at  wrought- 
iron  implements  and  utensils : 
but  general  grov;th  was  stopped. 
A  large  part  of  the  iron  made 
was  exported  to  England,  the 
colonists  getting  it  back  again 
in  the  cutlery,  steel,  and  other 
goods  they  were  not  permitted 
to  make  themselves.  The  fol- 
lowing table,  which  we  copy 
from  Scrivenor's  "  History  of 
the  Iron  Trade,"  will  show  the 

"Tnntity   exported   to   England,   down   to   the  lime    of  the   Revolution,  ii> 

*ons :  — 


<mA 


Oh    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


>97 


;s,  chairs, 
,  wooden 
)mont    of 

of    Kng- 
woiwn    of 
,  t\ic  t-oU)- 
to  iMigland 
\>\)\\\^,  were     • 
["he  growlh 
^vas   looked 
icnce  ;    and 
at  the  colo- 
;  dependent 

they    were 
r  and  enter- 
p   their   own 
rges,     l*arl>a- 
with   a  regu- 
rt    above   re- 

750  restricted 
)f  the  colonies 

1   of  pig   a"*^ 
istings.     Nails 
small  way  by 
lieir   chimney- 
rs,     evenings ; 
he  blacksmiths, 
at  wrought- 
and  utensils : 
h  was  stopped. 
]the  iron  made 
England,  the 
it  back   again 
[teel,  and  other 
not  permitted 
[ves.    The  fol- 
lich  we    copy 
'•History  of 
I'  will  show  the 
iRevolution,  ii> 


VBAK. 


1718  . 
1728-21; 
"7.10  • 
1730-3' 

>73'-32 

•732-33 

•733 

•733-34 

•734 

•734-35 

•735 

•739 

1740 

1741 
1742 

1743 
•744 

'745 
1746 

•747 
1748 
1750 

•75' 
•752 
•753 
•754 

•755 
761 

1762 

•763 
1764 
1765 
1766 
1767 
1768 
1769 
1770 

1771 
1772 

•773 

'774 

'775 
1776 


I'Ki-IHDN. 


Ii«J3 

1.725 
2.250 
2.332 

2,404 
2.197 
2,561 

2,4'7 
2,275 
3.457 
2,075 
2.985 
1.8C1 

2,274 
1,86 1 
2,156 

2.'55 
2,924 
3.210 
2,980 
2.737 
3.244 
3.44' 
2,766 
1,766 
2,566 
2,554 
3.264 
2,887 

2.953 
3.40  • 
4.232 
5.303 
3.724 
2.937 

3.45' 
2,996 

3>6 


BAH-IRUN. 


>i 


S5 

•  •  • 

5 
S 


57 
4 

196 

8a 
4 
5 
5 

81 

247 
270 

389 

39 

122 

310 

1,059 

1,078 

'.257 

1.325 
1,989 

1.779 

1,716 

2,222 

965 

837 

639 

916 

28 


In  the  same  period,  there  were  some  slight  shipments  to  Scotland  in 
addition  to  these. 


iqH 


INHUSTKIAI.    IIISTOKY 


■-  iU 


s\ 


Condition  of 
Iron-manu- 
facture at 
outbreak  of 
Revolution. 


When  tlic  colonics  Ih'^mm  their  darin},'  experiment  of  a  fight  for  politi(  al 
indepeiideni  e,  tin  y  wer  poorly  provided  will;  tlie  means  for  carrying  on  \ 
war.  Not  to  menlion  their  hu  k  of  fa(  lories  for  ( Icjlhing,  of  ships,  of  pulihc 
funds,  and  private  capital,  and  of  a  dense  population  from  whic  h 
to  recruit  an  army,  the  poverty  of  their  resources  for  making  can- 
non, chains,  rifles,  swords,  and  shot,  was  so  great  as  of  itself  alone 
to  place  them  at  an  enormous  disadvantage  in  the  conflict  with 
Dngland.  'I'hey  had  few  or  ikj  works  for  the  prochu  tion  of  these 
necessaries  of  war,  and  neither  suffi(  ient  ready  lapital  to  l)uild  all  the  < ouiUry 
needed,  nor  the  skill  to  produce  at  once  an  article  of  good  workmanship. 
The  casting  of  a  ten-pounder  cannon  was  so  serious  a  piece  of  business  with 
them  at  that  day,  that  few  cared  to  undertake  it.  The  absolute  cutting-off  of 
the  supplies  from  ilngland,  upon  which  the  colonies  had  formerly  depended^ 
however,  placed  them  under  the  necessity  of  enlarging  their  iron-manufactur- 
ing facilities  at  once.  The  people  not  being  able  to  do  this  to  the  ext«.nt 
re(iuired  both  by  the  local  wants  and  the  demands  of  the  government,  the 
Policy  of  Continental  Congress  took  part  in  the  work;  and  the  troops 
Continental  and  tile  public  funds  were  em])loyed  to  establish  furnaces  and 
ongresa.  factories  of  iron  aiid  steel  in  various  i)arts  of  the  country.  Works 
were  established  by  Congress  in  the  Housatonu:  Valley  in  Connecticut,  in 
the  Highlands  of  the  Hudson,  in  Northern  New  Jersey,  Kentucky,  and  wher- 
ever the  ores  were  rich  and  the  forest  dense,  and  charcoal  therefore  abun- 
dant. It  is  said  that  the  first  trials  of  anthracite  for  manufacturing  purposes 
were  made  by  Congress  at  its  armory  at  Carlisle,  Penn.,  in  1775,  established 
in  consequence  of  the  Revolutionary  war.  The  combined  resoivces  of  Con- 
gress and  people  were  only  barely  sufticient  at  first  to  supply  the  country  with 
the  iron  it  needetl.  It  took  some  time  to  train  workmen,  and  the  Tories 
frequently  interfered  with  proceedings  by  burning  the  iron-works.  Toward 
the  close  of  the  Revolution  the  industry  gained  a  good  start ;  and,  had  the 
treaty  of  peace  in  1783  been  followed  up  by  a  policy  favorable  to  native 
manufactures,  its  rise  would  have  been  thenceforward  rapid. 

But  the  Continental  Congress  had  no  power  to  initiate  a  policy  of  the 
proper  sort ;  and  a  period  of  six  years  followed,  during  which  the  country  was 
flooded  with  cheap  manufactures  from  B^ngland ;  and  a  large  number  of  the 
na'.ive  American  furnaces  and  factories,  finding  no  demand  for 
their  iron,  ceased  to  exist.  By  the  previous  repression  of  our 
industries,  JCngland  had  been  enabled  to  enlarge  and  develop  her  own ;  and 
the  skill  of  her  workmen,  and  the  large  capital  of  the  masters,  made  it  impos- 
sible for  America  to  compete  with  her,  even  in  supplying  her  own  needs.  The 
few  iron  furnaces  and  founderies  which  managed  to  keep  alive  during  the 
interregnum  from  1783  to  1789  scarcely  did  more  than  provide  for  their 
respective  neighborhoods. 


1783  to  1789. 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


199 


'or  political 
ryin^  on  a 
1,  of  public 
from  whi(  h 
naking  lau- 
itsclf  alone 
Loiillit  t  with 
ion  of  these 
the  country 
orkniansliip. 
)usiness  with 
utting-off  of 
ly  depended, 
i-nianufiictur- 

0  the  extent 
eminent,  the 

1  the  troops 
furnaces  and 
,ntry.  Works 
)nnecticut,  in 
ky,  and  wher- 
erefore  abun- 
iring  purposes 

5,  established 
•rces  of  Con- 
country  with 

(I  the  Tories 

rks.  Toward 
and,  had  the 

ble  to  native 

policy  of  the 
|e  country  was 

lumber  of  the 
demand  for 
lession  of  our 
Iher  own ;  and 
jade  it  impos- 
needs.    The 

U   during  the 

Ivide  for  their 


TIIF.    I.I  TF.CT    OF    TAKIFFS. 

In  I  7.S9  the  first  Congress  met  under  the  new  Constitution,  equipped  by 
the  people  with  power  to  legislate  for  the  commonweal  on  a  variety  of  im- 
portant subjects,  whit  h,  before  that,  the  (leneral  (lovernment  had  been  unable 
to  touch.  It  was  a  ionveiitiun  of  the  best  men  of  the  Kevolu-  Early  tariff 
tionary  struggle.  'I'he  first  law  passed  was  one  in  relation  to  ofti-  ''^'• 
t  ial  oaths  ;  the  second,  an  act  for  the  protection  of  .American  industries  and 
for  revenue.  By  this  law  a  duty  was  levied  upon  all  importations  of  iron  ;  a 
moderate  one,  —  only  five  per  cent  on  the  home  value  of  iron,  and  fifty  cents 
per  hundred-weight  on  steel,  —  but  enoiigh  to  prove  a  temptation  to  many 
fiirnace-men  to  kindle  anew  the  fires  in  their  deserted  stacks,  and  collect  their 
scattered  workmen,  and  resume  the  industry  (so  valuable  to  the  country) 
which  the  heavy  importations  from  I-lngland  had  obliged  them  to  abandon. 
The  duty,  not  proving  large  enough,  w;';i  increased  by  different  Congresses, 
until  in  1812  it  re '.ched  thirty-two  percent  and  a  half  on  iron  (thirty-seven 
|)er  cent  if  brought  in  foreign  vessels),  and  two  dollars  per  lunulred-weight 
on  steel.  .After  the  war  of  18 12  it  was  reduced  somewhat.  Under  the  pro- 
tection of  this  tariff,  iron-making  was  resumed  in  all  the  States  in  which  it 
had  previously  been  carried  on.  In  States  and  localities  wliere  increase  of 
no  start  had  yet  been  made  it  was  begun.  Pittsburgh,  now  the  manufac- 
most  important  iron  ( entre  of  the  country,  had  yet  had  no 
bloomary  nor  found^'ry ;  uid  Ohio,  with  its  rich  stores  of  coal  and  ore,  and 
busy  farming-population,  had  seen  no  piece  of  iron  laid  on  a  village  anvil 
except  that  which  had  been  toilsomely  brought  by  wagon  from  the  distant 
Mast.  Hut  in  1803  the  iron-industry  was  initiated  at  Pittsburgh  by  the 
building  of  a  foundery,  and  in  Ohio  by  the  erection  of  a  small  charcoal- 
furnace  in  Poland  Township,  Mahoning  County.  Hloomaries,  furnaces,  roll- 
ing-mills, and  steel-works  sprang  into  being  throughout  the  Union  everywhere. 
The  mines  of  the  West  and  South  were  opened  as  the  wave  of  population 
flowed  into  the  regions  surrounding  them,  and  in  the  older  communities  in 
the  rear  of  them  branches  of  the  manufacture  which  had  never  been  attempted 
on  this  continent  were  successfully  tried  and  established.  Production  began 
to  keep  pace  with  consumption,  and  a  small  quantity  of  crude  iron  was 
even  supplied  for  exportation. 

Were  it  expedient  to  do  so,  the  history  of  iron-making  from  1 789  down  to 
1878  might  be  divided  into  eras  coinciding  with  the  changes  in  the  principle 
on  which  the  tariff  has  been  framed.     There  have  been  several   _. 

Character  of 

important   changes.     The   tariff  was   protective    until    18 16.     In   varioua 
1816  the  du  ici  were  lowered  in  deference  to  the  wishes  of  the  'ee's'^^'ve 

^  enactments. 

Iree-traders.     In  1824  the  protective  tariff  was  again  enacted,  and, 

being  strengthened  in  1828,  lasted  until  1834.      Then  a  compromise  tariff  was 

adopted,  by  which  the  duties  were  gradually  lowered.     In  1842,  again,  there 


200 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


was  a  tariff  for  protection  ;  Ixit  in  1846  free-trade  gained  the  ascendency  once 
more,  and  tintil  1861  there  was  httle  or  no  protection.  In  1861  the  present 
protective  tariff  was  adopted.  These  changes  brought  aboit  jcriods  of  alter- 
nate depression  and  prosperity  in  the  iron-industry.  '1  here  lias  l)een  such 
an  abundance  of  land  in  the  country,  and  the  agricultural  life,  with  its  owner- 
ship of  a  bit  of  land,  has  had  such  fascinations  in  theory,  if  not  in  iacX,  to  the 
mass  of  the  people,  that  wages  have  always  been  necessarily  high  here ;  and 
the  iron-masters  have  not  been  able  to  produce  either  crude  or  manufactured 
iron  for  American  c(>nsum])tion  in  competition  with  Englishmen,  without  the 
protection  of  an  efifi  lent  duty,  ^^'henever  the  tariff  has  been  lowered,  there- 
fore, the  fires  have  gone  out  in  scores  of  furnace-stacks  and  rolling-mills 
throughout  the  country,  and  working-men  have  been  thrown  out  of  employment. 
Several  times,  as  in  1820,  the  business  has  been  in  a  state  of  ruin.  Whenever 
protection  has  been  again  extended,  the  smoke  has  again  floated  from  the 
chimneys  of  the  iron-works,  and  the  business  has  become  prosperous.  The 
influence  of  the  tariff  has  been  so  great,  that  mention  of  it  cannot  be  omitted. 
It  is  preferable,  however,  to  divide  the  history  of  iron-making  into  periods, 
simply  with  reference  to  the  progress  of  invention,  and  not  with  reference  to 
tariff  changes.  Still  it  may  not  be  uninteresting  to  the  reader  to  glance  over 
the  following  table  of  the  changes  in  the  duties,  and  compare  it  with  the 
succeeding  table  of  production  of  iron  in  the  United  States :  — 


i.'<; 


KATKS    OI-    nilTV    FROM    1 789   TO    1 876. 


f^ 


I'llMRON. 

1789  . 

5  per  cent. 

1790  . 

5  per  cent. 

1792  . 

10  per  cent. 

1794  . 

15  per  cent. 

I.S04   . 

I7i  per  cent. 

ISI2  . 

32^  per  cent. 

ISI6  . 

20  per  cent. 

I8I.S  . 

50 

cents  per  cwt. 

1824  . 

50 

cents  ])er  cwt. 

1828  . 

62  J 

cents  per  cwt. 

1830  . 

62i 

cents  per  cwt. 

.S32  . 

50 

cents  per  cwt. 

to     > 

{.. 

adual  fall  to  ) 

1842 ) 

20  per  c.Mit.    \ 

IS42  . 

p)  per  ton. 

1843  . 

$9  per  ton. 

5  to  7i  per  cent. 

5  to  7^  per  cent. 

10  per  cent. 


I  cent  a  i)ouncl. 

2  cents  a  ])ouncl. 

45  cts.  to  $2.50  ])er  cwt. 

75  cts.  to  52.50  per  cwt. 

90  cts,  to  #3.36  per  cwt. 

5 1. 1 2  to  $3.92  per  cwt. 

$1.12  to  $3.92  per  cwt. 

)?i.i2  to  53.92  per  cwt. 

\  gradual  fall  to  20  per  \ 
I   cent.  ) 

517  o  556  per  ton. 

$17  to  $56  per  ton. 


KAlt.KOAD-llARS. 


537  per  ton. 

25  i)cr  cent. 

free. 

free. 

free. 

$25  per  ton. 


50  cents  per  cwt. 

75  cents  per  cwt. 

51  ])er  cwt. 

$1  per  cwt. 

$2  per  cwt. 

$\  per  cwt. 

$1  per  cwt. 

$\  per  cwt. 
51.50  i)er  cwt. 
51.50  per  cwt. 
51.50  per  cwt. 

51.50  per  cwt. 

51.50  to  $2.50  per 

cwt. 
51.50  to  52.50  per 

cwt. 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


20I 


cy  once 

present 
of  alter- 
en   such 
i  owner- 
■t,  to  the 
ere  ;  and 
ufactured 
ihout  the 
ed,  thcre- 
ilUng-mihs 
iployment. 
Whenever 
I  from  the 
rous.     The 
oe  omitted, 
to  periods, 
eference  to 
glance  over 

it  with  the 


STEEL. 


1  cents  per  cwt. 
cents  per  cwt. 
$1  per  cwt. 

%\  per  cwt. 

H2  per  cwt. 

%\  per  cwt. 

%\  per  cwt. 

j«,i  per  cwt. 
[$1.50  per  cwt. 
U1.50  per  cwt. 
I  j^,.50  per  cwt. 

$1.50  per  cwt. 

[50  to  $2.50  per 

i;wt. 

[50  to  $2.50  per 

cwt. 


PIG-IKON. 

VAK-IKON. 

RAILROAD-BARS. 

STKKL. 

1846  . 

30  per  cent. 

30  per  cent. 

30  per  cent. 

30  per  cent. 

IS57  . 

24  per  cent. 

24  per  cent. 

24  per  cent. 

24  per  cent. 

i86i    . 

$6  per  ton. 

$15  to  $20  per  ton. 

$12  per  ton. 

($1.50  to    $2   per 
1  cwt.  and  upwards, 
/under    11    cts.    a 

1862   . 

$6  per  ton. 

$17  to  $25  per  ton. 

$13. 50  per  ton. 

)lb.,  ij  to  2i  cts.; 

'  over,  25  percent. 

under  1 1  cts.  alb.. 

1864   . 

$9  per  ton. 

$22.40  to  $39.20  per  ton. 

$13.44  per  ton. 

2^  to  3  cts. ;  over, 
3^  cts.  and  10  p. 
,  c.  ad  valorem, 
under  11  cts.  alb., 

1865   . 

Jjg  per  ton. 

$22.40  to  $39.20  per  ton. 

$15.68  per  Ion. 

2^ to 3 cts.;  over, 
3^  cts.  and  ic  p. 
c.  ad  valorem, 
under  1 1  cts.  alb.. 

1870  . 

$7  per  ton. 

$22.40  to  $39.20  per  ton. 

$15.68  per  ton. 

2\  to  3  Cts. ;  over, 
3^  Cts.  and  10  p. 
,  c.  ad  valorem. 

1872   . 

$6.30  per  ton. 

$20.16  to  $35.28  per  ton. 

$14.11  perton. 

\  10  p.  c.  less  than 
I      in  1864. 

««75   • 

$7  per  ton. 

$22.40  to  $32.20  per  ton. 

$15.68  per  ton. 

same  as  in  1864. 

Down  to  181 6  a  discrimination  was  regularly  made  in  favor  of  the 
American  carryin  trade  by  levying  ten  per  cent  more  of  duty  if  the  iron  were 
brought  in  foreign  vessels.  The  figures  above  given  represent  the  duty  on 
imports  in  American  vessels. 

The  best  statistics  as  to  the  production  of  iron  in  the  United  States  are 
those  compiled  by  the  American  Iron  and  Steel  Association,  of  which  Mr. 
James  M.  Swank  is  the  author.     They  are  as  follows  :  — 


PRODUCTION    OF    PIG-IRON    IN    GROSS    TONS. 

1810 54,000 

1820 20,000 

1828 130,000 

1829  .       142,000 

1830 165,000 

1831 191,000 

1832 200,000 

1840 315,000 

1842 2r'^,000 

1846 705,000 

1847 800,000 


202 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


il 


%: 


1848 
1849 
1850 
1852 
1854 

1855 
1856 

1857 
1858 

1859 
i860 

i86i 
1862 
1863 
1864 
1865 
1866 
1867 
1868 
1869 
1870 
187 1 
1872 

1873 
1874 

1875 
1876 


800,000 
650,000 

564.75s 
500,000 

736,218 
784,178 
883,137 
798,157 
705,094 
840,627 
919,770 

731.544 
787,662 
947,604 
1. 135.996 
931.582 

1.350.343 
1,461,626 
1,603,000 
1,916,641 
1,865,000 
1,911,608 
2,854,558 
2,868,278 
2,689,413 
2,266,581 
2,093,236 


Kl 


';'  : 


!l 


THE  ERA  OF  ANTHRACITE  FUEL  AND  THE  HOT  BLAST. 

Down  to  1838  the  only  fuel  used  to  any  extent  in  the  manufacture  of 
iron  from  the  ore  was  charcoal.  There  were  a  few  coke  furnaces  in  the 
Introduction  country ;  but  the  vast  majority  of  the  iron-masters  used  charcoal 
ofanthra-  bloomarics  and  furnaces.  The  furnaces  were  small  (the  stack;: 
seldom  over  twenty  feet  high),  and  producing  from  two  to  four 
tons  of  iron  a  day.  From  a  hundred  to  a  hundred  and  fifty  bushels  of  char- 
coal and  two  tons  of  ore  were  consumed  to  the  ton  of  iron  produced,  the 
quantity  of  coal  varying  according  to  the  hardness  of  the  wood  from  which 
the  coal  had  been  made,  and  the  skill  and  experience  of  the  foreman.  The 
profits  of  the  business  depended  largely  on  the  judgment  and  success  of  the 
Process  de-  foreman  in  the  use  of  charcoal.  The  blast  was  of  cold  air,  sup- 
scnbed.  plied  by  two  pairs  of  large  bellows  worked  by  water-power,  and 

blown  into  the  furnace,  sometimes  through  hollow  green  logs  placed  back 
from  the  tuyere  opening,  so  as  to  be  safe  from  burning.  The  quality  of  iron 
made  by  these  old-fashioned  furnaces  was  exceedingly  good.  The  metal 
was  pure,  and  of  great  tenacity  and  durability  of  wearing  surface,  and  was 
of  the  greatest  value  for  the  purposes  of  steel.  Even  at  the  present  time, 
invention  has  been  unable  to  produce  iron  of  superior  quality  to  that  matle 


D 

O 

i5 

)0 

[8 

78 
37 
57 

m 

)27 

770 

544 
662 

,604 

,996 

,582 

>,343 
[,626 
3,000 

6,641 
15,000 
1,608 

54,558 
38,278 

89.413 
66,581 
93.236 

AST. 


O/-'    7V/£    UNITED    STATES. 


203 


in  the  charcoal  l)looniaries  and  furnaces ;  and  the  highest-priced  bars  at 
])resent  are  still  those  thus  jiroduced.  The  (juantity  which  could  be  made 
in  the  old-flxsiiioned  furnace  was,  however,  small ;  and,  as  the  forests  in  the 
mining-regions  were  consumed,  the  cost  of  production  even  of  that  small 
([uantity  increased. 

Experiments  were  made  for  the  production  of  iron  with  anthracite  coal. 
The  country  was  richly  stored  with  supplies  of  this  valuable  fuel ;  and  its 
usefulness  lor  the  generation  of  steam,  and  for  the  warming  of  Early  ex- 
houses,  had  been  (.iemonstrated  at  a  very  early  day.  Could  it  be  periments. 
burned  in  the  blast-furnaces,  a  saving  of  labor  and  expense,  and  an  increase 
of  production,  would  certainly  follow.  One  experiment  was  made  as  early  as 
1 8 15  at  Harford  Furnace  in  Maryland,  the  anthracite  being  mixed  with  one- 
half  charcoal.  In  1826  anthracite  was  tried  in  a  furnace  near  Mauch 
Chunk  without  success.  In  1827  similar  experiments,  with  similar  results, 
were  made  at  a  furnace  at  Kingston,  Mass.  The  experiments  were  abandoned 
in  a  good  deal  of  despair. 

In  1828  James  B.  Neilson  of  Scotland  brought  out  an  invention  which 
made  it  possible  to  work  with  anthracite,  and  immediately  revolutionized  the 
iron-making  of  the  world.     This  was  the  use  of  the  hot-air  blast   NeiUor/s 


in  smelting  iron. 


invention. 


The  previous  failures  with  anthracite  had  been 
due  to  the  employment  of  the  cold  blast.  Mr.  Neilson  applied  the  hot  blast 
to  coke  and  charcoal  furnaces.  Its  first  utility  was  considered  to  be  the  saving 
of  fuel  effected  by  it.  On  the  Clyde  a  ton  of  iron  had  recjuired  the  combus- 
tion of  eight  tons  and  a  half  of  coal  coked.  With  the  hot  blast  this  was 
reduced  to  two  tons  and  a  half  at  once.  It  was  an  American  who  conceived 
the  idea  of  burning  anthracite  direct  by  means  of  the  hot  blast.  In  1833 
Dr.  (leissenheimer  of  New  York  obtained  a  patent  for  smelting  iron  with 
antliracite  and  the  hot-air  blast.  His  own  experiments  were  unfortunately 
unsuccessful :  but  in  1837  some  gentlemen  from  Reading  succeetled  with  the 
new  idea  in  an  old  furnace  near  Mauch  Chunk,  using  eighty  per  cent  of 
anthracite ;  doing  so  well,  in  fact,  that  they  at  once  built  a  new  furnace  to 
carry  on  the  business  regularly.  They  had  good  luck ;  and  so  had  the  owner 
of  an  anthracite  furnace  built  in  1837  at  Pottsville,  Penn.,  and  blown  in  in 
1839.  This  furnace  v/as  blown  by  steam-power,  and  produced  forty  tons  a 
week  of  good  foundery-iron.  A  premium  of  five  thousand  dollars  was  given 
to  Mr.  William  Lyman,  its  owner,  by  Nicholas  Biddle  and  others,  as  the  first 
person  who  had  made  pig-iron  with  anthracite  continuously  for  a  hundred 
days  in  the  United  States. 

This  was  the  beginning  of  the  anthracite   iron-business  of  the   country. 
Tlicrcafter,  almost  all  the  new  works  put  up  in  the  iron-regions   increase  in 
were  built  exi)ressly  to  burn  anthracite   as   fuel.      The  fiirnaces   Production. 
whiih  still  continued  to  burn  charcoal  were  principally  in  the   North  ;   the 
coal  measures  of  that  region  not  having  been  developed,  and  the  forests  sup- 


204 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


i;l  %  ,:    ijii 


V,i 


plying,  practically,  inexhaustible  quantities  of  the  old  style  of  fuel.  The  his- 
tory of  the  blast-furnace  since  that  date  has  been  one  principally  of  growth 
in  size  :  year  by  year  the  stacks  grew  larger  and  taller,  until,  from  twenty  feet 
in  height  and  ten  in  diameter,  they  have  now  risen  even  to  ninety  feet  in 
height  and  twenty-five  in  diameter.  In  1855  the  yearly  production  of  anthra- 
cite pig-iron  overtook  that  of  charcoal  iron,  and  the  latter  variety  has  been 
steadily  falling  to  the  rear  ever  since.  In  1869  the  ])roduction  of  charcoal 
iron  was  again  passed  by  that  made  with  bituminous  coal  and  coke.  In  1872 
tlie  product  was  as  follows:  Anthracite  iron,  1,369,812  net  tons;  bituminous 
coal  and  coke-iron,  984,159  tons;  charcoal  made,  500,587  tons.  The  metal 
made  by  the  hard-coal  and  hot-blast  processes  is  inferior  to  that  made  by  the 
old  style  of  furnace ;  but  it  fulfils  the  demand  of  the  times  for  cheap  and 
abundant  iron. 

Blast-furnaces  are  always  located  in  the  vicinity  of  the  supplies  of  fuel, 
cither  in  the  coal-mining  regions,  or  along  the  lines  of  coal  transportation. 
It  is  cheaper  to  bring  the  ore  to  the  coal  than  the  fuel  to  the  ore,  —  a  fact 
which  is  strikingly  illustrated  by  the  experience  of  Michigan,  which,  with 
incalculable  treasures  of  ore  of  the  finest  finalities,  is  obliged  to  send  away  the 
principal  part  of  her  ore  to  Ohio  and  other  States  having  mineral  coal,  to  be 
made  into  pig-iron  there.  Indiana  and  Illinois,  both  great  iron-making  States, 
are  so  solely  on  account  of  their  coal.  Their  iron  ores  are  scanty,  and  of 
bad  quality.  Blast-furnaces  are  possible  even  in  the  cities  of  New  York, 
Philadelphia,  and  Pittsburgh,  and  in  other  cities  reached  by  the  railroads  of 
a  great  coal  State. 

The  blast-furnaces  of  the  United  States  have  reached  a  size  and  perfection 
excelled  nowhere  in  the  world.  There  have  been  great  intelligence,  and 
Blast-  alacrity  of  invention,  on  the  part  of  those  engaged  in  the  iron- 

furnaces.  trade  in  this  country ;  and,  in  respect  to  mechanical  appliances, 
the  American  fiirnaces  have  been  placed  fully  on  a  par  with,  if  not  above, 
the  same  class  of  works  in  other  parts  of  the  earth. 

The  blast-furnace  is  a  structure  of  stone  and  brick  work,  from  forty  to 
seventy-five  and  even  ninety  feet  high,  enclosing  a  chimney-like  cavity,  in 
Description  which  the  ores,  fluxes,  and  fuel  are  placed  to  be  smelted.  Usually 
of  blast-  the  stack  is  composed  of  a  lining  of  fire-brick  of  the  most  refrac- 

tory character,  backed  with  a  less  refractory  quality,  and  that  with 
common  red  brick  and  stone.  Most  Western  furnaces,  and  many  of  the  new 
ones  in  the  East,  are,  however,  substantially  an  iron  cylinder  lined  with  fire- 
brick. The  Philadelphia  Furnace,  —  finished  at  Philadelphia  in  1873,  with  all 
the  latest  improvements,  —  sixty  feet  high,  is  of  sixteen-inch  fire-blocks,  adapted 
in  shape  to  the  contour  of  the  interior,  backed  by  a  nine-inch  course  of 
ordinary  fire-brick.  Then  a  four-inch  air-space,  filled  with  loam,  is  backed  with 
a  nine-inch  course  of  red  brick.  A  three-inch  air-space,  filled  with  sand,  thou 
occurs,  and  a  four-inch  course  of  red  brick ;   and  the  whole  is  cased  with 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


20I, 


rhe  his- 

:  growth 

snty  feet 

r  feet  in 

f  anthra- 

las  been 
charcoal 
In  1872 

ituminous 

:he  metal 

de  by  the 

;heap  and 

»s  of  fuel, 
sportation. 
^^  —  a  fact 
vhich,  with 
id  away  the 
coal,  to  be 
.king  States, 
nty,  and  of 
New  York, 
railroads  ot 


tion 
and 


perfec 

iigence, 

lin  the  iron- 
appliances, 
not  above, 

lorn  forty  to 
Le  cavity,  in 
ed.  Usually 
[most  refrac- 
|nd  that  with 
of  the  new 

bd  with  hrc- 
I873,  with  all 
Icks,  adapted 

|h  course  of 
backed  with 

jth  sand,  then 

Is  cased  with 


..il! 


206 


INDUSTRIAL    IIISTOKV 


•  !a 


^M?-*   i 


\ 


ti 


.1  i  il 


»  I'll  I  1  - 


boiler-iron  a  quarter  of  an  inch  thick,  extending  to  the  top  of  the  stack.  The 
crucible,  or  hearth,  is  composed  of  sixteen-inch  fire-blocks.  This  is  a  good 
type  of  construction.  Back  of  the  courses  above  described  common  masonry 
of  considerable  thickness  is  generally  built  to  support  the  stack,  if  an  iron 
casing  is  not  used.  The  interior  cavity  of  the  furnace  is  round  horizontally, 
but  perpendicularly  is  very  much  of  the  shape  of  the  chimney  of  an  ordinary 
kerosene  lamp.  At  the  open  top,  in  a  seventy-five  foot  stack,  it  is  ten  feet 
in  diameter.  It  gradually  grows  larger  going  down  for  a  distance  of  about 
fort)'  feet,  where  it  reaches  a  width  of  about  eighteen  feet :  it  remains  of  this 
diameter  for  ten  feet  more,  and  then  contracts  rapidly  in  the  next  seventeen 
feet  to  eight  feet  diameter.  This  sloi)ing  portion  of  the  furnace  is  called  the 
"boshes ; "  and  it  is  the  part  of  it  which  supports  the  heavy  weight  of  the  ores 
and  fuel,  filling  the  stack  to  its  mouth  above.  At  the  bottom  of  all  is  the 
hearth,  or  crucible,  where  the  melted  iron  and  slag  collect.  This  is  from 
five  to  eiglit  feet  in  diameter,  and  about  the  same  in  height.  The  extreme 
widtli  of  the  foundation  upon  which  this  mass  of  masonry  rests  is  from  thirty 
to  forty-five  feet.  In  the  most  modern  stacks  the  masonry  is  not  solid  down 
to  this  foundation  ;  'but  that  part  of  it  above  the  hearth  rests  on  an  iron  ental)- 
lature,  sustained  by  iron  columns  planted  upon  the  foundation  of  the  stack. 
The  tiiyhrs  for  the  blast  are  from  three  to  seven  in  number,  and  are  cut  into 
the  hearth  about  four  feet  from  the  bottom.  The  air  is  blown  into  the  furnace 
at  a  pressure  of  from  three  to  four  pounds,  and  heated  to  a  temperature  ..f 
from  six  hundred  to  nine  hundred  degrees.  In  order  that  the  tuyeres  shall  not 
be  melted,  a  current  of  cold  water  is  kept  playing  upon  tliem  constandy.  Up 
towards  the  top  of  the  stack  a  number  of  openings  permit  the  refuse  gases 
from  the  burning  coal  below  to  be  drawn  off  by  means  of  the  draught  of  a  tall 
chimney,  instead  of  escaping  through  the  mouth  of  the  stack  itseif.  These 
gases  are  made,  by  flues,  to  play  around  the  cold-air  pipes  and  the  boiler 
which  drives  the  blowing-engines ;  and  by  their  combustion  they  heat  the  air 
for  the  blast,  and  maintain  a  high  pressure  of  steam.  The  quantity  of  air 
blown  into  the  furnace  under  pressure  to  produce  the  intense  heat  needed  to 
reduce  the  iron  ore  amounts  to  fifteen  tons  or  more  an  hour,  and  is  always  of 
much  greater  weight  than  the  materials  in  the  stack  itself. 

Formerly  the  furnaces  were  built  against  a  hillside  or  a  high  bank,  like  a 
lime-kiln,  for  convenience  in  dumping  the  ores  and  fuel  into  the  top  of  the 
stack.  The  more  modern  plan  is  to  construct  an  elevator  by  the  side  of 
the  furnace,  with  a  platform  on  top  about  the  throat  of  it,  from  which  the 
materials  are  dumped  into  the  stack  from  a  barrow,  or  thrown  in  by  hand. 

A  furnace  being  ready  for  blowing  in,  the  fire  is  kindled  in  the  hearth  ;  and, 
when  well  under  way,  a  quantity  of  ore,  coal,  and  limestone,  to  dissolve  the 
impurities  of  the  ore,  are  thrown  .from  the  top.  With  good  ores  and  hard  coal 
the  proportion  of  the  different  materials  to  the  ton  of  iron  made  is  about  as 
follows  :  iron  ore,  2,100  pounds  ;  coal,  1,700  pounds  ;  limestone,  400  pounds. 


OF    THE  UNITED    STATES. 


ao7 


ick.    The 

is  a  good 

11  masonry 

if  an  iron 

orizontally, 

n  ordinary 

is  ten  feet 

e  of  about 

lins  of  this 

t  seventeen 

;  called  the 

,  of  the  ores 

Df  all  is  the 

'his  is  from 

Hie  extreme 

;  from  thirty 

;  solid  down 

.1  iron  entab- 

of  the  stack, 
are  cut  into 

3  the  furnace 

mperature   -^t 

'ens  shall  not 

istantly.     Up 
refuse  gases 
light  of  a  tall 
itseit.     These 
id  the  boiler 
heat  the  air 
uantity  of  air 
at  needed  to 
is  always  oi 

h  bank,  like  a 
le  top  of  the 

the  side  of 
,m  which  the 
by  hand. 

hearth  ;  antl, 

dissolve  the 

land  hard  coal 

|e  is  about  as 

L  400  pounds. 


The  blast  is  now  turned  on  at  two-pounds  pressure.     If  all  goes  on  well,  in 
twenty-four  liours  the  pressure  is  increased  from  four  to  six  pounds.     The 
workmen  keep  sharp  watch  of  the  tuyeres  to  see  that  they  are  bright  and  clean, 
anil  of  the  gaseous  products  of  combustion  to  see  that  the  furnace  is  working 
freely  and  well.     Every  four  hours,  ordinarily,  the  hearth  is  tapped  near  the  toj) 
to  draw  off  the  melted  slag.     There   is  a  little  hole   made  for  the   purpose, 
which  is  kept  plugged  with  clay  between  times.     Th's  process  produces  an 
exceedingly  brilliant  display.     The  slag  spouts  from  the  little  opening  made 
for  it  with  a  glare  which  pains  the  eye  with  its  intensity.     It  runs  down  a  rough 
trough  scraped  out  of  the  ground,  and  out  through  the  open  door  of  the  shop 
into  the  outer  air  to  cool.     As  the  slag  gets  low  in  the  hearth,  the  blast  escapes 
with  it,  carrying  a  fiery  spray  from  the  opening  like  a  piece  of  fireworks,  within 
the  reach  of  which  no  man  can  stand  and  live.     At  the  proper  moment  the 
blast  is  turned  off.     The  men  run  up  and  plug  the  opening  with  clay,  and 
the  blast  is  turned  on  again  into  the  furnace.     The  melted  iron  in  the  hearth 
is  drawn   off  once  in  eight  hours  from  a  little    hole  at  the  bottom  of  the 
hearth,  which,,  as  previously  explained,  is  usually   kept   plugged   with    clay. 
The  metal  remains  liquid  in  the  hearth,  from  the  fact,  that,  unlike  water,  the 
hottest  metal   sinks  to  the  bottom,  and  thus  it  is  possible  to  let  fifteen  or 
twenty  tons  of  it  accumulate  without  any  danger  of  its  chilling.     The  process 
of  drawing  off  the  iron  is  even  more  beautiful  than  that  of  taking  away  the 
slag.     The  metal  flows  out  in  a  bright  stream,  throwing  off  dazzling  scintilla- 
tions, as  it  comes  in  contact  with  the  oxygen  of  the  air,  far  surpassing  in  vigor 
and  beauty  any  thing  produced  by  the   art  of  man  in  any  other  way.     The 
metal  flows  along  the  floor  of  the  shop  in  ch.annels,  and  runs  into  the  rough 
moulds,  where  it  hardens  into  the  rough  pigs  of  commerce.     These  are  tested, 
when  cold,  by  breaking  with  a  sledge-hammer,  to  ascertain  their  ijuality,  and 
are  then  stacked  up  for  transportation  to  market. 

The  introduction  of  the  hot-air  blast  and  the  employment  of  anthracite  as 
fuel,  followed,  five  or  six  years  afterwards,  with  the  application  of  bituminous 
coal  to  smelting-purposes,.  was  a  timely  event  for  the  United 
States.  The  country  was  about  entering  upon  an  era  of  railroad 
and  steamboat  building  made  necessary  by  the  diffusion  of  our 
population  over  the  vast  area  of  virgin  territory  protected  by  our 
llag.  An  extraordinary  demand  for  iron  was  developing ;  and 
national  development  would  have  been  seriously  retarded  if  we 
obliged  to  depend  on  foreign  lands  for  our  supplies  of  the  metal. 
air  blast  and  the  use  of  coal  as  fuel  came  along,  therefore,  all  in  good  time  for 
America.  The  reduction  in  the  expense  of  smelting  which  they  effected,  and 
the  demand  for  metal,  gave  an  extraordinary  impulse  to  the  industry.  In  the 
period  from  1848  to  i860,  furnaces,  rolling-mills,  and  iron  and  steel  work?; 
stuadily  multiplied  in  all  parts  of  the  country.  It  is  an  interesting  fact,  that,  in 
that  period,  iron-making  was  actively  prosecuted  in  many  States  in  which, 


Opportune- 
ness of  new 
methods  of 
producing 
iron. 

had   been 
The  hot- 


ao8 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


•\    *, 


since  railroad-building  has  stopped,  it  has  in  part  or  entirely  disappeared.  In 
Tennessee  there  were  in  1855,  during  that  era  of  activity,  seventy-five  blooma- 
ries  and  forges,  seventy-one  furnaces,  and  four  rolling-mills ;  but  at  the  present 
time  there  are  only  eighteen  charcoal  and  four  bituminous  coal  furnaces,  a 
score  of  l)loomaries,  and  the  four  rolling-mills  referred  to.  Arkansas  made 
iron  in  1857,  but  makes  none  now.  In  1857  North  Carolina  had  fifty  blooma- 
ries  and  forges,  two  rolling-mills,  and  six  furnaces,  in  operation.  There  are 
not  now  in  tliat  ancient  State  a  dozen  active  forges  and  bloomaries.  'i'here 
are  no  rolling-mills  nor  steel-woiks,  and  only  one  active  furnace.  South  Caro- 
lina made  iron  extensively  before  the  war ;  but  her  fires  have  all  gone  out,  and 
her  furnace- stacks  were  in  1876  all  deserted. 

A  fresh  development  was  given  to  the  blast-furnace  business  by  the  war  and 
the  tariff  of  186 1.  A  new  era  of  railroad-building  set  in  ;  and  such  was  the 
Effect  of  demand  for  iron,  and  so  high  were  the  prices,  and  so  large  the  prof- 
^"-  its,  that  some  of  the  most  brilliant  fortunes  of  the  present  age  were 

made  in  the  manufacture  of  the  metal.  In  1874,  735  furnaces  were  in  operation 
in  the  United  jtates,  besides  a  number  of  bloomaries,  distributed  as  follows  :  — ■ 


^.H 


:iJi 


W    !*■ 


ANTHRACITE 

CHARCOAL 

BIT.    AND   COKE 

FUKNACKS. 

FURNACES. 

FURNACES. 

TOTAL. 

Maine 

I 

I 

New  ILimpshire 

I 

I 

Vermont 

5 

5 

Massachusetts 

I 

5 

6 

Connecticut 

9 

9 

New  York  . 

45 

22 

67 

New  Jersey . 

16 

. . 

16 

Pennsylvania 

152 

44 

73 

269 

Maryland     . 

6 

14 

8 

28 

Virginia 

I 

33 

34 

West  Virginia 

. . . 

3 

5 

8 

Georgia 

13 

2 

'5 

Alabama 

... 

20 

,  , 

20 

North  Carolina 

10 

2 

12 

Tennessee    . 

... 

24 

3 

27 

Kentucky    . 

23 

5 

28 

Ohio    . 

k            • 

. . . 

40 

62 

102 

Indiana 

• 

7 

7 

Illinois 

•            1 

4 

.  , 

5 

9 

Michigan     .        • 

• 

I 

30 

3 

34 

Missouri 

. 

12 

9 

21 

Wisconsin   . 

. 

3 

II 

14 

Minnesota   . 

• 

I 

,  , 

I 

Texas  . 

• 

... 

I 

■  • 

I 

Total 

• 

229 

322 

184 

735 

'\.  t. 


sappeared.  In 
ity-five  bloomu- 
t  at  the  present 
:oal  furnaces,  a 
\rkansas  made 
xtl  fifty  bloonia- 
an.  There  are 
maries.  'I'here 
.  South  Caro- 
I  gone  out,  and 

by  the  war  and 
id  such  was  the 

large  the  prof- 
resent  age  were 
;re  in  operation 
i  as  follows  :  — • 


COKE 

CES. 

TOTAI,. 

I 

I 

5 

6 

9 

67 

i6 

n 

269 

8 

28 

34 

5 

8 

2 

'5 

2a 

2 

12 

3 

27 

5 

28 

52 

102 

7 

7 

5 

9 

3 

34 

9 

21 

• 

14 

. 

I 

• 

I 

4 

735 

^^-    TifE    UXrrED    STATES. 
""iy  new  furnaces  a.  pre™      ,Tr"""'"""  "'"'-•■  <^0"".r,-.   ^™"'■••5-•"« 

"'<-•  Cambm  Iron-Work^  at  Tnhn.,  ^         different  States  of  the  NnrtI    n' ' 

»"-y»e„,  a,K,  spen,::;  e        ^  ^Z'  '"""">''"'  ^"^  ^^sX     ^ 

;»« a„t,  ™L,  .L*;:  ::  e:s::r"  ?" """""-  °"  -- 

""'  ""'  'he  rest  of  ,|,c  world  ■  Z   "'    f"^  '"  "'eT  soil,  com-   ''•"■"■ 

llieM„        ,    '  '""''"Se  seventy-fire-ton  ?,„„  '*"' °f  "•''"K  wliici,  burns 

looms  from  the  furnace  into'bar   ,b"re  Z  1 "'  "       ""'"='"•'  '"'  "'^sC 

"™="  inventire  genius,  and  h..n7^iZ'T  f '''' ''^•^  "^-g'c  ,o.ck 

greatly  developed  and  improved ; 


3IO 


/x/)rsTh'/.tr   ///.syoA'V 


whiK'  in;inv  wrw  :i|.|ili:m(  c^  \\nw  hiTii   iiitnnliici'd  of  jiiiri'ly  .\nu'ri<';ui  origin, 
ill  li;i\i'  rstiMiii(lin.iiil\  Niiii]ilirn'(l   ;in(|  <  luMpi'iicd   the   processes  of  nianii- 


w  111 


fii  lull',  ll  wiiiilil  ri.'(|niri'  ;i  voliinu-  to  (lesi  rinc  ;ill  llic  iiii|)r()vc'incnts  iiitro- 
<iu(i'<l  into  the  idllin.i,' mills  of  the  Initi'd  States;  Imi  one  of  tlieiii  may  he 
nu'iitioiicil  as  illii-.tiatiii,L;  the  ;;eiieral  character  of  a  lar.L^e  nuiiilier  of  them.  At 
ihe  S.ili-  Inui-WDrk".  at  l'iltsl)iiri,'li.  reiiii..  Mr.  /ii.lt.  the  senior  partner  of  tlu 
/iig'nim-  ilrni.  has  srl  lip  a  iiiei  liani>ni  of  hi->  own  invention  to  dispose  of 
provfmcnts.  ,|,^.  ] „|, ld|r  1  Mrs  as  the\  lea\e  the  rolls.  As  the  ii'iMiot  bar  comes 
Ironi  the  rolU  it  is  dis(  harL;ed  upon  a  liin'  ol'  rollers,  o\er  \vlii(  h  it  niiiN  to  a 
scale,  on  wliic  h  it  is  detainecl  Ion-  enon.nh  to  \>c  wei.nhed.  It  is  then  implied 
aloii.^  the  rollers  to  a  ureal  p.nr  of  shears,  where  it  is  (  ut  into  leiiiitlis.  the  pines 
fallin,;;  into  an  iioii  haskel  occiipyin,:;'  a  pit  of  water.  'I'lii^.  basket,  suspended 
from  a  lie.nn  oxcrhead.  is  raised  to  such  a  heiL;ht.  that  it  rnns  by  its  own  \vei,L;lit 
to  the  ollua-  el 


1(1.   w 


ne 


lure  it  (oines  in  contact  with  an  obje(  I  which  tmlatc  lies  t 
l)oUoni  of  till'  b.iskel  ;  and  the  iron  filN  to  the  .yroimd.  ready  tor  pilin;.^  lor 
tlu'  various  fiirnai  es.  The  strikin,!.,'  of  the  object  wlii<  h  opens  the  bottom  of  the 
iron  basket  reserse-^  its  diix'c  tion,  and  sends  it  ba(  k  on  the  now  fallin,L;  beam  to 
the  i)it.  with  the  bottom  a^ain  si'cnre  for  reloading.  Willi  this  mechanism  the 
piuUlle-iron  is  drai^ued  from  tlu'  rolls,  weiylu'd,  (  nt.  and  laid  aside  by  one  man. 
who  handles  the  prodnt  I  of  sixteen  fiirnai  es. 
Statistics  of  111    i^^^  ill*-'  rullin{^f-mills  of  the  United  States  numbered  310, 


numbers. 


as  f( 


OllOWS 


Ul 


wu 


^^aine  . 

Veniiniit 
Mussachusctts 
Rhode  Island 
Conncctii  ut. 
New  ^'(l^k    . 
New  Jersey  . 
I'ennsvlvani.i 


Del 


M 


trvlaiul 


V  Mjiinui 
Uest  V 

Ohio     . 

KeiiLiiekN 

Tennesse 

Indiana 

Illinois 

Miehinan 

Missouri 

\\- 

(Jeors 

Alal 


injinia 


iS 
10 


10 


iseonsin 


jania 
California 


Total 


!IO 


OJ-    JJJJ:    Li\JJKD    srATKa. 


1 1 


hi<r  for 


lio 


uj.ii  luiiN-i  rir;  \ri-:  'i\  -iili    'ommmi.ii. 


CAMnUlA    IKilN-WDNKS,    lOHNmoWN,    I'ENM. 


312 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


The  total  of  rolled  iron  capacity  was  2,833,000  tons.  In  1876  the  mini' 
ber  of  mills  was  33.S.  The  capacity  was  something'  over  3,000,000  tons ;  but 
the  actual  ])r()(liiction  was  1,921,730  net  tuns,  worth  about  jftnjo,- 
000,000.  'I'he  product  was  in  sheet-iron,  boiler-iron,  plates  for 
iron  ships,  bars,  rods,  hoops,  rails,  bridge-iron,  &e. 


Production. 


1(.| 


H. 


til 


'A, 


INFr.UKNCK   OF    I'ARIS    KXI'OSITION    ON    AMKRICAN    IKON-MANUFACTUKK. 

Ik'fore  passing  on  to  speak  of  the  steel-works  of  the  United  States,  allusion 
may  be  made  to  an  event  occiirriiif,'  in  1867,  which  had  an  important  in(lucn<:e 
Paris  Expo-  on  the  whole  iron-industry  of  this  country:  that  was  the  Paris 
sition.  Exposition,     'i'he  war  was  over   in  America.     The    people  were 

settling  down  to  the  developments  of  the  arts  which  promote  peace,  and  make 
a  nation  united  and  great.  New  life  was  felt  throbbing  in  every  department  of 
industry.  A  keen  interest  was  felt  here  in  the  Kxposition  of  1867;  and  Mr. 
Abram  S.  Hewitt  was  sent  over  there  in  an  official  capacity  to  study  what 
foreigners  had  to  teach  us  with  reference  to  the  iron-industry,  and  other 
experts  were  sent  to  investigate  and  report  upon  other  things.  What  Mr. 
Hewitt  and  the  iron-manufacturers  who  visited  that  great  fair  learned  about 
the  foreign  iron-business  was  new  and  interesting,  and  it  has  since  proved  of 
incalculable  value  to  America.  It  taught  us  many  important  lessons,  and 
proved  a  fresh  incentive  to  effort. 

The  principal  fi\ct  which  arrested  attention  was  the  marked  superiority  of 
I'uropcans  in  producing  difficult  shapes  of  rolled  iron  without  weld  or  joint> 
g       .  and  their  willingness  to  handle  iron  and  steel  for  all  i)urposes  in 

of  Europeans  larger  mass"s  thai  ..i  America.  The  leading  P^uropean  nations 
in  rolling         present  at  the  fiiir  exhibited  a  vast  variety  of  articles  rolled  from  a 

heavy  iron. 

single  piece,  which  could  not  have  been  thus  made  in  America 
then,  —  such  as  deeply-dished  boiler-heads,  steam-domes,  tube-sheets,  and 
culinary  vessels  of  every  form  ;  and  many  other  things  made  purely  as  tours  tie 
force,  to  show  what  could  be  done,  —  such  as  cocked  hats,  a  series  of  square 
domes  raised  from  a  flat  i^late,  &c.  They  displayed  l)eanis  a  hundretl  feet  long, 
weighing  fifteen  hundred  pounds,  and  others  of  the  same  length,  weighing 
two  tons  and  a  quarter.  A  single  plate,  thirty  feet  long,  two  feet  six  inches 
broad,  six  inches  thick,  and  weighing  eleven  tons,  was  shown  from  Eng- 
land. Krupp  showed  a  single  steel  ingot  of  forty  tons;  when  in  185 1  an 
English  ingot  weighing  two  tons  and  a  quarter  had  been  deemed  an  astonisli- 
ing  achievement.  Krupp  also  had  on  exhibition  a  fifty-ton  steel  cannon 
mounted  on  a  fifteen-ton  carriage,  and  a  twenty-five-ton  turn-table  throwing  a 
solid  shot  of  twelve  hundred  and  twelve  pounds  and  a  shell  of  ten  hundred 
and  eighty  pounds.  These  achievements  have  all  been  surpassed  since  then, 
many  of  them  in  America ;  but,  to  the  dazzled  eyes  of  the  American  iron- 
manufiicturers,  they  were  in  1867  a  revelation  of  marvels  as  interesting  as  a 
tale  of  Arabian  enchantment. 


OF    THE    UNlTF.n    STATES. 


a>3 


num- 

s ;  \>ut 

tes  for 


Mr.  Hewitt  and  others  s\\v\\\.  miuh  time  while  in  lliiroiu'  (hiring'  that  exlii- 
l)ition  in  studying  tiu-se  products  of  European  art,  and  in  visitinj;    ,j,^j^., 
the  steel-works  and  rolhng -mills  of  the  great  centres  of  the  trade,   tionsof  as. 
and    tiien  (a  me  back  to  America  with  a   volume  of  new  ideas,    ""^itt  •nd 

otheri. 

whi(  h  they  have  since  utilized  here  to  the  extraordinary  benefit  of 
iheuiselves  and  the  country. 


CTUKK. 

allusion 
ntlv\encc 

he    I'ari^ 
pie  were 
nd  make 
rtment  of 
and  Mr. 
udy  what 
md   other 
What  Mr. 
ned  about 
proved  of 
;ssons,  and 


Till".    M ANUI  ACrUKI'.    OI'    STI'.I'.L. 

The  most  valuable  property  of  iron,  next  to  that  of  agghitination  at  a  white- 
heat,  and  possibly  exceeding  that,  is  the  cpiality  of  forming  steel.  Cast-iron  is 
not  pure  metallic:  iron  :  it  contains  iVoin  three  to  five  per  cent  of  superiority 
<:arbon  (often  [\\ii  per  c:ent  and  nine-tenths)  chemically  combined.  <•'  ■"=•=' 
T.y  depriving  the  metal  of  all  except  about  one-half  per  cent  of  its  c  arbon,  the 
wrought  iron  of  commerce  is  obtained.  Hy  restoring  to  it  from  three-fourths 
to  one  per  cent  and  a  Iialf  of  the  carbon,  or  by  reducing  the  c  arbon  ot'  cast- 
imu  to  that  minimum,  a  new  cpiality  of  ircjii  is  obtained,  which  we  call  steel, — 
a  produc:t  of  tiie  higliest  value,  exceeding  all  others  in  elastic  ily,  tenacity,  and 
JKirdness,  acciuiring  a  special  tem])er  by  ra[)id  cM)oling,  white,  fine-grained,  and 
capable  of  taking  a  high  polish.     It  is  the  true  metal  for  arms. 

Anciently  the    Hindoos   made    steel    in    small  cpiantities   by  taking  their 
ciiarcoal-made  wrought  iron,  c:ut  into  small  pieces,  and  ])utliug  about  a  pound 
of  it  a  time  into  a  crucible,  with  ten  times  the  cpiantity  of  wood   steei-mak- 
chopped  i\ni2.     They  put  the  c-rucible  tightly  plugged  into  a  fiu-    inu  by  the 
nace,  and  heated  it  intensely  for  two  or  three  liours.     At  tlie  end      '"  °°^' 
of  tlie  operation  tiie  steel  was  found  fiised  into  a  cake   in  the  bottom  of  the 
c  iiu'ibie.     From  the  steel  tlius  made  were  fashioned  the  famous  cimeters  and 
blades  of  the  i'last,  of  such  excpiisite  edge  and  temper  as  to  cut  a  gauze  veil 
lloating  in  the  air  without  disturbing  its  movement. 

It  was  many  ages  before  steel  was  made  in  Western  l'!uro])e.  When  the 
manufacture  of  it  began  there,  a  new  procx'ss  was  invented.  Steel  was  made 
by  cementation.  The  process,  in  use  to  the  i)resent  day,  consisted  Blistered 
of  packing  wrought-iron  bars  in  c:harcoal  in  crucibles,  and  heating  ^*^^'- 
them  from  six  to  ten  clays,  according  tcj  the  hardness  of  the  product  re(iuired. 
Tlie  product  thus  formed  was  called  "  blistered  steel,"  l)ec:ause  the  bars,  when 
withdrawn,  were  found  covered  with  blisters.  Cast-steel  was  formed  by  break- 
ing these  bars,  and  fiising  them  ;  and  shear-steel  by  tempering  the  cast-steel, 
breaking  the  piecx's,  welding  tl^Mn  at  a  good  heat,  and  then  hammering  them 
iiiitil  a  more  uniform  and  tenacnous  lexture  was  produc:ed. 

The  business  of  steel-making  was   established  in  America  as    Early  steel- 

1  1       i-»  1      •  1         •      !•  1  1     •  *i       ■  1  •         1        1  makingin 

early  as  the  Kevolution  ;  but  it  did  not  thrive  until  witliin  the  last  united 
thirty  years.  There  was  every  temptation  to  make  the  metal,  states. 
because  it  was  worth   in  bars  from  two  hundred  and  fiftv  to  three  hundred 


iff  1 1 


■in       .CA'i 


■I  <'M 


214 


/JVD  L'S  TKIA  I.    JJJSTOR  Y 


dollars  a  ton  as  against  an  average  of  from  twenty  to  forty  dollars  a  ton  for 
pig-iron,  and  from  eighty  to  a  hundred  dollars  for  good  bar-iron.  American 
iron,  too,  was  exceedingly  j)ure  and  tenacious,  and  well  fitted  for  steel- 
making.  Hut  the  business  had  been  from  anticjuity  shrouded  in  the  deep- 
est mystery  by  makers,  and  it  was  long  before  the  American  Congress  gave 
sufficient  protection  to  those  who  wished  to  venture  in  the  business  here 
to  encourage  them  to  embark  their  capital  in  it.  When  the  business  was 
undertaken,  a  great  deal  of  money  was  lost  in  it,  and  many  attempts  were 
abandoned  in  despair.  'l"o  the  energy  of  a  few  men,  i)rincipally  at  Pittsburgh, 
Penn.,  and  the  skill  of  a  few  native  chemists,  is  due  the  fact  that  the  business 
was  finally  mastered  and  established.  American  steel,  and  the  saws,  cutlery, 
tools,  and  machines  made  from  it,  have  since  become  famous  the  world  o\er. 

As  the  art  is  practised  in  the  United  States,  steel  is  made  by  three  general 
processes  ;  and  the  product  is  called  respectively  jwt  or  crucible  steel,  Sie- 
mens-Martin steel,  and  Dessemer  steel :  in  the  first  class,  cementation  is 
Three  modes  '^^'o"-'')'  employed.  There  are  also  two  American  methods  used, 
of  making  the  invention  of  Professor  A.  K.  Katon  of  New  York.  One,  dis- 
^^^^  ■  covered  in   1S51,  consists  in  rielting  malleable  iron  in  crucibles 

with  a  carbonaceous  salt,  such  as  ferro-cyanide  of  potassium,  using  it  alone  or 
with  a  little*  charcoal.  The  carbonization  is  rapidly  effected  ;  and  the  steel, 
when  fused,  is  cast  into  moulds.  'J"he  other  process,  discovered  in  185C,  con- 
sists in  decarbonizing  cast-iron  by  heating  it  intensely  in  thin  plates  in  a  l)ath 
of  melted  carbonate  of  soda.  The  plates  are  then  melted  and  cast.  The 
l)rincipal  drawback  to  the  former  of  these  tv.'o  processes  is,  that  the  crucibles 
cannot  long  withstand  the  intense  heat  to  which  they  are  subjected  ;  and  the 
])rincipal  objection  to  all  crucible  i)rncesses  is,  that  the  capacitv  of  production 
is  limited  by  the  necessarily  small  size  of  the  pots.  A  good  article  is  pro- 
duced, however ;  and  the  1  n  siness  is  actively  prosecuted  at  thirty  cast-stecl 
establishments  in  Pennsylvania,  New  Jersey,  New  York,  and  Connecti<ut. 
nine  of  them  being  at  Pittsburgh.  The  product  of  the  works  is  in  tool, 
si)ring,  machine,  hammered,  and  ingot  steel :  it  now  amounts  to  39,000  tons 
a  year,  worth  $12,000,000.  There  are  a  large  number  of  works  in  different 
parts  of  the  country  for  making  bars  by  cementation,  their  product  in  1876 
being  10,306  tons. 

When  Mr.  Hewitt  was  at  the  Paris  Exposition  in  1867,  two  methr  i,  for 
making  steel  on  a  large  scale  were  beginning  to  attract  great  attention.  The 
««  .u  J  P)essemer  ,)rocess  was  then  the  sensation  of  the  hour,  and  enor- 

Methods  '  ' 

considered  moiis  ;-rovision  was  being  made  in  Europe  for  manufacture  by 
at  Pans  Ex-    ^-n^^,^^   ^f  j(._       \{q   Studied  the  i)rocess  carefullv,  and    reported 

position.  '  ■  ' 

upon  it.  The  other  method  was  that  which  is  called  the  Siemens- 
Martin.  Mr.  He\.itt  himself  introduced  that  system  to  America,  upon  his 
return,  at  his  works  at  Trenton,  N.J. 

An  Englishmen  has  the  reputation  of  inventing  the  Bessemer  process ;  but 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


215 


\  ton  for 
American 
for   steel- 
Lhe  deep- 
rress  gave 
iness  here 
siness  was 
i-n\)ts  were 
Pittsburgh, 
le  luisiness 
rt-s,  cutlery, 
jrlil  over, 
ree  general 
_>  steel,  Sie- 
lentation    is 
thods  used, 
.     One,  dis- 
in  crucibles 
r  it  alone  or 
nd  the  steel, 
11  185C,  con- 
es in  a  bath 
1  cast.     'I'he 
the  crucibles 
.0(1  ;  and  the 

,f  production 
|rticle  is  pro- 

rty  cast-steel 

Connecticut. 

;s  is  in    tool, 
39,000  tons 
in  different 

[luct  in   1876 

methr  ■ :  for 
lention.     'Hie 
lir,  and  enor- 
Inufacture  by 
uul   reported 
I  the  Siemens- 
tea,  upon  hi> 

process;  b^'t 


the  first  person  to  suggest  it,  and  make  an  experiment  with  it,  was,  according 
to  Mr.  Swank,  an  American.  As  early  as  1851,  William  Kelly,  an  Bessemer 
iron-master  at  Eddyville,  Ky.,  suggested  the  possibility  of  making  Process, 
steel  on  a  large  scale  by  blowing  air  into  and  through  melted  cast-iron,  thus 
burning  out  its  carbon  until  it  was  converted  into  steel,  tie  made  p  few  trials, 
and  obtained  a  patent  in  185 1.  Henry  Bessemer  secured  his  first  patent  for 
the  process  in  Englantl  in  1855.  Neither  of  the  two  men  was  able  to  attain 
success,  however,  by  the  methods  he  originally  adopted  ;  and  it  was  not  until 
some  changes  and  improveinents  had  been  effected  that  either  accomplished 
any  thing.  The  jirocess,  as  employed  in  this  country,  is  carried  on  under  a 
combination  of  the  Bessemer  and  Kelly  patents. 

The  [)lant  retjuired  for  the  conversion  of  pig-metal  into  Bessemer  steel  is 
expensive  ;  and  there  are  now  only  eleven  establishments  for  it  in  the  United 
States, — five  in  Pennsylvania,  three  in  Illinois,  and  one  each  in   vaiueof 
New  York,  Ohio,  and  Missouri.     One  of  these,  in  Illinois,  is  the   product, 
largest  in  the  world.     The  product,  however,  is  large,  amounting  now  to  540,- 
000  tons  a  year,  worth  $65,000,000. 

The  cast-iron  is  melteil,  and  then  drawn  out,  in  five-ton  charges,  into  great 
pear-shaped  converters  made  of  iron  lineil  with  refractory  fire-clay.  The  con- 
verters are  liung  on  trunnions,  and  are  tipped  down  to  receive  the  process 
charge.  The  melted  iron  lies  in  tiie  belly  of  the  swelling  side  of  described. 
the  converter  until  the  requisite  amount  is  obtained  ;  then  the  converter  is 
swung  into  an  upright  position,  and  at  the  same  moment  a  blast  of  air  is 
turned  on,  the  air  finding  its  way  into  the  converter  through  a  number  of  small 
hoi  ,  at  the  bottom,  underneath  the  melted  iron.  The  process  now  becomes 
one  of  the  most  s[)ectacular  in  the  iron-industry.  The  air,  rushing  through 
llie  liijuid  iron,  pours  out  of  the  mouth  of  the  converter  in  a  tremendous  flame. 
At  first  the  silicon  is  seized  upon  by  the  oxygen  of  the  air,  the  resvilt  being 
slag ;  and,  while  it  is  burning,  the  flame  is  comparatively  dull.  But  immedi- 
ately the  carbon  begins  to  burn,  and  the  flame  then  increases  in  volimie  anil 
brilliancy.  The  surging,  splashing  mass  grows  hotter  and  whiter,  and  appears 
to  expand  and  boil.  A  thick,  white,  roaring  blaze  pours  'rom  the  mouth  of 
the  converter,  and  its  iron  foundations  tremble  under  ♦ne  violent  ebullition. 
There  are  few  such  exhibitb.  iS  of  chemical  power  to  be  seen  in  the  industrial 
arts.  As  the  decarbonization  goes  on,  the  flame  grows  thinner  and  smaller ; 
and,  when  it  is  complete,  the  light  dies  out  of  it.  Bessemer  originally  intended 
to  stop  the  process  at  the  point  where  just  enough  carbon  had  been  left  in  the 
metal  to  make  steel,  using  the  spectroscope  for  the  purpose.  This  was  found 
impracticable ;  and  the  plan  now  is,  to  continue  the  blast  until  all  the  carbon 
is  bmned  out :  the  right  moment  is  indicated  to  the  eye  by  the  flame.  The 
converter  is  then  tipped  over,  and  a  small  charge  of  melted  spiegeleisen,  rich 
in  carl)on,  u  poured  in.  It  diffuses  itself  instantly  through  the  melted  mass 
in  the  converter.     A  flaming  re-action  takes  place  ;  and  then  the  converter  i.s 


i:l| 


|l  ill 


2l6 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


;'■  i 


emptied  with  a  ladle,  vvhirh  is,  in  turn,  swung  over  the  ingot  moulds.  A  fire- 
clay plug  is  removed  by  a  lever,  and  the  steel  runs  out  pure,  white,  and  shin- 
ing. The  whole  operation  is  brief,  and  the  men  remain  silent  and  attentive 
until  it  is  completed. 

The  use  of  ferro-manganese  for  conversion  in  this  process  has  latterly  been 
introduced,  and  is  increasing.  Four-fifths  of  the  Bessemer  steel  now  made 
Use  of  ferro-  in  this  country  is  rolled  into  railroad  iron  :  it  is  a  leading  indus- 
manganese.  fj-y^  ^nd  has  placed  the  steel-rail  business  here  ahead  of  the  iron- 
rail  manufacture.  The  other  fifth  of  the  product  is  devoted  chiefly  to  the 
puri)oses  of  machinery. 

The  Siemens-Martin  process  is  not  yet  extensively  used.  It  affords  a 
valuable  product ;  but  the  system  last  described  is  at  present  the  favorite.  The 
Siemens-  Sicmens-iMartin  plan  is  simply  that  of  the  carbonization  of  wrought 
Martin  iron  in  an  open  hearth  or  reverl)eratory  furnace,,  by  mixing  it  with 

process.  cast-irou  ""nd  iron  ore.     The  flame  from  the  furnace  is  made  to 

pass  over  a  heartli  on  which  the  metal  is  placed,  and  effei^ts  the  required 
chemical  transformation.  The  metal  is  sometimes  supplied  with  ferro-man- 
ganese in  the  jjrocess  of  conversion  into  steel.  The  product  of  open-hearth 
steel,  which  was  only  3,000  tons  in  1872,  amounted  in  1876  to  21,490  tons. 

Since  the  first  crude  experiment  at  iron-making  in  the  forests  of  Virginia, 
two  hundred  and  fifty  years  have  flown  by  on  the  wings  of  time ;  yet  it  has 
,„     .    ,  ,      not  been  until  within  tlie  past  five  years  that  the  United  States 

Wonderful  '  •' 

extension  of  have  been  able  to  produce  iron  and  steel  enough  to  supply  her 
own  wants,  either  in  war  or  peace.  'J'he  railroads  of  the  country 
have  been  principally  built  with  rails  imported  from  the  continent 
of  Europe.  Our  fiictories  and  shops  have  been  equij)ped  with  foreign-rnade 
machinery.  Tools,  telegraph-wire,  chains,  and  manufactured  artic.les  in 
general,  as  well  as  metal  in  pigs  and  ingots,  have  been  brought  here  from 
abroad  in  enormous  (juantities  from  the  earliest  day.  In  1873  the  amount 
imported  was  valued  at  fifty-eight  million  dollars.  Thanks  to  the  natural 
resources  of  ou;  covmtry  and  the  enterprise  of  oui  countrymen,  and  the 
influences  which  have  aided  them,  the  United  States  have  now  in  iron  and 
steel  producing  capacity  fully  equal  to  her  wants,  and  indeed  in  e.-ccess  of  it. 
The  importation  has  been  cut  down  to  the  iH::ignificant  siun  of  about  seven 
million  dollars  for  the  year  ending  June  30,  1877;  and  an  exportation  has 
begun  not  only  to  the  less  advanced  nations  of  the  world,  but  also  to  civilized 
Europe.  The  United  States  are  at  last  truly  independent  of  the  world  for  her 
iron  and  steel. 


steel-indus 
try 


' »  '  ? 


iii-ii^: 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


217 


A  fire- 
id  shin- 
ittentive 

irly  been 
)\v  made 
ig  indus- 
the  iron- 
ly  to  the 

affords   a 

rite.     'I'l^^^ 

jf  wrought 

ing  it  witli 

s  made  to 

z   required 

ferro-man- 

)pen-hearth 

^90  tons. 

of  Virginia, 

;  yet  it  has 

nited  States 
supply  her 

the  country 

,e  continent 
reign-iuade 
articles    in 

It  here  from 
the  amount 
the  natuial 
n,  and   the 
m  iron  and 
Kccss  of  it. 
Lbout  seven 
jortation  has 
to  civilized 
■orkl  for  her 


CHAPTER    II. 

IRON   AND    STEEL   MANUFACTURES. 

IT  was  one  peculiarity  of  the  times  in  that  age  of  the  world  when  America 
was  first  settled,  that  gold  and  silver  were  the  most  highly  prized  of  metals ; 
and  the  abundance  of  them  in  any  country  was  regarded  as  tl.  utility  of 
test,  not  only  of  its  wealth,  but  of  its  civilization.  Times  have  ''■°"- 
changed  since  then ;  and  a  celebrated  writer  has  pointed  out,  that,  in  this 
latter  age  of  the  world,  the  civilization  of  a  race  of  men  is  more  clearly 
indicated  by  the  iron  it  employs  and  consumes  than  by  any  other  power  it 
possesses.  Iron  has  always  brought  superiority  to  the  race  using  it  in  the 
largest  degree  for  weapons  and  implements ;  but  in  modern  times  the  fact 
has  become  more  conspicuous.  It  is  marvellous  to  look  back  along  the 
history  of  the  conquests  and  wars  of  the  past,  and  to  compare  the  condition 
of  mankind  at  the  present  dpy  with  what  it  was  two  hundred  years  ago,  and 
study  the  important  part  played  by  iron.  Eminence  and  progress  appear  to 
have  been  immediately  due  fixr  more  tc  the  generous  use  of  this  valuable 
metal  than  to  the  intelligence  of  the  human  race  and  the  power  of  numbers. 
Sieam  could  never  have  been  made  the  obedient  vassal  of  man,  except  for 
this  tenacious  metal  to  confine  and  direct  its  forces.  Famines  were  never 
ol)\iatcd  until  husbandry  was  made  successful  1)y  iron  implements,  and  iron 
railways  were  laid  to  insure  the  free  distribution  of  crops ;  and  the  famines 
of  the  present  age  occur  only  in  those  regions  into  which  the  railway  and  the 
liberal  use  of  this  noble  metal  have  not  penetrated.  The  people  would  still 
he  living  in  hovels,  except  for  iron  to  fashion  the  wooi  of  the  forests,  and 
hind  the  framework  of  our  homes,  ^\'ith  a  metal  no  more  serviceable  than 
copper,  the  world  would  never  have  risen  to  the  heights  of  comfort,  intelligence, 
and  civilization,  it  has  now  attained ;  the  brilliant  roncjuests  of  the  material 
universe  which  have  characterized  the  present  century  could  never  have  taken 
place. 

fhe  variety  of  uses  to  which  iron  .s  now  put  is  remarkable,  and  there  seems 
to  he  no  limit  yet  to  its  employment.  Machinery  has  been  invented  which 
will  fashion  it  for  any  end,  in  masses  of  any  size,  from  the  hair-spring  of  a 


2l8 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


\  \ 


J 


h\ 


I  :  m 


Ml. 


watch  to  those  magnificent  products  of  constructive  art,  the  locomotive  and 
the  iron  steamship.  Its  use  is  now  as  boundless  as  man's  desires,  and  ahno^t 
Variety  of  as  wide  as  its  own  (hffusion  throughout  nature.  Iron  is  found  in 
uses.  every  rock  :   it  blooms  in  the  rose  and  in  the  maiden's  cheek,  and 

the  spectroscope  detects  it  in  the  light  of  the  sun  and  stars.  It  may  be  said 
fairly  to  pervade  nature,  and  now  also  to  pervade  every  department  of  human 
activity.  It  plays  some  part  in  the  simplest  occupations  of  every-day  life  :  it 
mints  the  coin  of  the  people  ;  it  steers  our  ships ;  drawn  out  into  a  wire,  it 
sounds  the  deepest  oceans,  and  carries  our  messages  from  continent  to  conti- 
nent ;  it  fights  our  battles,  and  wins  our  daily  bread,  and  carves  our  gravestones 
when  we  are  gone ;  it  maile  I'higland  mistress  of  the  seas  and  of  commerce  ; 
and  it  is  one  of  the  most  efficient  causes  of  the  remarkable  advance  of  the 
Unitetl  States  during  the  present  century,  which  is  the  comment  of  the  scholars 
and  public  men  of  the  world. 

In  the  application  of  iron  to  the  uses  of  humanity,  no  people  have  excelled 
our  own  countrymen  in  ingenuity  and  enterprise.  The  purpose  of  this  chapter 
is  to  describe  the  growth  of  some  of  the  principal  iron  and  steel  industries 
which  they  have  established. 


NAILS. 

Nail-making  is  purely  an  American  art ;  for,  although  nails  were  invented 

before  the  white  man  first  cast  anchor  off  these  shores,  the  process  of  making 

Nail-making    them  which  has  superseded  all  others  wns  the  product  of  the  Yan- 

an  American    kee's  brain,  and  the  modern  system  was  'jUiployed  here  long  before 

it  found  its  way  nito  l^urope. 

Iron  nails  were  sparingly  used  in  antiquity,  but  they  were  to  some  extent  in 
the  middle  ages ;  and  their  use  became  general  three  or  four  hundred  years 
Early  manu-  ^S^j  whcn  England  devloped  her  iron-industries.  F^ngland  was  the 
factureof  great  nail-making  country  of  Europe.  So  large  a  part  ofher  popu- 
lation wr:s  employed  in  the  art,  that,  in  later  times,  sixty  thousand 
persons  were  employed  in  nail-making  at  Birmingham  alone.  All  the  nails  were 
made  by  hand.  Tl.e  iron  was  drawn  out  into  rods,  the  end  was  heated  and 
formed  by  hammer  on  an  anvil  into  a  nail,  when  the  rod  was  re-heated  and  again 
hammered.  The  business,  not  being  so  laborious  as  the  majority  of  those  la 
ivhich  men  were  engaged,  was  turned  over  largely  to  women  and  children  ;  and. 
not  being  very  remu..erative  to  the  workers  themselves,  the  social  condition  di' 
the  nail-makers  of  England  was  one  of  the  dark  pictuies  ofher  industries.  In 
the  last  century,  several  attempts  were  made  to  save  apart  of  the  labor  expencUd 
in  nail-making  by  the  use  of  machinery.  William  Finch  of  ^Viml)oo'•ne,  Stiil- 
fordshire,  brought  out  one  patent  for  the  use  of  tilt-hammers,  which,  by  rapid 
striking,  enabled  several  nails  to  be  made  from  the  rod  in  one  heat.  Thomas 
Clifford  invented  another  plan  in  1 790,  which  aimed  at  scjueezing  a  bar  of  iron 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


219 


lOtivc  and 
nd  alui0^l 
s  found  in 
;heek,  and 
ay  be  said 
of  human 
lay  life  :  it 
)  a  wire,  it 
t  to  conti- 
gravestoncs 
commerce  ; 
mce  of  llie 
the  scholars 

ave  excelled 

this  chapter 

;el  industries 


vere  invented 

|ss  of  makinLi; 

of  the  Yan- 

■e  long  before 

ime  extent  in 
Inuulred  years 
Igland  was  the 
ofher  popu- 
lixty  thousand 
the  nails  were 
Is  heated  and 
.ted  and  again 
jty  of  those  in 
hildren;  and, 
condition  nt 
idustries.     1" 
[bor  expended 
nboonie,  Siat- 

[lich,  by  rai'"^ 

•at.     Thomas 

abar  of  imii 


into  nails  by  feeding  it  in  between  two  heavy  rollers  with  proper  moulds  on 
their  faces.  The  greater  i)art  of  the  nails  used  continued  to  be  made  by  hand, 
however,  until  American  genius  released  the  women  and  children  from  suc:h 
laborious  work. 

The  first  record  we  have  of  nail-making  in  this  country  is  found  in  a  debate 
\\\  Congress  in  17S9,  when  the  first  tariff  bill  was  under  discussion.     Mr.  Madi- 
son had  inserted  a  duty  of  one  cent  a  pound  on  nails  and  spikes   pirst  naii- 
in  the  bill.     Mr.  Lee  thought  tliis  was  objectionable,  as  it  might  be   making  in 
a  tax  on  the  improvement  of  estates.     Mr.  (loodhue  assured  him      '"^■■"=*- 
that  great  (juantities  of  nails  were  being  manufactured  in  Massacinisetts  and 
i'ennsylvania,  and  in  a  little  time  enough  woukl  be  made  to  supi)ly  all  North 
America.     Fisher  Ames  said  this  on  the  subject :   "  It  is  a  usefid   Fisher 
and  accommodating  manufacture,  which  yiekls  a  clear  gain  of  all   Ames, 
it  sells  for,  except  the  cost  of  the  material.     The.  labor  employed  on  it  is  such 
as.  if  not  thus  employed,  would,  in  many  instances,  be  thrown  away.     It  has 
become  usual  for  the  country- 
pcoj^le   to   erect  small   forges 
in  their  chimney-corners  ;  and 
in  the  winter  evenings,  when 
little  other  work  can  be  done, 
.i,ncat    quantities  of  nails   are 
made,     even      by     children. 
These   people  take   the   rod- 
iron    of    the    merchant,   and 
return  liim  nails  ;  and,  in  con- 
se(iuence  of  this    easy  mode 
of  barter,  the   manufacture  is 
pnxhgiously  great.     Jlut  these 
advantages  are  not  exclusively 
in  the  hands  of  the  people  of 
Massachusetts.     The  business 
can  be  prosecuted  in  a  similar 
manner  hy  every  State  exerting  similar  industry." 

Tiie   duty  was   allowed   to    remain    in    the   bill,  and   afterwards   was    in- 
creased. 

but,  even  at  the  time  that  Fisher  Ames  described  the  chimney-corner  forges, 
the  mintls  of  our  countrymen  were  l)usy  with  the  idea  of  perfecting  a  machine 
to  make  nails,  and  save  all  this  lal)or  by  hand.     Of  the  three  hun-   patents  for 
tiled  i)atents  which  have  up  to  1878  been  granted  for  machines  for   n^ii- 
nail making,  twenty-three  were  issued  before  the  present  century.   '"^'^^^'''^S' 
111  I'Sio  the  secretary  of  the  treasury  reported  :  — 

'■Twenty  years  ago,  some  men  now  unknown,  then  in  obscurity,  began  by 
'utting  slices  out  of  old  hoops,  and,  by  a  common  vice  griping  these  pieces. 


FAIKVlIiW    N.Ml.-WOKKS. 


t       I 


H 


ij 


\ 


t^' 


!'!i-1 


220 


IND  US  TRIA  L    IIIS  TOR  Y 


Cut  nails. 


headed  them  with  several  strokes  of  the  hammer.  By  progressive  improve- 
ments shtting-mills  were  buih,  and  ;!ic  shears  and  iieading-tools  were  perfected  ; 
yet  much  labor  and  expense  were  requisite  to  make  nails.  In  a  little  time, 
Jacob  Perkins,  Jonathan  Ellis,  antl  a  few  others,  put  into  execution  the  thought 
of  cutting  and  of  heading  nails  by  water;  but,  being  more  intent  upon  their 
machinery  than  upon  their  pecuniary  affairs,  they  were  unable  to  prosecute  the 
business.  At  different  times  other  men  have  spent  fortunes  in  improvements ; 
and  it  may  be  said  with  truth,  that  more  than  a  million  of  dollars  have  been 
expended.  But  at  length  these  joint  efforts  are  crowned  with  complete  suc- 
cess ;  and  we  are  now  able  to  manufacture,  at  about  one-third  of  the  expense 
that  wrought  nails  can  be  manuflxctured  for,  nails  which  are  superior  to  them 
for  at  least  three-fourths  of  the  purposes  to  which  nails  are  applied,  and  for  most 
of  those  purposes  they  are  full  as  good." 

Jeremiah  Jeremiah  Wilkinson  of  Rhode  Island  is  said  to  have  been  the 

Wilkinson,     ysx^cn.  who  headed  nails  in  a  vi-^e. 

When  the  manufacture  of  cut  nails  was  first  undertaken,  wrought  nails  cost 
twenty-five  cents  a  pound,  and  were  largely  imported.  This  made  their  use 
for  fences  and  houses  expensive ;  and  their  cost,  the  abundance 
of  timber  in  this  country,  and  the  desire  of  every  man  to  have  his 
own  house  and  barn,  proved  powerful  incentives  to  inventors  to  undertake  the 
manufacture  of  them  by  macliinery.  The  new  machines  did  so  well,  that  in 
1810  one  was  perfected  which  was  able  to  make  a  hundred  nails  a  minute  ;  and 
in  1828  the  prcduction  was  so  brisk,  that  the  price  was  reduced  to  eight  cents 
a  pound.  It  is  now  about  two  cents  and  a  half  a  poimd.  In  1833  the  duty  on 
nails  was  five  cents  a  pound  :  but  the  rapidity  of  manufacture  here  had  brought 
prices  down  to  five  cents  a  pound,  which  was  the  same  as  the  duty ;  and  in 
1S42  the  price  was  two  cents  below  the  duty. 

The  American  nail-machine  is  a  somewhat  complicated  affair  in  detail, 
but  simple  in  theory.  The  iron  is  rolled  out  into  bars  wide  enough  to  make 
Description  three  Or  four  strips,  each  one  of  which  is  as  wide  as  the. length  of 
of  machine.  ^-^^  j^^^j]  \^  \^  intended  to  make.  The  cutting  of  the  bar  into  strips 
is  done  by  the  slitting-mill,  and  is  done  while  the  bar  is  hot,  and  thus  more 
easily  cut.  The  strips  are  then  taken  to  tlie  nail-machines,  of  which  there  are 
from  forty  to  a  hundred  in  a  factory ;  in  the  Wheeling  Nail-Works  there  being 
one  hundred  and  six,  and  one  hundred  and  ten  in  the  Belmont  Works,  also  at 
Wheeling.  Each  machine  works  upon  one  strip  or  nail-rod  at  a  time,  clipping 
off  a  piece  from  the  end  presented  to  it,  and  then  another,  as  the  strip  i:^ 
turned  over  and  the  end  again  presented.  The  strip  must  be  turned  over  each 
time  a  nail  is  clipped  off,  because  the  nail  is  cut  tapering.  Each  bit  as  it  is 
cut  off  is  grasped  by  a  powerful  vice,  which  holds  it,  while  an  object  called  the 
"  header  "  presses  up  the  large  end  into  a  head  :  the  nail  then  drops  among 
its  companions  below.  The  process  is  a  rapid  one,  and  a  good  machine  will 
make- from  half  a  ton  to  a  ton  and  a  half  a  day. 


"ill' i!  ■!*:«! 


'H' 


.1 


:  improve- 
perfected ; 
little  time, 
he  thought 

upon  their 
osecute  the 
irovements ; 

have  been 
implete  suc- 
the  expense 
rior  to  them 
and  for  most 

ave  been  the 

ght  nails  cost 
lade  their  use 
le  abundance 
an  to  have  his 
undertake  the 
,o  well,  that  in 
^  minute  ;  and 
to  eight  cents 
3  the  duty  on 
•e  had  brought 
duty;  and  in 

Iffair  in  detail, 
lough  to  make 
the. length  of 
bar  into  strips 
land  thus  more 
Ihich  there  are 
is  there  being 
[works,  also  at 
,  time,  clipping 
las  the  strip  is 
Irned  over  each 
Ich  bit  as  it  is 
Inject  called  the 
drops  among 
machine  will 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


221 


The  variety  of  styles  of  nail  made  by  machinery  now  is  very  large,  and 
it  may  almost  be  said  that  wrought  nails  are  so  made    now :    for  manufac- 
turers have  within  twenty  years  begun  to  anneal  cut  nails,  giving   various 
them  a  malleable  quality ;  and  these  have  driven  the  old  style  of  kinds  of 
wrought  nail  out  of  use.     The  styles  now  made  are  cut,  wrought,   "*'  * """ 
horseshoe,   barbed,   composition,   button,   railroad,  carpet,  coffin,  sheathing, 
galvanized,   harness,   leather-work,  picture,  siding,  slating,  trunk,  upholstery, 
weather-tiling,  and  screw  nails,  spikes,   brads,  and  tacks  being  included   in 
the  above.     The  machine  for  making  railroad-spikes  was  the  invention  of  Mr. 
Henry  Burden  of  Troy  (who  also  invented  the  horseshoe-machine),  and  has 
proved  both  profitable  to  the  inventor  and  his  sons,  and  useful  to  the  country. 

The  yearly  product  of  nails  and  spikes  in  the  United  States  now  amounts 
to  over  4,900,000  kegs  of  one  hundred  pounds  each.  The  magnificent 
factories  employed  in  their  manufacture  —  equipped  with  blast- 

\  ,  ...  ,        .    .  ,         r  ,     Production. 

furnaces   and   puddlmg-ovens,  and   givmg  work  often  to  several 

hundred  men  —  excite  the  liveliest  feelings  of  admiration  when  a  comparison 

is  made  between  them  and  the  little  chimney-corner  forge  of  the  olden  times. 

CUTLERY. 

Edge-tools  were  made  in  the  United  States  as  early  as  the  Revolutionary 
war ;  it  being  at  that  time  an  absolute  necessity  for  the  people  to  provide 
themselves  with  such  implements  by  their  own  efforts.  They  -^^^^y  manu- 
were  of  a  very  clumsy  character,  however,  and  not  very  durable,  facture  of 
How  slow  the  progress  was  may  be  seen  from  the  absurd  daggers  *  se-too  s. 
and  swords  which  arc  preserved  to  us  from  the  war  of  181 2,  which  were  almost 
as  heavy  as  axes,  and  which  often  resembled  iron  clubs  with  edges  more 
than  specimens  of  cutlery.  The  swords  too,  while  frequently  possessing  the 
power  of  being  bent  double  like  Damascus  blades,  seldom  possessed  that  of 
resuming  their  original  shape  upon  the  pressure  being  removed.  For  two 
hundred  years  after  the  first  settlement  of  the  country  the  inhabitants  were 
really  dependent  upon  Europe  for  their  cutlery.  Our  forests  were  felled  prin- 
cipally with  English  axes,  the  crops  cut  with  English  scythes  and  sickles, 
the  building-arts  carried  on  with  chisels  and  tools  from  Sheffield,  and  even 
the  loaf  of  bread  upon  the  table  sliced  with  an  English  knife.  The  (piantity 
and  variety  of  edge-tools  made  in  the  New  World  were  extremely  small. 

About  forty-five  years  ago  the  attention  of  New-  Englanders  was  di- 
rected to  the  manufacture,  both  by  J:he  great  success  of  England,  —  which 
had  made  herself  the  chief  source  of  supply  of  cutlery  for  the   „ 

'  '    ■'  -'  Prejudice 

world,  —  and   by  the   growing   demand   in  America.      Steel  was   against 
imported  from  Sheffield,  and  various  mechanics  began  to  fashion   An^erican 
it  into  the  articles  required  by  the  wants  of  our  population.     The 
greatest  obstacle  to  the  success  of  these  pioneers  of  the  art  was  the  prejudice 


323 


jxD  I  '.v  TRiA  r.   Ills  roK  Y 


in  America  against  the  |)r()(liuts  of  American  shops.  Our  working-men  were 
intelligent,  and  knew  the  value  of  a  good  tool,  and  preferred  to  get  a  good 
tool,  even  if  the  cost  of  it  was  high.  It  took  many  years  to  convince  them 
that  the  Americans  could  make  an  article  as  true  and  serviceable  as  that  whicli 
was  jirodnced  at  Sheftield.  It  was  really  not  until  the  generation  of  men  then 
li\ing  had  |)assed  off  the  stage  that  this  prejudice  was  conciuered.  'i'he  feeling 
of  that  day 's  well  illustrated  by  an  incident  which  Mr.  ( Ireeley  once  related 
in  regu'd  to  some  Connecticut  fish-hooks.  .\  manufacturer  of  that  State  trie<l 
to  introduce  some  hooks  of  his  own  make  to  the  New-\'()rk  market,  and  sent 
samples  of  them  to  the  dealers  there  for  trial.     'I'hey  were  returned  with  the 


I 


\m 


KNll'E   AND    l-OKK. 


;,  m 


'  i 


discouraging  statement  that  they  were  far  inferior  to  British  hooks.  The 
manufacturer  tried  several  times  to  get  his  hooks  accepted  ;  and  finally  he 
took  some  English  cards,  removed  the  hooks,  put  American  hooks  on  the 
cards,  and  sent  them  to  a  merchant  for  comi)arison  along  with  another  lot  of 
the  same  hooks  mounted  on  American  cards.  Again  word  came  back  that 
the  hooks  on  the  British  cards  were  in  every  way  superior  to  those  on  the 
-Vmerican  cards.  And  the  worst  of  it  was,  that,  when  the  little  device  of  the 
manufiicturer  was  explained  to  the  merchant,  the  latter  was  still  unconvinced 
that  the  Connecticut  article  could  at  all  compare  with  the  imported.  This 
was  exactly  the  case  with  early  American  edge-tools.  The  public  knew  the 
merit  of  the  imported  ware,  and  distrusted  the  home-made. 

American  cutlery  obtained  a  place  at  length,  however ;  and  of  late  the 
industry  has  had  a  rapid  growth.  The  early  prejudice,  doubtless,  was  the 
Rapid  cause  of  this,  in  part ;  for  it  led  to  the  use  of  none  except  the  he>l 

growth  of  metal,  and  made  manufacturers  pay  the  utmost  attention  to  the 
excellence  of  the  form  and  finish  of  their  goods.  American  cut- 
lery is  now  finding  its  way  all  over  the  world  ;  and  Sheffield  is  fiiirly  staggered 
at  t'  ^  appearance  of  .American  knives,  shears,  scythes,  and  planes,  in  the  ware- 
houses of  every  large  English  city.  Sheffield  is  losing  its  trade  in  consequence. 
Canadian  cutlery  shares  the  same  rei)utation  as  American. 


^  u^ 


I 


r-men  were 
^rct  a  good 
vincc  ther.i 
i  iluit  which 
f  iv.cn  iIkmi 
The  fechnj^' 
)ncc  related 
t  Stale  tried 
ct,  and  sent 
iicd  willi  the 


hooks.    The 
and  finally  he 
looks  on  the 
another  lot  of 
ime  back  that 
those  on  the 
device  of  the 
unconvinced 
iported.     This 
blic  knew  the 

id  of  late  the 
ni)tless.  was  the 
pxccpt  the  best 
tention  to  tlie 
Umerican  cut- 
(airly  staggered 
Is,  In  the  ware- 
conseciuence. 


Edge-tools 
made  of 
steel. 


•le 
-  in  it. 


OF    THE    rxiTHD    STATl-S.  2 it, 

Steel  is  the  material  used  for  all  cutting-edges.  The  [iropcrly  of  sled 
which  gives  it  value  f(jr  this  jnirpose  is  that  of  being  hardcnt  I  and  tempered. 
Ji  is  iieated  to  redness,  and  then  suddenly  cooled.  If  the  lieat 
is  high,  the  steel  is  soft,  but  tenacious.  If  tlie  lieat  is  low,  the  steel 
is  hard,  but  brittle.  'Hiis  is  taken  advantage  of  in  tli'-  making  of 
different  classes  of  tools.  Thus  4,^0  degrees  give  a  i)ale  yelidw-color.  suit- 
al)le  for  lancets,  which  reciuire  a  fine  edge,  and  need  little  stii'n^th  ;  at  450 
<legrees  the  color  is  a  pale  straw-cohjr,  good  for  razors,  pocket-  coior  of  steel 
knives,  and  chisels;  at  490  degrees  a  brown-yellow  tein]i(r  is  according  to 
re.iched,  suitable  for  cold-chisels;  at  510  degrees  a  lirown  with  "-''"'''^''• 
purple  spots,  fitted  for  axes  and  planes  ;  at  550  degrees  a  briglit  blue,  indicat- 
ing a  temper  for  swords  and  watch-springs  ;  at  560  degrees  a  full  blue,  suit- 
able for  fine  saws;  at  590  degrees  a  dark  blue,  the  temper  for  large  saws  ;  at 
6_^o  degrees  the  color  is  dark,  with  a  tinge  of  green,  and  the  metal  is  too  soft 
for  instruments. 

A  weapon  may  be  made  with  more  than  one  temijcr  in  it.     .\    . 

'  ^  'A  tool  may 

sword,  for  instance,  is  best  with  a  blue  temper  at  the  ]H)int  (giving   have  more 
it  the  greatest  elasticity),  a  violet  in  the  middle,  a  yellow  along  the   * 
edge  (for  keenness),  and  a  green  near  the  handle  (for  toughness). 

It  is  not  usual,  nor  is   it  necessary,  to  fiishion   cutlery  entirely  of  steel. 
Simple  articles,  like   table-knives,  chisels,  planes,  scythes,  si)ades.  ivrc,  have 
been  made  by  welding  a  thin  strip  of  steel  for  the  edge  upon  a  toqIs  partly 
bac  k  piece  of  iron.     IMistered  steel  is  melted  into  cast  steel  for  steel,  and 
the  purpose,  and  hammered  into  bars.     In  shears,  only  the  edge   P^"'y  "■°"- 
was  formerly  of  steel :  now  the  blades  are  of  steel,  and  the  handles  of  iron. 
In  table-knives  the  blade  is  of  steel,  and  the  shank  of  iron.     Formerly  this 
class  of  articles  was  made  entirely  by  hand  ;  but  American  ingenuity  has  per- 
fected a  machine  to  (\o  a  great  part  of  the  work,  and  the  best  blades  are 
formed  by  it  entirely.      The  machine   has  been  adopted  in   Murope.      The 
blades  of  pen-knives  arc  hammered  out  from  the  best  cast  steel,  the  smithing 
being  well  done,  for  the  sake  of  condensing  the  metal.     A  temporary  shank 
i-^  drawn  out  to  hold  the  blade  while  it  is  being  ground  and  sha'-peneil.     A 
number  of  blades  are  tempered  at  once  by  being  placed  over  a  fire  on  a  flat 
plate  together,  with  their  backs  downward.     When  they  have  acquired  a  brown 
or  purple  color,  they  are  sudilenly  plunged  into  cold  water.     Scythes  are  drawn 
out  under  a  trip-hammer  from  a  bit  of  iron  of  the  recpiisitc  size,  upon  which  a 
piece  of  steel  has  been  welded  for  the  edge.     The  workman  sits 
on  a  stool  by  the  side  of  his  hammer,  with  the  fire  in  which  the 
metal  is  heating  within  easy  reach.     He  takes  the  piece  from  the  fire  with  a 
pair  of  tongs,  lays  it  on  the  anvil  under  the  hammer,  and  draws  it  out  into 
'1  rough  blade  with  marx'ellous  speed  and  dexterity.     It  is  given  the  right  rur.'a 
tiiiu  while  hot,  and  the  back  is  folded  in  other  machines  made  for  the  iJurpose. 
b  is  then  tempered,  and  taken  to  the  grinding-room  to  be  finished,  first  on 


224 


INDUSTRIAL    HI  STORY 


heavy  wet  gnhdslones,  and  then  on  emery-wheels.  The  American  scythe  has 
become  celebrated  for  its  superior  strength  and  lightness.  Compared  with 
the  heavy  implements  of  native  make  found  on  the  continent  of  ICurope,  it  is 
the  aristocrat  of  the  harvest-field.  It  outlasts  the  luiropean,  and  requires  only 
half  tlie  strength  to  use  it.  Razors,  bowie-knives,  and  Wmting-knives  are  made 
from  the  best  cast  steel  by  hammering  and  careful  grinding  and  polishing. 

Kdge  and  finish  are  given  to  cutlery  in  the  grinding-rooms.  In  scythe- 
factories  the  operation  is  extraordinarily  noisy,  the  din  of  a  dozen  blades 
Edse  and  Strongly  pressed  upon  the  heavy  grindstones  being  almost  intolera- 
finish  given  ble.  The  finer  work  is  generally  done  on  emery-stones.  The 
by  grinding.  Qp^-rjii  jqii  js  an  unhealthy  one  for  the  workmen,  on  account  of  the 
fine  dust  which  fioats  in  the  air,  and  reaches  the  lungs  of  the  grinders.  The 
evil  is  mit'gated  to  some  extent  by  a  flue,  suitably  placed  to  remove  the  metollic 
dust  from  the  revolving  stones,  into  which  there  is  a  powerful  suction  of  air ; 
but  it  does  not  entirely  obviate  it. 

The  various  world's  fairs  have  given  the  cutlery  of  the  United  States 
importance,  and  have,  among  other  things,  perform(;d  the  great  service  of 
Effect  of  teaching  our  own  countrymen  its  value.  The  manufacturers  do  not 
world's  fairs,  now  hesitate  to  use  American  steel  for  all  their  work.  Some  of 
them  make  the  steel  themselves,  and  so  are  sure  of  its  (piality ;  as  in  the  cast 
of  Mr.  Disston  of  Philadelphia,  —  a  man  who  began  business  as  a  mechanic 
Henry  by  wheeling  his  first  load  of  materials  himself,  and  who  now  has  a 

Disston.  trade  amounting  to  $1,500,000  yearly.  Cutlery  has  hitherto  been 
imported  to  the  extent  of  several  millions  a  year.  In  1872  the  importation  was 
$10,500,000.  So  rai)id  has  been  the  progress  of  American  workshops  during 
the  last  few  years,  that  the  importation  has  been  cut  down  to  $900,000  a  year ; 
and  a  jjromising  export  has  begun,  now  amounting  to  $700,000  a  year.  Euro- 
pean manufacturers  visiting  this  country  candidly  confess  that  they  are  amazed 
at  what  they  see  in  this  industry. 

CLOCKS    AND    WATCHES, 


The  word  "  clock  "  brings  up  a  medley  of  recollections  as  diverse  and  as 
interesting  as  the  contents  of  a  bazaar,  —  the  belfries  of  France,  les  cloches,  from 
Early  clock-  which  the  word  itself  is  derived  ;  the  little  old  mathematician  in  a 
making.  black  gown  in  the  little  old  shop  in  London,  lost  in  abstruse  caku 

lations  as  to  the  speed  of  a  pendulum,  while  his  apprentices  at  the  door  of  the 
shop  are  calling  to  the  passers-by,  "  What  d'ye  lack,  sirs?  what  d'ye  lack?  "  the 
stately  old  Dutch  time-piece,  ticking  solemnly  in  its  place  in  the  quiet  old 
colonial  fiirm-house ;  the  bustling  Yankee,  driving  from  village  to  village  with 
a  wagon-load  of  wooden-wheeled  time-keepers,  and  peddling  them  away  for 
l)rovisions  and  calicoes,  and  whatever  other  articles  of  value  our  great-grand- 
fathers had  a  surplus  of,  and  were  willing  to  part  with  in  trade ;    and  the 


t! 


01-     THE    rXlTEP    STATES. 


'25 


^'tlie  lias 
red  with 
jpe,  it  is 
lircs  only 
L\re  made 
ling. 

:n  stythe- 
;n  blades 
t  intolcra- 
\es.     'Hie 
unt  of  the 
lers.     'I'he 
he  metallic 
ion  of  air ; 

utecl  States 
service  of 
urers  do  not 
.     Some  of 
in  the  case 
a  mechanic 
10  now  has  a 
itherto  been 
)ortation  was 
shops  diirini; 
1,000  a  year ; 
year.     I'-^ro- 
are  amazeil 


verse  and  as 
I  cloches,  from 
Imatician  in  a 
])struse  calcu 
door  of  the 
|elack?"tl^^' 
|ie   quiet  old 
village  with 
lem  away  for 
I  great-grand- 
le;   and  the 


;in(  ifut   State   of  Conncrticut,  the    birthplace   of   tlic  wootlcii    clock,  wIhtc 
nearly   all     in    iist-     in    iIk-    I'niled 


tl 


le  land 


States  ha\e  been  made. 

of    Yankee     notions,    and    of    the 

original  lirother  Jonathan  and  llar- 

num. 

'I'iie  sun   was  the    tinie-iiiece  of 
(lur  forefathers,  just  as  the  sky  was 


to  tlieni  tlie  siLMial-station 


Necessity  of 


of  the  Weather  liureau  ;    'inne-pieces. 
1  they  were  reniarkaiily  knowini. 


aiK 


111 


regard  to  what  could  he  read  in 
the  sky  as  to  the  time  of  day  and 


(Dining    changes    o 


f    the 


air. 


ion:;  as  the  population  of  the  workl 
n)\ed    in    the    forests,  and    lahoreil 


hiellv   in    the     fields,    lime 


were  uimeix'ssarv 


■kee| 


)ers 


and  it  was  only 
when  i)eo})le  gathered  in  cities, 
and  found  that  in  the  engrossing 
pursuits  of  the  shop,  the  laboratory, 
and  the  studio,  they  could  not  keep 
track  of  the  flight  of  time,  that  in- 


th 


e     passing 


Th 


e  ancients 


struments  to  record 
huiirs  became  useful, 
tisi.'d  the  sun-dial,  the  clepsydra,  or 
water-glass,  and  the  hour-glass  ;  and 
Allivd  the  (Ireat  employed  ( andles 
whi(  h  would  burn  an  hour  apiece. 
Finally  a  machine  run  by  jj^f 
wei:(lus  was  em[)loyed  ;    kinds  of 


erent 


ami  Italy  invented,  ai  1  ''°'^''- 
Northern  JMirope  pertccted.  the  tall 
and  solemn  style  of  (lock  which 
tiiey  ])ut  on  the  landings  of  the 
staircases  and  in  t'le  towers  of  the 
cath 
thui 
k 


Irals.     The  pendulum  was  Hrst 
luht  of  for  the  purposes  of  timc- 


eepiiii;  at  Par 


IS  m  1639.  and  utili/ed 


at 


OIK  on    in    1641. 


Th 


ese    o 


Id 


dorks   ,ere  clumsy  and  ill-remilated 


lair- 


lach 


was   made 


bv  it< 


and  based  upon  a  fresh  set  of  abstruse  and  interminable  calculations  as  to  the 


I  >) 


ij,.;'!"' 


;  { 


-i . 


aa6 


IND  US  TKIA  I.    Ilia  TON  Y 


li-ngth  of  iH-ndiiliim  an<l  speed  of  wheels,  and  recinired  almost  as  many  spi'cial 
oliservations  of  its  motion  by  the  maker,  before  it  would  K<*  •■•k'^''  •'''  '^  »-'x- 
pcndcd  at  the  Naval  Observatory  at  Washington  upon  a  special  star  before 

its  position  in  the 
heavens  is  finally  and 
authoritatively  put 
down  upon  the  chart ; 
and  some  of  these  stars 
are  observed  several 
hundred  times.  'riu- 
early  c  lo(  ks  in  .America 
were  all  imported  from 
llnj^land  and  the  Nelh- 
iTJanils,  and  were  cost- 
ly pieces  of  furniture. 

Shortly  after  the 
Re  volu  t  ion,  clock 
making  was  begun  in 
this  country  at  I'lyni- 
oulh.  Conn.,  by  {•',li 
'I'erry,  one  of  the  old 
type  of  Yankees,  who 
fashioned   the  wooden 

Clock-mak-  \\ll^'^''^  **'' 
ing  began  ill      hJS     clocks 

Connecticut.  •  . ,      ,  , 

W  1  t  11     til  C 

aid  of  a  jack-knife,  and 
started  out  with  a  horse 
twice  a  year  to  peddle 
them.  The  wheels  were 
marked  out  on  thin  jjieces  of  wood  with  s(|uare  and  compass,  and  shajjod 
and  toothed  with  saw  and  knife.  Mr.  Terry  began  in  1793,  and  prospered 
so,  that  in  1800  he  was  able  to  employ  two  young  men  to  assist  him. 
Twice  a  year  he  started  out  towards  the  Hudson  River  and  the  north  country, 
whither  population  was  tending  at  that  jieriod,  to  sell  his  clocks ;  and  ln' 
disposed  of  them  readily  at  twenty-five  dollars  apiece.  In  1807  a  stoi  k 
company  was  formed  at  Waterbury  to  aid  Mr.  Terry ;  and  he  then  went  into 
business  on  a  large  scale,  buying  an  old  mill,  introducing  machinery,  and  lay- 
ing out  the  works  for  five  hundred  clocks  at  once.  —  something  which  it  is  said 
had  never  before  been  done.  In  1810  Mr.  Terry  sold  out  to  Thomas  ^V 
Hoodlcy  :  but  he  himself  continued  to  make  clocks.  Others  had  by  this  time 
become  established  in  clock-making ;  and  comi)etition  was  so  sharp,  that  the 
price  of  clocks  dropped  from  twenty-five  dollars  to  ten  dollars,  and  finall\-  to 


ALVAN  CLAHK,   MAKER   OF   ASTRONOMICAL   INSTIUMRNTH. 


OF    THE    I' SITED    STATES. 


"7 


spi'tial 

is  cx- 

bcfore 
in    the 
lly  ami 
cly  put 
■i  charl  ; 

OSC  SUUS 

sovL-ral 
s.  'Hm; 
Aincrioa 
•led  t"u)in 

/crc  cost- 
iirnilurc. 
:\l"tfr     the 
n,  clock 

begun   ill 

at   rlynv 

.,  by    i'.i> 

of  the  uUl 
iikees,   who 
le  wootlcn 
wheels    of 
lis    (locks 
with    the 
-knife,  and 
ilh  a  horse 
to  peddU' 
wheels  were 
,nd  sha\)cd 
prospered 

assist  him. 
•ih  connirv. 
s ;  and  he 
;o7  a  sioi'k 
n  went  iiiU' 
•y,  and  kiy- 
ich  it  is  said 

Thomas  '.'v: 
[by  this  time 
]irp,  that  the 

id  finally  tij 


five  ilollars.  'I'lic  i)ublic  was  greatly  benefited  by  this;  but  llie  manufacturers 
( ame  to  grief,  anil  many  of  tlu  lu  failed.  In  1S14  Mr.  Terry  invented  the 
pillar  scroll  top  case  clock,  which,  being  of  a  little  different  and  more  tasty 
>>iyle  than  its  predecessors,  was  popular  for  a  while.  It  sold  for  fifteen  dollars, 
and  netted  Mr.  Terry  a  forltme. 

The  next  step  in   advanc  e   was  taken  by  (!haun< cy  Jerome,  an  apprentice 
of  Mr.  Terry,  and  a  very  ingenious  fellow,  who,  with  the  passion   for  whittling 
characteristic  of  the  Yankee,  had  begun  to  make  wooden  clocks  before  he  left 
school.     Mr.  Jerome,  when  fairly  established  in  business,  employed   chauncey 
a  circular-saw  in  getting  out  his  wood,  and  was  able  to  produce   J«f<»"*- 
clocks  rapidly  and  cheaply.     lie  had  a  great   sale  all  over  the  Tnited  States. 


Sllll.rZS    WATCHMAN  S    (.LOCK. 


Tlio  clocks  ran  for  one  day,  and  are  said  to  have  been  good  time-keepers. 
\\\  1X37  ]\Ir.  Jerome  proved  his  ingenuity  by  I)ringing  out  the  one-day 
'  lo(  k  witii  metal  wheels,  —  an  event  which  completely  revolutionized  the 
whole  business.  He  employed  brass  at  first,  because  it  could  be  easily 
Worked.  Steel  has  been  introduced  only  recently.  The  brass  was  obtained 
ill  sheets,  and  machines  were  invented  to  stamp  from  the  siieets  the  eight  or 
ten  wheels  reciuired  by  each  clo(-k  in  a  single  operation.  Tliree  men  could 
eiit  out  the  works  for  five  hundred  clocks  in  a  single  day  with  these  machines, 
iind  the  cost  of  the  movements  was  soon  reduced  to  about  fifty  cents  apiece. 
As  the  wheels  of  each  clock  were  exactly  those  of  any  other  clock,  the  parts 
"f  one  could  be  interchanged  at  will  with  another,  or  taken  from  store;  which 


i 


w\ 


\:^' 


:S 


IND  US  TRIA  I.    I/IS  TON  Y 


'•   if  H 


II 


vK 


(I'lir^' 


was  found  of  vast  utility.  Wooden  clocks  wjrc  now  promptly  thrown  over- 
board by  all  nnkLTs.  They  had  been  subject  to  disarrangement  by  moist 
weather,  and  could  not  be  sent  beyond  seas  to  foreign  countries  with  which 
the  I'nited  States  were  engaged  in  commerce.  The  metal  clocks  defied 
moisture,  and  could  be  sent  aiivwhere  ;  and  the  manufacture  of  them  received 
an  en  jrmoiis  expansion,     'i'b.e)  were  si-nt  all  over  the  world,  and  were  found 

by  travellers  ticking  away  on  every  coast  and 
continent,  and  in  nearly  e\  ery  language  under 
the  sun.  Machinery  was  also  invented  to 
make  the  frames  of  the  clocks,  and  st.Miip  out 
the  dials  and  hands.  Mr.  Jerome's  business 
increased  from  the  few  hunilred  a  year  of  his 
early  days  to  four  hundred  and  forty-four 
thousand  a  year  in  1S53,  and  the  original 
'\jst  of  clocks  was  brought  down  to  a  dollar 
and  twenty-five  cents  apiece. 

A  good  story  is  "^old  of  a  shipment  of 
wooden  clocks  to  I'jigland  in  1841  by  ]\Ir. 
Jerome,  which  nay  be  placed  with  the  other 
Shipment  of  ^^ovj"  of  the  shipment  of  a  cargo 
of  warming-pans  to  the  West 
Indies  by  an  enterprising  Yankee, 
and  their  sale  there  as  sugar-scooi)s.  The 
law  of  England  permitted  the  customs-officers 
to  seize  upon  goods  imported  to  the  kingdom 
if  they  considered  them  to  be  undervalued, 
paving  the  importer  the  amount  of  his  valuation,  with  ten  per  cent  added. 
]\lr.  Jerome's  first  cargo  was  entc^d  in  England  at  regular  prices  ;  but  the 
o*'ficer  thought  the  valuation  so  low,  that  he  seized  the  clocks,  and  paid  Mr. 
Jerome  his  price  and  ten  per  cent  advance.  Not  partitailarly  afflicted  thereby. 
Mr.  Jerome  sent  over  another  cargo,  v.iiich  he  sold  to  the  customs-officer  in 
the  same  way.  He  then  sent  a  third  cargo  ;  but  the  second  one  had  been  an 
eye-opener,  and  Mr.  Jerome  was  permitted  to  import  his  goods  liimself. 

The  brass  clocks  had  a  great  sale,  and  there  were  in   i<S54  thirty  establish- 
ments in  Connecticut  making  them.     Barmnn  owned  one  of  them,  and  used 

History  of  **'  ^'-'"  ''  ^'^'S*-'  1'^''"'^  ^'^  '^'^  clocks  in  the  old-fashioned  '.vay.  In 
several  clock  183-  lie  sold  his  factory  to  the  Jerome  Com])any  ;  and,  owing  to 
companies.  ^|,^,  j.^^.^^^,  i\c\){^  of  the  former,  the  Jerome  Company  broke  down. 
The  New-Haven  Clock  Company  was  formed  to  succeed  it.  The  largest 
concerns  in  Connecticut  are  now  the  Xew-Haven,  the  Ansonia,  and  the 
Waterburv  Companies,  and  Seth  Thomas  .V  Companv. 

Steel  clocks.  .-.,  ^  ,  1  ^       r  •  %       /  r  1 

Uie  use  of  steel  works  and  of  springs,  and  of   fourteen  and 
thirty  day  clocks,  is  now  increasing,  and  the    style    of  time-keeper   is    con- 


clocks  to 
England. 


i.f)i'isvii,i.i';  CLOCK. 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


22g 


ni  over- 
)y  moist 
th  which 
:s   ckfK'd 

received 
:-re  found 
coast  and 
age  under 
vented   to 
stc-mp  out 
s  business 
year  of  his 
'  forty-four 
he   original 

to  a  dollar 

hipment  of 
841   hy  ^Ir- 
;h  the  other 
t  of  a  cargo 
)    the    West 
sing  Yankee, 
coops.     'I  he 
toms-officers 
ie  kingdom 
mlervalued. 
cent  added, 
es ;  hut  the 
nd  \)aid  M'"- 
cted  therehy. 
ms- officer  in 
had  been  an 
mselt. 

irty  estahlislv 
m,  and  used 
lied  vvay.     In 
nd,  owing  to 
broke  down. 
The  largest 
nia.  and  the 

fourteen  and 
|cper  is   con- 


stantly ciianging  and  improvmg.     Calendar  clocks,  to  indicate  the  day  and 
the  month  ;    astronomical  clocks,  electric,  burglar-alarms,  peep-of-day,  watch- 
man's  detector,  and   tower  clo(  ks  ;    clocks  to  run  a  hunilred  years  without 
winding;  illuminated   clocks  w:ih   phantasmagoria;  cl(H:ks  which    calendar 
consist  only  of  a  plate-glass  di:.'  and  a  pair  of  hands,  tlie  works   '^'o^'^s. 
bi'ing  concealed  in  the  iiands,  and  working  them  siniply  by  shifting  a  weight; 
and  other  styles,  —  ore  now  made  in  great  numbers.     The  latest  is  a  nutmeg 
clock,  which  will   run    in   any  position,  —  standing  up,  or   lying   Nutmeg 
down,  —  winding  \\\)  without  a  key,  and  good  to  travel  with  on   '='°'=''s. 
the  cars,  which  will  keep  good  time  under  the  most  discouraging  '  ircumstances. 
In  Wcitch-ma.cing  .\merica  made  no  venture  until   1S50.      ^abor  was  too 
high  and  too  impatient  here  to  attempt  this  art  in  competition  with  the  Swiss 
and  French.     Mechanical  talent  in  this  field  was  exclusively  em-   -^g^^^^^ 
ployed  in  repairing  and  regulating  watches  which  were  imported,    making  not 
In  1848,  Aaron  L.  Dennison,  a  watch-repairer,  and  lulward  How-    •'ee""  until 
ard.  a  clock-maker,  both  of  Boston,  consulted  about  the  idea  of 
making  watches  by  machinery.     They  studied  the  matter  for  two  years ;  and 
Mr.  Dennison,  the  author  of  the  project,  travelled  through  Switzerland,  care- 
fully informing   himself  in   regard  to  the   methods  and  weak  points  of  the 
industry  as  practised  there.     Experiments  were  made  at  Roxbury,  and  in  1850 
the  two  men  went  regularly  into  the  business.     After  the  first  thousand  watches 
were  made,  the  Boston  Watch  Company  was  formed,  with  its  factory  at  Rox- 
liiiry.     In  the  beginnihg  the  company  made  only  the  rough  skele-    Boston 
ton  movements,  cutting  ihem  out  by  machinery,  and  finishing  them   Watch  Com- 
largely  by  hand,  and  importing  the  jewels,  trains,  &c.,  from  Swit-   p^''^' 
/crland.      A  larger  factory  was  built  at  Waltham,  Mass.,  in   1854  ;    but  the 
outlay  for  machinery  and  expf^-iments  proved  too  heavy  for  the  company,  and 
it  tailed.     Mr.  Robhins  bought    he  factory  for  seventy-five  thousand  dollars, 
and  started  the  American  Watch  Company,  with  a  capital  of  two  hundred 
thousand  dollars,  which   has  sine .'   made   the   Waltham  watches   so   famous. 
]Mr.  Howard  went  back  to  Roxl  ir\-,  and  resumed  the  manufac-    Mr.  How- 
turc  of  watches  there.     Little  by  Httle  the  manufacturers  improved   ^'■'^• 
their  machinery,  until  at  length  they  have  ceased  to  import  an'-  of  the  parts 
of  the  watch,  and  they  make  everything  under  their  own  100'.    Progress  in 
The  minute  rubies,  sapphires,  and  chrysolites,  as  small   as  grains   watch- 
of  sand,  are  drilled  with  microscopic  exactness  by  the   diamond's   '"^'""k- 
point,  and  opened  out  with  diamond-dust  on  a  hair-like  iron  wire,  the  sizes  of 
the  jewels  being  graduateil  by  a  scale  which  indicates  differences  of  a  ten- 
tliousantlth  part  of  an  inch.     Screws  so   minute   that  it  takes  two  hundred 
thousand  to  weigh  a  pound  are  cut  from  a  steel  wire,  threaded,  and   headed 
witli  surprising  speed  and   accuracy.     The  wheels  and   pinions  are  cut  and 
l)ored  with  the  most  minute  exactness,  and  so  completely  alike,  that  the  watch 
may  he  assembled  from  wheels  and  parts  taken  at  random  from  the  resptv.r'"e 
heaps. 


^1! 


S   J' 4- Us; 


\m 


230 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


The  late  war  gave  a  great  impetus  to  watch-making.  The  United  States 
put  a  million  of  men  unaer  arms,  and  every  one  wanted  a  watch.  The  Ameri- 
Effectofwar  Can  Company  at  Waltham  increased  its  plant  in  1865,  its  capital 
upon  this  being  $750,000;  and  new  companies  were  formed  in  various  parts 
industry.  ^j-  ^j^^.  country.  The  American  Company  has  since  then  doubled 
its  capital.  To-day  there  are  eleven  factories  making  watches,  the  principal 
ones  being  the  American  Company  at  Waltham,  which  produces  about  four 
History  of  hundred  and  twenty-five  movements  a  day,  and  the  Elgin  National 
Watch  Company  at  IClgin,  111.,  which  makes  three  hundred  a  daw 
The  Empire  City  Watch  Company  at  Jersey  City,  N.J.,  and  Rob- 
bins,  Clark,  ii:  Biddle  of  Philadelphia,  are  also  prominent  makers. 


other  com- 
panies. 


lil.C.lN   WAICH    LOMTANY. 


American  watches,  though  discredited  at  first,  have,  of  late  years,  produced 
a  decided  sensation  in  the  world  of  industry.  From  the  time  when  all  the 
parts  of  the  watch  began  to  be  made  by  the  factories  here,  the  companies 
have  been  turning  out  a  better  ordinary  time-keeper  than  the  Swiss  watdi. 
Swiss  watches  held  their  own  for  a  while,  on  account  of  their  cheapness,  in 
1S72  three  hundred  and  sixty-six  thousand  of  them  were  sent  to  the  United 
States.  In  1876  the  Elgin  Company  announced  a  reduction  of  the  prices  of 
their  watches  from  forty  to  fifty  per  cent.  Seven  movements  with  visible 
pallets  were  sold  at  four  dollars.  That  was  a  terrible  blow  to  the  importeil 
time-piece ;  but  a  still  more  staggering  one  was  inflicted  by  the  AValtham  coii- 
Swiss  cern,  which  immediately  announced  a  large  reduction  of  priees 

watch.  below  those  of  their  ri\'als.     The  Swiss  watch  could  not  stand  that, 

and  the  importation  of  them  in  1876  was  only  seventy-five  thousand.  The 
Americans,  on  the  other  hand,  are  now  beginning  to  exjiort;  and  they  semi 
from  twenty  thousand  to  thirty  thousand  to  P^ngland  alone,  and  are  menacing 
the  Swiss  make  in  all  the  market.s  of  the  world. 


^1 


'*i 


ted  States 
he  Ameri- 
its  capital 
.rious  parts 
n  doubled 
e  principal 
about  four 
in  National 
Ired  a  day. 
..  and  Rob- 


^ars,  produced 
when  all  the 
|he  companies 
Swiss  watdi. 
Iheapness.     li^ 
Ito  the  United 
Ithe  prices  of 
Is   with  visible 
the  imported 
Waltham  con- 
kion  of  pri'-^'^ 
l-iot  stand  that, 
tousand.    '1  ^^'■' 
md  they  send 
lare  menacing; 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


IRON    PIPiiS    AND    TUBES. 


9%\ 


This  important  industry  took   its   rise  in  the  United  States  about  1835, 
and  was  essentially  the  outgrowth  of  the  business  of  supplying  cities   and 
villages  with  water  and  gas.     Many  of  the  companies  which  now  manufacture 
pipes  were  founded  long  before  1835,  —  as,  for  instance,  the  Bridgewater  Iron 
Company  in  Massachusetts,  which  was  started  in  18 10  by  Lazell   Rise  of  pipe- 
iS:  Perkins ;  the  great  Pascal  Iron-Works  in  Philadelphia,  founded  industry, 
in  1821  by  Stephen  P.  Morris;  and  the  Camden  Iron-Works,  in  the  city  of  that 
name  in  New  Jersey,  which  began  in  1824:  but  these  works  were  originally 
devoted  to  the  product  of  other  varieties  of  iron-ware,  stoves,  &c.,  and  took 
up  pipe-making  because  of  the  new  demand  which  sprang  up  about  1835. 
The  number  of  pipe  and  tube  establishments,  which  is  seventy-seven,  does  not 
represent  the  magnitude  of  the  industry,  for  some  of  the  largest   Magnitude 
works  in  the  United  States  are  devoted  to  this  specialty,  and  three   of  the  busi. 
of  them  claim   to   be   the  largest  of  their  class  in  the  world  :   "*^'' 
namely,  the    Pascal    Iron-Works   at    Philadelphia,  covering   twelve   acres   of 
ground,  and  employing  two  thousand  hands ;   the  National  Pipe  and  Tube 
Works  at  Pittsburgh,  with  a   production  of  sixty  thousand  tons   Principal 
of  gas  and  water  pipe  annually ;    and  the  Reading  Tube-Works   works. 
at  Reading,  Penn.,  employing  twenty-five  hundred  men.      The  factories  are 
disliibuted  Co  follows  :  — 

Massachusetts,  eight ;  New  Hampshire,  two ;  Rhode  Island,  two ;  Con- 
necticut, one ;  New  York,  twenty-one ;  New  Jersey,  five ;  Pennsylvania, 
twenty-six  ;  Ohio,  seven  ;  Kentucky,  two  ;  Michigan,  one  ;  Missouri,  one  ; 
Wisconsin,  one. 

The  following  is  the  character  of  the  prodiict  of  these  works  :  cast-iron 
gas  and  water  mains,  wrought-iron  steam,  gas,  and  water  pipes  and  fittings, 
lap  and  butt  welded  boiler-tubes,  artesian-well  pipe,  oil-well  tubing,  Product  of 
coil-pipe,  galvanized  pipe,  tuyere  coils,  lamp-posts,  vulcanized  works, 
rubber-coated  tube,  greenhouse-pipe,  drain-pipe,  railway  water  columns, 
fittings,  and  tools.  At  the  factory  of  Dennis  Long  &  Company  in  Louisville  — 
one  of  the  largest  for  cast-iron  pipe  in  the  country,  which  is  equipped  with 
t'.ree  founderies  —  a  kirge  number  of  old  cannon  have  been  converted  since 
tlie  war  into  the  innocent  uses  of  gas  and  water  supply. 

The  making  of  cast-iron  pipt,  is  so  simple  as  to  need  no  description. 

Wrought-iron   pipe-making   is  quite  a   c     ^^ent   affair.      In    practice  the 
operation  is  rapid  and  simple.     The  iron-plate  iieated  to  redness,  and  partly 
bent  by  apparatus  made  for  the  purpose,  is   dragged  from    the 
turnace,  and  the  end  presented  to  a  ponderous  machine.     It  goes   making 
through  the  machine  like  a  flash  of  liditninc:,  emitting  a  scries  of  wrought- 

000  j^Qf,  pipe. 

^Iiarp  reports  like  a  volley  of  musketry ;    and  as  it  is  projected 

straight  and  glowing  from  the  jaws  that  held  it,  the  edges  perfectly  welded,  it 


232  INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 

strongly  rcscmbk's  a  tIiun(lcrl)olt  forged  by  \'ulcan  himself.  The  workmen 
have  little  to  do  except  to  take  the  plates  from  the  furnace  at  the  right 
moment,  and  feed  them  to  the  welding-machine.  l!ul  the  machine  itself  is 
not  so  simple,  and  is  tlie  ])roduct  of  a  great  deal  oi  study  and  experiment. 
Two  forms  of  weld  are  given,  —  the  butt-weld,  in  which  the  edges  of  the  heated 
])late  are  forced  intcj  contact  under  great  pressure,  and  tlius  united ;  and  the 
lap-weld,  in  wiiich  the  edges  of  the  plate  are  made  to  lap,  and  are  then  per- 
fe<  lly  miited  by  pressure.  Tiie  former  weld  is  suitable  for  gas  and  other  pipes 
which  are  subjected  to  no  special  strain  :  the  latter  is  essential  for  boiler  and 
steam  tubes,  (S;c.  The  butt-weld  is  produced  by  first  bending  the  plates  until 
their  edges  nearly  touch,  and  then,  after  heating,  running  them  through  a  set 
of  iron  jaws  by  means  of  api)aratus  suited  to  the  purpose.  The  opening  in 
the  jaws  gradually  contracts  from  a  size  adpjned  to  the  partially-bent  jjlate,  or 
"  skelp,"  to  a  perfect  circle  the  size  of  the  finished  tube ;  and  as  the  i)late  goes 
through  this  smaller  aperture,  a  great  pressure  being  exerted  on  all  sides  of  tlie 
tube  at  once,  the  edges  come  into  forcible  contact,  and  unite  perfectly.  Tlie 
lap-welding  process  is  similar  in  principle,  but  varies  in  detail.  The  edges  of 
the  plate  are  first  shaved  or  "  scarfed  "  by  machinery,  so  that,  when  they  lap, 
they  will  not  form  a  double  thickness  of  metal.  It  is  requisite  now  in  welding 
to  apply  pressure  to  the  inside  as  well  as  the  outside  of  the  tube,  in  order  that 
the  edges  shall  not  curl  under :  this  is  accomplished  by  means  of  a  mandrel 
of  slightly  conical  form,  which  is  carried  at  the  end  of  an  iron  rod  somewhat 
smaller  than  the  diameter  of  the  tube  to  be  welded.  As  the  heated  plate  is 
forced  into  the  jaws  of  the  machine,  the  mandrel  enters  the  tube  ;  and  thus  a 
powerful  pressure  is  exerted  both  within  and  without,  and  the  weld  becomes 
l)erfecdy  homogeneous.  The  mandrel  is  destroyed  by  the  tremendous  opera- 
tion to  which  it  has  been  subjected,  and  a  new  one  is  put  on  for  the  next  tube. 
It  is  this  process  which  creates  the  sound  of  musket-firing.  The  reader  can 
imagine  the  interesting  nature  of  it  in  a  factory  where  eighteen  or  twenty 
furnaces  are  going  at  once. 

The  jianic  of  1873  put  an  end  temporarily  to  the  improvement  of  real  estate 
and  the  enlargement  of  cities.  Most  of  the  i)ipe  and  tube  companies  have 
Effect  of  accordingly  shortened  their  production.  Some  of  them  stopped 
panic  of  1873.  \v()rk.  In  an  ordinary  year  the  seventy-seven  factories  will  con- 
sume about  three  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  tons  of  pig-iron,  and  manufac- 
ture a  i)roduct  worth  over  twelve  million  dollars.  The  Pascal  Works,  whicli 
adds  the  manufacture  of  gas-generating  machinery  and  boilers  for  ranges  to  its 
other  business,  has  a  yearly  product  of  nearly  five  million  dollars. 


*?U  5« 


LOCOMOTIVES. 


It  is  a  trait  of  our  countrymen  that  they  have  never  been  able  to  export  in 
large  (juant'^iies  their  raw  materials  and  crude  fabrications   (cotton  alone  ex- 


u 


kmcn 
vigbV 
self  is 
imcnt. 
lioatcd 
lul  the 
;u  per- 
:r  \)\\)^^ 

kr  and 
es  until 
h  a  set 
■ning  in 
[)Uitc,  or 
ate  goes 
■s  of  the 

ly.   'n>L- 

jdges  of 

they  lap, 

1  welding 

)rder  that 
mandrel 

somewhat 

1  plate  is 

lid  thus  a 

becomes 

us  opera- 

-lext  tube. 

ader  can 

or  twenty 

Ireal  estate 
mies  have 
(i  stoppt^d 
will  con- 
manvifac- 
yks,  whicli 
liges  to  its 


export  w 
lalone  ex- 


O/'-    THE     ex/ TED    S7'ATES. 


233 


cepted),  for  tlie  reason  that  the  :;nialler  wages  and  cheaper  (•ai)ital  of  luirope 
have  prevented  Americans  from  entering  into  competition.      iJut,   Ameiican 
when  it  comes  to  tlie   exportation  of  objects  reciuiring  for  tlieir   'ocomotive. 
production  a  constructive  ability  and  a  mechanical  skill  of  the  very  highest 
order,  our  countrymen   have  shown  themselves  able  to  compete    us  supenor- 
wiUi  and  surpass  the  world,     'i'he  fact  is  exhib't^d  in  the  history  of  ''y- 
the  locomotive  in  America.      I'ig  and  bar  iron  and  steel  have  been  among  the 
most  insignificant  of  our  exports.     Manufacturers  abroad  have  heard  that  the 
iron  of  the  Continent  rivals  in  (juality  the  famous  ores  of  Sweden.     \'et  what 
they  know  about  it  is  from  books  and  travellers  :  they  ha\  e  scarce  ever  seen 


MOUEKN    LOCOMOTIVE. 


any  of  it ;  for  it  does  not  enter  into  foreign  commerce.  Rut  that  sjjlendid 
( reation,  the  .American  locomotive,  into  which  this  same  iron  is  flishioned,  is 
now  known  all  over  the  globe,  and  is  freely  employed  in  most  of  the  civilized 
<ountries,  as  being  the  strongest,  swiftest,  and  most  enduring  of  these  willing 
;;crvants  of  man.  In  the  calendar  year  cf  1876  less  than  :\  thousand  tons  of 
raw  iron  and  steel  were  exported  from  the  United  States.  I'.ut  we  have 
recently  seen  a  single  steamshi])  loading  at  PhihKlelphia  with  thirty  loco- 
motives,—  containing  nearly  a  thousand  tons  of  finished  iron,  and  Export  of 
worth  six  hundred  thousand  dollars, —  for  transportation  to  Russia  them. 
alone,  on  an  order  from  the  Imperial  (jovernment.  The  American  locomotive 
is  used  and  admired  in  Austria,  Italy,  (ireece,  Russia,  Egypt,  South  America, 
and  Australia,  and  even  in  (Germany,  the  land  where  a  single  great  master- 
workman —  Krui)p,  the  captain  of  modern  industry,  as  Mr.  Hewitt  calls  him 
—  jmploys  ten  thousand  men  largely  in  the  production  of  this  class  of  works. 
1  lie  orders  sent  to  America  increase  as  time  goes  on  ;  and  the  new  railways  of 
tlu'  future,  especially  on  the  southern  half  of  this  continent,  will  be  largely 
operated  by  the  engines  made  by  the  workmen  of  the  United  States,  —  the 
siuiutest,  liveliest,  most  intelligent  mechanics  under  the  sun. 


m 


I  i 


i  -r 


..'  ti'li       :    <  I 


234 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


As  will  be  related  in  the  chapter  on  Railroads  in  another  part  of  this 
book,  the  locomotive  is  an  afterthought  of  the  men  who  attempted  to  build 
carriages  to  run  on  *'..e  ordinary  wagon-roads  by  steam-power.  The  first  sug- 
Dr.  Robi-  gestiou  was  made  by  Dr.  Robison,  then  a  student  in  the  Univer- 
8°"-  sity  at  C.lasgow,  in  1759.     Watt  afterwards  took  up  the  idea,  but 

accomplished  nothing  with  it,  berause  he  was  an  opponent  of  the  high-pressure 
system,  and  the  low-pressure  engines  were  too  heavy  to  be  successful  in  loco- 
Richard  \x'.-  motion.  Richard  Irevittrick  saw  the  trouble,  and  in  1802  took  out 
vittrick.  ^  patent  for  a  steam  road-carriage  on  the  high-pressure  principle, 

which  attracted  some  attention.  In  1804  he  built  the  first  railway  locomotive, 
which  he  worked  at  Merthyr-Tydvil,  in  South  Wales,  on  a  tram-road.  In  the 
next  twenty-five  years  a  number  of  patents  for  locomotives  were  taken  out  in 
England.  Capitalists  were  slow  to  place  confidence  in  the  new  idea,  however ; 
for  they  feared,  that,  with  a  heavy  train  of  cars,  the  wheels  of  the  engine  would 
Early  diffi-  slip  round  on  the  rails,  and  the  train  would  not  start.  Adhesion  to 
cuities.  ti^g  rails  by  cogs  or  otherwise  was  thought  necessary.     This  was 

shown  to  be  unnecessary  in  1829  by  experiments  made  upon  the  Liverpool 
and  Mancliester  Railway,  —  the  pioneer  line  in  England,  which  was  opened  for 
travel  that  year.  The  directors  had  offered  a  premium  of  five  hundred  pounds 
for  the  best  locomotive-engine,  not  to  exceed  six  tons  in  weight,  which  should 
draw  three  times  its  own  weight  at  a  speed  of  ten  miles  an  hour,  and  cost  not 
over  five  hundred  and  fifty  pounds.  Five  engines  were  entered  for  the  coin- 
petition, —  "The  Rocket,"  "Novelty,"  "Perseverance,"  "Sans  Pareil,"  and 
"Cyclopbde  ;  "  and  "The  Rocket  "  demonstrated  its  capacity  to  make  twenty- 
four  miles  an  hour,  drawing  a  train  three  times  its  ov/n  weight.  A  few 
attempts  to  introduce  the  cogged  wheel  and  rail  were  made  even  after  that ; 
but  they  attracted  little  attention,  and  amounted  to  nothing.  An  era  of 
locomotive-building  now  began. 

The  first  engines  used  in  the  United  States  were  imported  from  England 
for  the  Delaware  and  Hudson  Canal  Company,  the  Mohawk  and  Hudson  Rail- 
First  engines  ^^'^^ i  '^'^^  ^he  Baltimore  and  Ohio  Railway.  The  pioneer  was  an 
absurd  little  affoir  called  "The  Lion,"  which  in  1828  was  placed  on 
the  Delaware  and  Hudson  Company's  road,  on  the  banks  of  the 
Lackiwaxen,  and  started  on  its  first  trip  by  Mr.  Horatio  Allen.  Compared 
with  the  engines  of  to-day,  it  might  better  have  been  called  "The  Chipmuk  : " 
still  it  was  rather  an  impressive  affair  then.  There  was  some  apprehension  as 
to  how  the  little  monster  would  perform,  and  many  thought  that  the  trestk- 
work  bridge  across  the  creek  would  not  sustain  its  weight.  Mr.  Allen  fouml 
no  one  willing  to  make  the  firsL  trip  across  the  bridge  :  so  he  went  out  alone 
with  the  engine  himself,  in  the  presence  of  a  great  crowd  of  spectators,  his 
own  hair  standing  on  end,  however,  as  he  rounded  some  of  the  curves,  and 
flew  over  the  bridge.  The  .••esiilts  of  the  trial  were  satisfactory.  "  The  Lion  " 
neither  blew  up,  nor  ran  away,  nor  leaped  into  the  creek,  nor  broke  down 


used  in  Unit 
ed  States. 


,rt  of  this 
i  to  build 
:  first  sug- 
le  Univer- 
e  idea,  but 
gh-pressure 
ul  in  loco- 
02  took  out 
e  principle, 
locomotive, 
ad.     In  die 
aken  out  in 
ea,  however ; 
mgine  would 
Adhesion  to 
y.     This  was 
he  Liverpool 
as  opened  for 
ndred  pounds 
which  should 
and  cost  not 

for  the  com- 
i  Pareil,"   and 

make  twenty- 
|eight.     A   few 

■en  after  that ; 
An  era  of 

[from  England 
Hudson  Rail- 
noneer  was  an 
was  placed  on 
banks  of  the 
tn.     Compared 
lie  Chipmuk." 
^prehension  as 
[lat  the  tresdc- 
[r.  Allen  found 
Ivent  out  alone 
spectators,  hi^ 
ihe  curves,  an(l 
'The  Lio»" 
)r  broke  ilown 


O/'    r//£    UNITED    llT.tTFS. 


235 


E.  L.  Miller. 


the  bridge.      It  clung  to  the  track,  made  very  fair  time,  and  was  entirely 
tractable. 

Several  other  engines  were  bought  abroad  about  this  time  for  the  purpose  s 
of  experiment  and  study ;  but  the  jjurchases  continued  for  only  a  few  yean , 
and  were  very  limited  in  extent.     The  inventive   genius   of  the   Numerous 
United  States  was  aroused,  and  a  number  of  mechanics  in  different  American 
parts  of  the  country  determined  to  attempt  the  building  of  engines  '"^*""°"'- 
hce.     The  Patent  Office  was  overwhelmed  with  api)lications  for  a  patent  for 
this  uiid  that  device,  and  form  of  construction  ;   and  in  a  very  few  years  the 
demands  of  the  railroads  of  the  United  States  were  fully  met  by  the  American 
shops. 

The  first  locomotive  made  in  the  United  States  was  the  idea  of  Mr.  E.  I,. 
Miller  of  Charleston,  S.C.,  wiio  came  North  in  1830  to  arrange  for  the 
])uilding  of  the  machine  for  a  railroad  in  which  he  was  interested, 
running  out  of  Charleston  across  the  country,  toward  the  city  of 
Hamburg.  Mr.  Samuel  Hall  of  the  West-Point  Foundery,  New  York,  iindtM- 
took  to  make  the  engine  under  his  direction.  It  was  completed  in  1830,  sent 
South,  and  operated  the  same  year  on  the  railroad  out  of  Charles-  ^.  j^^^_ 
ton,  of  which  eight  miles  had  been  built.  Mr.  H.  Allen  had  been  motive  made 
secured  as  chief  engineer,  and  the  locomotive  was  first  exhibited  to   '"  Umted 

*  '  States. 

the  people  of  the  South  by  him.  It  was  appropriately  called  "The 
ISest  Friend."  That  particular  engine  did  what  a  man's  best  friend  never  does, 
—  promised  much  and  performed  little,  and  finally  left  the  railroad  entirely  in 
the  lurch  by  blowing  up  in  a  very  short  time  after  it  was  put  into  the  service. 
Vet  no  better  title  was  ever  given  to  a  locomotive  in  Amer."  .u ;  lor  this  princely 
invention  has  been  indeed  to  the  people  of  the  United  States  since  that  early 
(lay  their  "  best  friend." 

A  stimulus  was  given  to  the  mechanical  and  inventive  genius  of  the  coun- 
try in  1 83 1  by  an  advertisement  issued  by  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  Railroad 
Company,  which  had,  since   May,    1830,   been    operating  twelve   stimulus 
miles  of  road  west  from   Baltimore  by  horse-power.     The  com-   given  by 
l)any  offered   rewards   of  four  thousand  anel  thircy-five   hundred   ^^^  Qhio 
dollars  respectively  for  the  locomotives,  which,  upon  trial,  should   Railroad 
l)rove    to  be    the  first  and  second   best  in    complying  with  the     "'"p^^v- 
published  requirements   of  tne   company.     Three  locomotives   were  built  in 
answer  to  this  liberal  offer;  and  the  prize  was  awarded  to  "The  York,"  an 
eiiniue  built  at  the  city  of  that  name  in  Pennsylvania  by  Davis  o: 
(iaitner,  which  was  found  to  be  able  to  draw  fifteen  tons  at  the 
rale  cf  fifteen  miles  an  hour.     Being  employed  on  the  road  to  Ellicott  Mills, 
a  distance  of  twelve  miles,  it  generally  made  the  trip  with  four   cars  in   an 
lu)iu-.     On  a  straight  track  it  attained  a  velocity  equal  to  thirty  miles  an  hour. 
IIk   success   of    "  The   York "   was    a   great   encouragement    to    American 
uuiiders ;    and  rhapsodies  of  the  most  inflated  description  over  the  "  march 


"The  York." 


1 


*  i 


I 


'„   fi- 


iS 


ff: 


m  I 


^^ 


K'i« 


il  ilif  ■ 

I  'i'IImii 


2,36 


/Xn  I  \S  TK I A  T.    HIS  TON  V 


of  steam  "  filled  the  newspapers  of  that  day,  elicited  by  the  performances  of 
"The  York."  I'lie  i'.alliiuore  and  ( )liio  Coinpany  held  out  every  inducement 
to  mechanics  from  thai  time  Ajrward  to  improve  upon  "The  V'ork,"  and  build 
a  class  of  engines  of  great  adhesion  to  the  track,  and  of  better  working-power. 

In  1S31  "The  De  Witt  Clinton  "  was  built  at  the  West-Point  Foundery  for 
"DeWitt  the  Mohawk  and  Hudson  Road.  It  weighed  four  tons,  ran  on 
Clinton."        f^J^,I■  wheels,  and  made  forty  miles  an  hour  without  a  load. 

In  1832  a  locomotive  was  made  by  Matthias  W.  lialdwin  of  Philadelphia 
for  the  little  six- mile  railroad  running  out  from  that  city  to  (lermantown,  the 
Matthias  w.  cai ,  of  which  Were  at  that  time  being  (h'awn  by  horses.  Like  all 
Baldwin.  ^f  Qj,f  succes;5ful  engine-buiUlers,  Mr.  lialdwin  rose  from  the 
.shop.  He  began  life  as  a  jeweller,  learning  his  tratle  in  the  store  of  Flet(  her 
&  (iardiner,  and  afterwards  having  a  little  shop  of  his  own.  The  demand  for 
his  jewelry  not  being  very  satisfiictory,  '  ?  went  into  a  machine-shop  in  partner- 
ship with  David  Maso...  A  stationary  .iteam-engine  specially  adapted  to  the 
needs  ci  the  slio))  having  become  desirable,  Mr.  IJaldwin  designed  one  himself. 
T^e  wr  J  thus  interested  in  steam-engineering;  and  he  found  it  easy  to  go  one 
step  'arther,  and  attempt  a  locomotive,  when  the  era  of  railway-building  began 
in  the  United  States.  His  primitive  locomotive,  built  for  the  Germantown 
•Old  Iron-  Road,  was  named  ''Old  Ironsides,"  and  was  tried  on  the  line  in 
sides."  November,  1.S32.     It  weighed  five  tons,  and  ran  on  four  wheels, 

the  forward  pair  being  forty-five  inches  in  diameter  and  the  driving-wheels 
fifty-four  inches,  and  the  whole  four  having  wooden  spokes.  The  cylinders 
were  nine  inches  and  a  half  in  diameter,  with  eighteen  inches  stroke.  The 
boiler  had  seventy-two  copper  flues.  The  smoke-stack  was  an  absurdly  tall 
nffliir,  rising  a:  great  distance  above  the  machine,  —  a  foct,  however,  which  did 
not  prevent  the  sparks  from  burning  the  clothes  of  the  engineer  and  the  pas- 
sengers. There  was  no  cabin  fcM-  the  engineer;  and,  it  being  inconvenient  for 
that  functionary  to  carry  an  umlirella  when  it  rained,  the  engine  was  housed  in 
wt;t  weather,  and  the  cars  drawn  by  horses.  It  cost  thirty-fi\'e  hundred  dollars. 
Mr.  Baldwin  get  five  hundred  dollars  less  for  it  th-n  he  expected ;  and,  haxinjj 
many  other  discoLiragements  vith  it,  he  vowed  that  l">e  would  never  build 
another  locomotive.  But  he  did,  for  all  that;  and,  his  later  attemi)ts  beinu 
extremely  successful,  the  works  founded  by  him  are  the  foremost  in  the  country 
"E.  L  Mil-  to-day.  la  1834  he  built  a  six-wheeled  engine  for  Mr.  Miller,  for 
!"•"  the  South -Carolina  Road,  call.d     The  K.  L.  Miller,"  with  wheels 

of  .solid  1)ell-metai,  the  purpose  of  which  vas  to  gain  a  better  arlhesion  to  the 
r.v'ls.  It  is  hardly  necess.ary  to  sa^'  that  die  experiment  with  that  metal  was  nol 
repeated!.  The  wheels  wore  out  \ery  (]uickiy,  and  had  to  be  thrown  aside.  In 
June,  1834,  Mr.  Baldwin  completed  a  successful  locomotive,  called  "The  L.an- 
<-aster,"  for  the  States  Road,  which  ran  out  from  Philadelpliia  to  Columbia,  and 
connected  there  with  the  canai  to  the  western  part  of  the  State.  The  engine 
weighed   eight  tons  and  a  half,   and  was  found  to  be  able  to   haul  nineteen 


.:/ 


I 


OF  Tin-:   vxiTi-.n  states. 


2.^7 


anccs  of 
luccnicnt 
md  build 
r-jjowcr. 
ndcry  for 
H,  ran  on 

iladclphia 
Uown,  tlio 
Like  all 
from   thu 
f  Fletcher 
[eniand  tor 
in  partncr- 
itcd  to  the 
ine  himsell. 
to  go  one 
Iding  \)Cgan 
lerniantown 
the  hne  in 
fonr  wheels, 
iving-wheels 
le  cylinders 
troke.     'Hie 
absvu-dly  tall 
■,  which  did 
nd  the  pas- 
iivenient  for 
IS  housed  in 
h-ed  dollars, 
and,  ha\  inp 
never  buiUl 
mpts  bein,^ 
the  countr}' 
|r.  Miller,  for 
Iwith  wheels 
,esion  to  the 
letal  was  noi 
|n  aside.     In 
"The  l.an- 
lUnnbia.  ami 
Phe  engine 
Lul  nineteen 


loaded  cars  at  twice 
die  si)eed  attained 
with  horses.  The 
State  authorities  were 
ureatly  pleasetl  witii 
its  performances,  and 
ilei  ided  to  convert 
their  railroad  at  once 
trom  a  horse  line  to  a 
steam  line.  Mr.  Bald- 
win gained  a  great 
(leal  ot  credit  frcjm 
••The  Lancaster;" 
and,  receiving  several 
orders,  he  thencetbr- 
wai'd  devoted  himself 
to  tlie  industry,  and 
luunded  the  works 
whicji  have  since  at- 
tained to  such  niagni- 
tude  of  operation  and 
Wfjrld-wiile  reputa- 
tion. Mr.  lialdwin 
couibinevl  the  best 
iiualiliesof  theAmeri- 

'^"^     ™^'-     Baldwin's 
chanil  , —    improve- 

nneiitivc 

,i;eiiuis  of  a  high  t)rder 
and  unllagging  perse- 
verance, (jualilies  not 
ahvays  nnited  in  the 
same  man.  He  was 
always  iniijnning  nis 
b'c (J motives,  and 
iiiainof  the  most  im- 
l"'r'  'lit  inventions  of 
llie  art  were  Ins  own. 
'"  i'S35  he  b.ught 
"lie  device  from  I',.  L. 
"tinier,  which  aftei 
^\ards  he  threw  over- 
'"'ard.       This  was  a 


i! 


i 


! 


\-^ 


»ss 


l.\n  I  \S  TA'  I A  I.    ins  TON  J  ■ 


< '.. 


i 

I 

i 

. 

J 

i 

ii 

plan  for  bringing  part  of  the  wcigiit  of  the  tender  upon  the  rear  of  the 
engine,  thus  increasing  the  pressure  upon  the  driving-wheels,  and  conse- 
quently the  adhesion  of  the  engine.  Mr.  Baldwin  adopted  this  device,  and 
paid  a  hundred  dollars  per  engine  for  it,  and  in  1839  bought  the  patent  for 
nine  thousand  dollars.  lie  afterwards  i)erfe(:ted  plans  of  his  own  for  accom- 
l)lishing  the  same  object  of  greater  adhesion  in  a  better  way.  The  Baldwin 
engines  gradually  improved  in  size  and  style  from  year  to  year.  Cabins  were 
built  upon  them  for  the  engineers  and  firemen.  The  old  style  of  a  single  pair 
of  drivers  was  changed  to  two  pairs,  and  in  1855  to  three  pairs;  ten-wheeled 
engines  weighing  twenty-seven  tons  being  built  in  that  year  for  several  of  the 
leading  roads.  In  1866  "The  Consolidation,"  weighing  forty-five  tons,  with 
twelve  wheels,  and  carrying  all  except  five  tons  of  its  weight  upon  the  drivers, 
was  built,  being  the  parent  of  a  class  of  engines  of  enormous  power  of  that 
name.  Ilead-lights,  variable  cut-offs,  and  other  features  of  the  modern  lo- 
comotive, were  successively  introduced  liy  Mr.  Baldwin  ;  and  the  works  called 
by  his  name  are  now  producing  types  of  engines  which  are  not  surpassed  at 
the  present  day. 

After  the  original  experiments,  shops  for  engine-building  were  ojK'ned  in 
various  parts  of  the  country.  In  1833  Long  iS:  Norris  of  I'hiladelphia  built 
Recent  rapid  "^^'^  engine  of  such  unusual  tractive  power,  that  it  commanded 
growth  of  attention  in  ICngland,  and  led  to  the  first  exportation  of  .American 
ustry.  locomotives.  Several  were  ordered  from  the  maker  for  employ- 
ment on  the  line  between  Birmingham  and  (Uoucestcr.  In  1835  engines 
were  built  at  Lowell,  Mass.  In  1837  a  firm  at  Paterson,  N.J.,  —  Rogers,  Ketch- 
lun,  &  Crosvenor,  —  began  the  business,  and  founded  the  works  which  are  now 
known  as  the  Rogers  Locomotive  Works.  Mr.  Rogers  was  (in  1849)  ^1""^'  fi""^*^ 
to  employ  the  link  motion  in  locomotive  practice  in  this  country;  and  he  had 
to  encounter  the  hearty  opposition  of  Mr.  Baldwin  and  others  for  several 
years  before  the  utility  of  the  idea  was  conceded.  Mr.  Baldwin,  after  a  Ioii.l; 
fight  against  the  inno  ation,  yielded  to  it  in  1854,  and  put  it  upon  his  engines. 
The  Rogers  Works  are  also  to  be  credited  with  the  full-s'ircjke  pump,  and  the 
effectual  jacketing  of  the  boiler  to  prevent  radiation.  In  1847  the  I'aunton 
Locomotive  Factory  was  established  by  W.  W.  Fairbanks,  a  boiler-maker  of 
Providence,  R.I.  Shops  were  also  started  about  that  time  at  Boston,  Law- 
rence, Manchester,  and  elsewhere ;  but  most  of  these  soon  ceased  to  do  busi- 
ness, the  shops  in  the  Middle  States  possessing  superior  advantages  for  the 
manufacture.  The  Messrs.  Winans  at  Baltimore  perfected  many  valuable 
ideas  in  locomotive-building,  and  were  the  inventors  of  the  camel-back 
engine,  which  has  obtained  some  celebrity. 

Of  late  years,  tlie  larger  railroads  of  the  country  have  begun  to  construct 

Locomotives   locomotives  in  their  own  shops.     One  effect  of  this  has  been  to 

built  in  rail-     concentrate  the  production  l)y  private  comi)anies  into  fewer  hands, 

ops.      .^j^j  ^j^^_  manufacture  is  now  principally  confined  to  Paterson  and 

Philadelphia. 


'U  »,. 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


239 


of  the 

conse- 
ice,  and 
itent  for 
■  accom- 

BaUlwiii 
)ins  were 
nglc  pair 
i-\vheclc»l 
ral  of  the 
tons,  with 
le  drivers, 
or  of  that 
lodcrn  lo- 
3rks  called 
irpassed  at 

opened  in 
:lphii  built 
onimanded 
f  Anierit-an 
or  employ- 
35   engines 
rers,  Ketch- 
ich  are  now 
^9)  the  first 
md  he  had 
for  several 
after  a  lon^ 
"lis  engines, 
^-ip,  and  the 
lie  Taunton 
;r-maker  of 
iston,  T.aw- 
Ito  do  busi- 
lages  for  the 
ny  valuable 
camel-back 

lo  construct 

lias  been  K' 

fewer  hand>. 

xterson  and 


The  principal  improvements  of  the  last  twenty  years  have  bi-en  due  to  the 
necessity  of  fitting  smoke-stacks  with  an  apparatus  to  catch  the   j^    ^^g. 
sparks  ;  to  the  substitution  of  coal  for  fuel  in  place  of  wood,  cans-    ments  of  Uat 
ing  many  changes  in  construction,  and  the  building  uf  a  larger  »^«"*y 
and  more  powerfid  type  of  engine  ;  anil  the  larger  use  of  steel  for 
tires,  boilers,  and  working-jiarts  of  the  machinery. 

The  weight  of  the  locomotive  now  in  use  on  Ameri(  an  roads  varies  from 
thirty  to  forty-five  tons,  two-thirds  of  the  weight  being  on  the  drivers.  Few 
of  the  latter  class  are  used  ;  but  the  Danforth  Works  at  I'aterson  vveight, 
have  made  a  few  of  that  weight  since  1873  for  the  Haltiinore  and  ipeed,  econ- 
Ohio  Road.  The  average  cost  of  locomotives  is  twelve  thousand  °"^^' 
dollars  :  those  of  the  largest  type  cost  twenty  thousand.  On  the  Ncw-Vork 
Central,  the  Union  I'acific,  and  other  roads  where  the  grades  are  not  severe, 
a  speed  of  sixty  miles  is  frecjuently  attained  in  travel ;  but  tho  great  additional 
consumption  required  by  that  rate  of  sjieed,  and  the  greater  liability  to  acci- 
dent, makes  it  undesirable  for  the  ordinary  traffic  of  the  roads.  The  usual 
speed  of  American  railway-ex[)ress  travel  is  thirty  miles  an  hour.  The  average 
<()st  per  mile  nm  is  nineteen  cents  :  viz..  for  repairs,  three  cents  and  seven- 
tenths  ;  fuel,  five  cents  and  six-tenths  ;  stores,  five-tenths  of  a  cent  ;  miscella- 
neous, two  cents  and  five-tenths  ;  attendance,  six  cents  and  fi\e-tenths.  If 
the  engine  is  driven  at  greater  than  average  speed,  the  cost  may  l)e  nearly 
doubled,  as  the  fiiel  consumed  will  vary  from  sixteen  to  sixty  pounds  per 
mile  with  the  speed.  More  oil  will  be  reijuired,  and  the  machines  will  wear 
faster.  The  maximum  load  of  a  ten-wheeled  consolidation  engine  on  a  le\el 
division  with  which  the  men  may  expect  to  make  time  is  ninety  cars,  although 
the  engines  of  the  i'ennsylvania  Road  have  freiiuently  hauled  over  one 
hundred.     An  ordinary  freight-train  would  consist  of  about  forty  cars. 

A  special  class  of  locomotives  has  come  into  existence  of  late,  growing  out 
of  the  needs  of  the  population  of  large  cities  for  rapid  transit  between  their 
humes  and  the  scenes  of  their  daily  occupations.  In  New  York  Dummy- 
City,  the  bulk  of  the  business  of  that  great  commercial  emporium.  ="Bine8. 
and  of  the  manufacturing  which  is  done  there,  is  transacted  within  a  space  of 
three  miles  from  the  lower  end  of  the  island  upo!i  which  the  city  stands.  The 
l)o[)ulation,  on  the  other  hand,  is  scattered  along  for  a  distance  of  six  miles 
beyond  the  business-part  of  the  island,  and  indeed  much  farther :  and  a  large 
share  of  the  men  who  find  employment  in  its  stores,  banks,  and  factories, 
rather  than  li\-e  so  far  away  fr(Mn  their  work,  now  reside  across  the  several 
risers,  in  New  Jersey  and  Connecticut,  and  on  Long  and  Staten  Islands ; 
he(  ause,  though  sometimes  a  greater  number  of  miles  away,  they  are  nearer  in 
point  of  time,  because  they  have  access  to  the  city  by  steam-cars  and  steam- 
ferries.  The  inhabitants  of  the  island  have  hitherto  depended  ])rincipally  on 
horse-cars  and  stages  ;  and  it  frequently  takes  an  hour  to  go  from  one's  home 
to  his  office,  and  2'ur  j'crsi'i.     The  same  thing  is  true  in  principle  of  all  the 


fl 


H 


2.\0 


/XDUS  TKIA  /.    ins  7 OK  V 


l\ 


^< 


i,|! 


■'    :,• 


otiu  r  l;ir'c  cities  of  tlic  cuuntry.  \\y  the  natural  expansion  of  the  town,  the 
popiiialioii  are  cuinpeiied  to  reside  at  great  distances  from  their  places  of 
empioyineiit. 

riie  horse-car  ninninf,'  on  a  railway  laid  tlirougii  the  centre  of  the  street 
subserves  the  purpose  of  expeditious  transportation  in  cities  of  moderate  si/e  ; 
.     I,    .,  „     I'lii  in  a  Luve  trade-centre  of.  say,  five  hundred  thousand  souls,  it 

Appllcntion  ^  ^  ' 

of  steum  to  (locs  uot  I  an<l  the  people  of  sue  ii  a  town  will,  in  the  course  of  the 
cityruii-  j.^^,,,^^  |j,^^.  j,j  (|,j^.  ;,^,^rri.gate  from  five  thousand  to  eij,'ht  thousand 
years  of  time  simply  in  gi-'ttm;^  about  from  iiome  to  business,  and 
7'icc  7rrsii,  by  this  slow  mo(le  of  lotomotion  ;  which  mi,ij;ht  be  saved  and  tUil- 
ized,  were  travel  on  the  street-railways  effected  by  steam.  In  a  lar;,a'r  <  ity 
more  time  is  lost.  'The  growth  of  cities,  therefore,  has  made  necessary  the 
application  of  steam  to  the  purposes  of  local  travel. 

Special  difficulties  are  encountered,  however,  in  using  steam  on  city  rail- 
roads. Sparks  from  the  engine  are  likely  to  endanger  the  safety  of  jjroperty. 
''"le  puffing  and  the  steam  iVigiiten  die  carriage  and  dray  horses  of  the  street, 
'i'he  liability  of  collisions  and  accidents  is  increased  by  the  more  rapid  style 
Difficulties  *''  travelling.  The  problem  is  one  which  has  taxed  the  inventive 
to  be  over-  genius  of  the  country;  but  it  is  one  which  inventors  have  not 
come.  hesitated  to  try  to  solve.     Newton  used  to  say  that  he  delighted 

to  encounter  an  obstacle,  as  it  was  always  a  proof  to  him  that  he  was  on  the 
brink  of  an  important  discovery.  It  has  been  so  with  reference  to  steam  on 
American  street-railways.  The  special  difticulties  of  the  case  only  rendered 
the  inventors  doubly  zealous,  and  have  only  led  to  a  greater  triumph.  The 
problem  has  at  length  been  successfully  solved,  and  nothing  now  prevents  the 
population  of  every  large  city  from  travelling  from  home  to  business  by  steam 
but  the  lack  of  enterprise  and  public  spirit  among  them. 

The  street-railway  locomotives  are  of  two  sorts.  The  first  is  the  dummy- 
engine  :  it  can  be  fitted  to  the  ordinary  street-car,  and  is  so  employeil  with 
,,.    ,     ,  great  success  in  the  city  of  I'hiladeli)hia,  which   is  the  i)ioneer  in 

Kinds  of  '^  -  '  ' 

street-rail-  its  practical  use.  The  engine  is  a  small  one  of  the  vertical 
way-iocomo.   ^  .^,^j^j    occupics   a   cabin  at   the    front-end   of  the   car.       It 

tives.  ■  ' 

burns  coal,  and  consumes  its  own  smoke,  and  runs  as  quietly  as 
the  ordinary  horse-car.  Very  little  steam  escapes  from  it,  and  that  little 
creates  no  alarm  among  the  ( arriage  and  dray  horses,  which  the  car  passes  at 
a  speed  of  ten  miles  an  hour  on  the  street.  There  is  no  doubt  but  this 
style  of  street-motor  will  eventually  supersede  horse-power.  The  existini; 
horse-raihvay  companies  resist  its  introduction  only  because  they  would  lose 
so  much  capital  by  a  change. 

Elevated  ^ '^'-'  <jdier  sort  of  Street-engine  is  applied    to  travel  on  the 

ironraiiway-  elevated  iron  railways  which  have  been  building  in  the  city  of 
engines.  ]<^qw  York  during  the  last  five  years.      These  are  genuine  loco- 

motives, drawing  a  car  or  train  of  cars  after  them  as  on  the  great  railways 


'«1, 


Oh     THE    i\\ITEI>    STAIT.S. 


341 


I  town,  the 
places  of 

■  tlic  street 
liiiitc  si/c  ; 
iitl  souls,  it 
)urse  of  the 
lit  ihowsand 
lusincss,  antl 
■c(l  and  ntil- 
i  lar^^cr  « ily 
it'cessary  the 

on  city  rail- 
1  of  \)r()i)erty. 
of  the  street, 
re  rai)i(l  ^tyle 
the  inventive 
tors  have   not 
;  he  delighted 
he  was  on  the 
e  to  steam  on 
only  renilered 
triumph,     'l'^^' 
w  prevents  the 
liness  by  steam 

Is  die  dummy- 
I  employed  witli 
the  \)ioneer  in 
[jf  the  vertical 
the    car.       1^ 
Is  as  (luietly  as 
land  that   liul^' 
car  passes  ai 
lloubt  but  this 
The   cxistii\U 
liey  would  lose 

travel  on  the 
lin  the  city  of 
genuine  loco- 
great  railways 


running  tlirouj^h  liie  open  t oimtrN  Ironi  <  iiy  to  ( ity.  I'lu-y  are  ■^in.iii.  wi'ij;hn»}{ 
from  five  to  ten  tons  otil\,  cousUMiin;.,'  tlieir  own  smoke,  anil  making  little  noise 
hesides  tiial  produt  I'd  |)y  rattling  omt  liir  rails.  'I'hey  travel  at  j,'n.'at  speed, 
.111(1  rt(Ui(  e  the  hour's  ir.ivel  on  the  plodding  horse-car  to  fifteen  niimites  and 
less.  Their  s|)ecial  pe(  iiliarity  is,  that  the  boiler  and  machiiu'ry  hang  low 
between  the  wheels,  so  as  to  ri'nder  tiu'in  steadier  iipun  the  rails,  and  elfeitu- 
ally  to  obviate  the  d.mgi'r  of  being  ii|)^el.  ■|'ra\el  iichind  one  of  these  beauti- 
ful engines  011  the  iles.iied  railways,  in  a  car  fitti'<l  up  as  luxuriously  as  those 
un  tile  great  railways  ui  out  ol  Uiuii  travel,  is  as  far  in  advance  of  tiansporta- 
Imii  in  the  noisy,  luml)eriiig  arks  which  the  tired  horses  of  the  roadway  lines 
still  drag  after  them,  as  the  Aiiurii  an  met  hani(  is  in  the  s(  ale  of  civilization 
beyond  the  I'alagonian  savage. 

At  the  beginning  of  this  chapter  allusion  was  made  to  the  brilliant  general- 
ization of  a  recent  writer,  tliat  the  consumption  of  iron  by  a  race  of  men  now 
measures  their  ixjsition  in   tiic   s<ale  of  civilization.     The   facts   in    _ 

'  Consump- 

regard  to  the  locoinoti\e  lliiow  a  ray  of  light  on  the  reason  wliy.  tion  of  iron  a 
The  reason  is  this,  —  that  the  use  of  iron  shows  the  extent  to  which   ?.°"^!^  °'  '■'^' 

ihzution. 

a  coiinlry  employs  time  and  labor  saving  invi'utions.  Machinery 
and  ingenious  tools  relieve  mankind  from  drudgery,  and  give  the  mintl  a 
( liiiK  e  to  play  ;  and  every  new  invention  which  throws  a  fresh  burden  upon 
the  muscles  of  steel  and  the  moving-])ower  of  steam,  and  takes  it  off  from  the 
human  race,  gives  a  fresh  impetus  to  the  inteiligiMice,  the  spirit,  and  the  refine- 
ment of  tlie  people.  Ought  not  the  marvellous  progress  of  tiie  Lhiited  Slates 
in  every  thing  whi('h  distinguishes  the  age  from  the  gloom  and  ignorance  and 
poverty  of  tlie  middle  ages  to  be  attributed  in  large  part  to  the  time  and  labor 
saved  by  the  locomotive?  and  ought  we  not  to  reganl  the  ingenious  men  by 
wliose  toil  and  energy  this  wonderful  tlevicx-  has  been  ])erfected  as  benefactors 
of  the  race,  —  not  s'cond  even  to  those  who,  at  the  cost  of  life  and  treasure, 
won  for  us  the  inestimable  blessings  of  liberty  and  free  government? 

Tliere  are  now  eighteen  locomotive-works  in  the  United  States,  which  have 
the  capacity  to  produce  twenty-six  hunelred  locomotives  a  year;    Number  of 
altliongh  the  ([uantity  annually  made  is  less  than  half  this  number,   estabiish- 
(lenerally  this  has  been  a  very  ]irosperous  business  ;  and  it  is  to  be    "^^^  *" 
hopetl,  tiiat,  ere  long,  these  various  establishments  will  be  reaping  the  reward 
to  which  they  are  entitled  because  of  their  industry  and  genius. 

SEWIXG-MACllINES. 

In  ancient  times  there  was  great  simplicity  of  dress,  because  the  process  of 
■weaving  cloth  was  slow  and  difficult,  and  there  was  great  economy   simplicity  of 
of  material  in  peoi)le's  attire.     The  wealthy  in  that  age  were  dis-   ancient 
tiiiLjuished  from  others  more  by  the  magnificence  of  the  ck)th  they     "^^^^^ 
wore  than  by  any  special  elaboration  in  the  fashion  with  which  their  garments 


I 


14 1 L'; 


242 


IND  US  riUA  L    HIS  TOR  Y 


Greater  elab 
oration  of 
dress  re- 

c;uires  more 
sewing. 


were  made.  There  was  little  sewing  then,  and  the  avocation  had  not  yet 
called  into  being  that  special  class  of  sewing-women  which  came  upon  the 
scene  in  a  later  age.  Along  in  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries  com- 
merce brought  great  wealth  to  Italy,  and  with  it  a  new  luxury  of  attire.  The 
dress  of  both  sexes  not  only  became  richer,  but  more  elaborate.  The  Ital- 
ians l>ecame  the  most  handsomely-dressed  people  in  the  world  ;  and  the  city  of 
Milan  came  in  time  to  dictate  the  fashions,  not  only  to  Italy,  but  to 
the  north  and  east  of  Europe,  and  even  to  give  its  name  to  the 
new  art  of  millinery,  which  thereupon  took  its  rise,  and  dealt  with 
the  decoration  of  dress.  With  the  new  luxury  of  attire  came  a 
great  increase  in  the  amount  of  sewing ;  and  when,  two  or  three 
centuries  later,  the  steam-engine  was  set  to  work  in  Europe  to  drive  the 
loom,  and  the  manufacture  of  cloth  began  to  be  carried  on  at  an  enormously 
increased  scale  and  tliminished  cost,  and  people  began  to  wear  twice  and 
thee  times  as  many  yartls  of  cloth  as  before,  sewing  was  again  doubled  and 
tripled,  and  then  gave  employment  to  a  special  class  of  thousands  of  women 
Increase  ot  ^^^^  si*"!^  in  all  large  cities.  As  sev.-'ng  was  easier  work  than  nail- 
s.;wing-  making,  ;.nd  was  held  to  be    (whether  rightfully  or  not)    more 

women.  respectable  work  than  household  service,  the  ranks  of  the  sewing- 

women  soon  became  overcrowded,  the  pay  became  scanty,  and  the  workers 
encountered  great  poverty  and  suffering  in  t"ying  to  earn  their  living.     The 

lines  — 

"  O  Industry,  how  rich  tliy  gifts ! 
Health,  plenty,  and  content 
Are  blesings  all  by  thee  bestowed  "  — 

became  a  bitter  mockery  to  these  struggling  women ;  and  Tom  Hood  wrote 
one  of  the  most  touching  poems  of  modern  times  to  commemorate  their 
privations. 

The  sewing-machine,  by  which  the  condition  of  those  who  live  by  ihc 
needle  has  been  materially  improved,  and  sewing  made  an  agreeable  task,  is 
„     .  often  claimed  to  be   a  purely  American  invention.     The  United 

Sewing-  '  ^ 

machine  an  States  has  won  laurels  enough,  however,  in  promoting  the  welfaie 
of  mankind,  to  be  generous  in  its  claims  about  the  sewing-machine. 
Tins  invention  is  not  American  in  the  sense  that  the  nail-machino. 
the  electric-telegraph,  the  iron-clad  gunboat,  and  many  kindred  discoverit's, 
arc.  The  idea  was  originally  the  thought  of  an  Englishman,  Charles  F.  \\'i'i- 
senthal,  who  in  1755  obtained  a  patent  for  a  crude  device  to  facilitate  the 
process  of  embroidering ;  and  a  great  many  experiments  were  made  in  tlic 
kingdom  of  iMigland  toward  perfecting  the  contrivance  before  Americans 
directed  their  attention  to  the  subject.  To  America  belongs  simply  tlie  lionor 
of  producing  the  first  machines  which  were  ever  used  practically  in  the  sowing 
of  cloth  and  leather. 

Weisenthai's  invention,  which  proposed  to  use  a  needle  pointed  at  both 


Ameiican 
inveniion 


mm 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


243 


1  not  yet 

upon  the 
uries  com- 
ttire.     'riio 

The  Ilal- 
l  the  city  of 
Italy,  but  to 
ame  to  the 
;l  dealt  with 
tire  came  a 
two  or  three 

0  drive    the 
enormously 

ir  twice  and 
doubled  and 
:1s  of  women 
rk  than  nail- 
,r  not)  more 
,f  the  sewing- 

1  the  workers 
r  living.     'I'be 


i-n  Hood  \vrote 
[lemorate  their 

lo  live  by  the 
1-eeable  task,  is 
The  United 
kng  the  welfare 
kwing-machine. 
nail-machine, 
led  discoveries. 
Iharles  F.  ^Vel- 
facilitatc  ih^' 
made  in  lli^' 
)rc    Americans 
[iiply  the  honor 
in  the  sewing 

Linted  at  both 


ends,  with  an  eye  in  the  middle,  to  go  backward  and  fonvard  through  the 
cloth,  was  never  utilized.  In  1 790  Thomas  Saint  obtained  a  sainfs  in- 
patent  for  a  machine  "  for  (quilting,  stitching,  and  sewing,  making  mention, 
shoes  and  other  articles,  by  means  of  t '"jIs  and  machines."  His  machine  was 
mostly  of  wood,  witii  an  overhanging  arm,  or  carrier,  into  wiiich  was  inserted 
a  vertical  reciprocating  needle,  and  an  awl  to  go  before  it  and  punch  the  hole?. 
On  the  top  of  the  arm  was  a  spool  for  giving  out  the  thread  continuously. 
The  stitch  was  the  same  as  Weisenthal's,  and  was  called  the  tambour  or  chain 
stitch.  A  loop  was  formed  by  thrusting  the  needle  through  the  cloth  or 
leather.  A  second  thrust  carried  the  bight  of  thread  chrough  this  loop,  making 
a  scc-ond  loop,  through  which,  in  turn,  the  needle  was  thrust  to  form  a  third,  the 
first  loop  being  drawn  up  taut  during  the  third  thrust.  This  variety  of  stitch 
is  still  in  use  to-day.  Saint's  idea  appears  to  have  been  to  lighten  the  labor  of 
heavy  sewing :  he  docs  not  seem  to  have  thought  of  the  plan  of  superseding 
the  hand  needle   for  treneral  work.     In   1804   John   Duncan  in- 

°  11  Duncan. 

vented  a  machine  to  make  the  tambour-stitch,  hooked  needles 
being  used  below  the  cloth  to  catch  the  loop.  In  1807  James  Winter  patented 
a  device  for  sewing  leather  gloves  ;  the  leather  being  held  fast  by  iron  jaws,  so 
tliat  ihe  hands  of  the  operator  were  free.  About  the  same  time  a  contrivance 
was  brought  out  for  sewing  with  needlefuls  of  thread,  the  cloth  being  crimped 
for  tiie  operation,  and  the  needle  thrust  through  the  crimps  horizontally. 

These  machiii'^s  met  with  little  attention,  and  less  fdvor.     Working-men  in 
that  age  stood  in  dread  oi  la'jor-'^aving  inventions,  and  strenuously 
tbught  against  their  introduction  with  all  the  resources  at  their  ^hem  '  ^ 
command. 

The  first  American  machine  was  the  invention  of  the  Rev.  John  Adams 
Dodge  of  Monkton,  Vt.,  who  took  an  ingenious  mechanic  by  the  name  of 
John  Knowles  into  his  confidence,  and  with  his  help  built  a  inventiot. 
practical  and  efficient  machine  for  sewing  the  back-stitch.  The  ^^  Dodge. 
needle  was  the  same  as  Weisenthal's,  being  pointed  at  both  ends,  having  the 
eye  in  the  middle,  and  going  entirely  through  the  cloth  in  both  directions.  It 
sewed  a  perfect  seam  straight  forward ;  but  would  not  allow  the  cloth  to  be 
turned,  on  account  of  the  peculiarities  of  the  feeding-mechanism.  The 
inacliine  did  good  work,  and  might  have  been  perfected,  liad  it  not  been  that 
Mr.  Knowles  was  overwhelmed  witli  ministerial  work  (having  three  churches  on 
his  hands  at  times),  and  had  not  the  journeymen  tailors  opposed  it  bitterly  as  a 
violation  of  their  rights.  It  was  never  patented,  and  was  soon  abandoned.  A 
machine  was  patented  in  the  United  States  in  1S26  by  Mr.  Lye ;  Lye. 
hut  its  character  is  not  now  known,  the  records  of  the  Patent  Office  Thimonaier. 
l)caring  on  the  subjec.  having  been  burnt.  The  next  machine  was  a  French- 
man's. It  was  l)rought  out  in  I'rance  in  1830  by  EartheleiTiy  Thinionnier,  and 
was  used  to  a  certain  extent  in  the  manufacture  of  army  clothing.     Its  peculi- 


arities were    the 


arm,  continuous   thread,  flat  cloth-plate,  and 


?  t 


I 


I 


Pt 


244 


/A^D  US  TNI  A  I.    HIS  TOR  Y 


Si. 


.  6    '  ^   * 


%.  J  IS 


111  iff**" 

ill 


m 


■treadle  and  cord.     The  invi^ntor  had  hard  hick.     Ho  made  eighty  machine^ 

for  sale ;  but,  even  in  enlightened  France,  working-men  were  hostile  to  the  new 

idea,  and  the  stock  of  machines  was  destroyed  b^'  a  mob.     Nothing  daunted, 

Thimonnier  made  another  lot,  this  time  chiefly  of  metal ;  but  again  they  were 

destroyed  by  a  mob.     Tiie  inventor  patented  his  machine  in  tlie  United  States 

In  1850,  but  could  not  recover  from  his  reverses,  and  died  in  pr    erty. 

The  wits  of  American  inventors  were  now  fairly  at  work,  and  fresh  attempts 

were  made  to  solve  the  delicate  anil  intricate  problem  of  a  ma(-hine  which 

would  relieve  woman  of  the  fatigue  and  wear  of  all  general  and 
Hunt.  *  '^ 

contmuous  sewing.     In  1832  Walter  Hunt  ot  New  York,  a  skilful 

mechanic,  made  a  machine  which  did  so  well,  that,  in  the  following  year  or 
tv/o,  he  sold  a  number  of  them  to  different  people.  He  was  the  first  who  used 
two  threads.  The  upper  one  was  carried  by  a  curved  needle,  with  the  eye  in 
the  point;  and  the  lower  one  by  a  shuttle.  The  machine  made  the  lock-stitch, 
in  which  the  threads  are  made  to  interlock  as  nearly  as  may  be  in  the  centre 
of  the  stuff.  He  lost  an  opportunity  to  make  a  fortune  by  neglecting  to  take 
out  a  patent.  In  1834  G.  A.  Arrowsmith  bought  two  or  three  of  the  machines, 
and  the  right  to  patent,  but  did  not  perfect  his  patent ;  and  in  1852,  when  Hunt 
bought  back  the  right,  the  Department  at  Washington  told  him  that  his  neglct 
had  made  the  invention  public  property,  and  they  could  do  nothing  for  hiin. 
A  patent  had  previously  been  given  to  J.  J.  (Ireenough,  who  in  1842  had 
perfected  a  machine  or  doing  leather  and  other  h.eavy  work.  It  was  like  W^m- 
senthal's  and  Dodge's  in  having  a  needle  pointed  at  both  ends  to  go  through. 
and  through  the  fabric.  Like  Dodge,  he  never  niide  more  than  one  machine. 
In  1843  pa-tents  were  issued  to  V>.  W.  IJean  of  New- York  City  for  a  runnini; 
stitch,  and  to  Oeorge  R.  Corlies  for  a  machine  similar  to  Greenough's,  with  two 
reciprocating  needles,  —  one  to  punch  the  holes,  and  the  other  to  sew. 

While  these  experiments  were  making,  Elias  Howe,  jun.,  of  Cambridge, 
Mass.,  was  at  work  independently  upon  the  problem.  After  two  or  three  years 
of  study,  he  believed  that  he  had  mastered  it;  and  in  1846  he  got 
a  patent  for  a  machine,  which,  while  covering  very  much  the  same 
ground  that  other  men  had  taken  possession  of  before  him,  was  still  so  novel 
in  its  combinations  and  forms  as  to  be  treated  at  Washington  as  a  new  inven- 
tion. He  used  a  curved,  eye-pointed  needle ;  a  shuttle  below  the  cloth, 
driven  by  X  vo  vibrating  mallets  ;  a  peculiar  baster-plate  to  hoUl  the  cloth,  and 
feed  it  forward,  the  ])late  being  pushed  back  when  it  had  reached  its  forward 
limit,  the  cloih  again  fastened  to  points  upon  it,  anil  the  plate  again  fed  for- 
ward ;  and  a  device  to  give  tension  to  the  ujjper  thread.  It  was  the  parent  ot 
our  modern  machines,  but  was  not  itself  a  great  success.  Howe  made  a  tew 
specimen  machines  :  but  they  would  not  sell  at  first;  and,  when  they  did,  the 
people  who  bought  them  could  not  make  them  work.  The  tension  was  not 
right ;  and  the  thread  formed  large  loops  in  one  j^art  of  the  seam,  and  was  too 
tight  in  another.     The  vertical  susj^ension  of  the  cloth  from  the  baster-plate 


Howe. 


■was  inconvenient  thW  .i  24c 

"--  was  .  „,:;,::^      -;  ;PP-V"c.  for  .e.adj„.,.„,e„.  of  ,„e  do.h  r 

'o  iiian„fact„re      Hc^l .    ,        '■'■""''  "'"'  ™"W  not  him,l  f  ''^ome. 

machine      It  i.  ..-,,'    '^  '''''  "«t  succeed   in   inc,     •  '''"'-^>'  '^'^^'^ii 

working.     He  u-,c   •    7  ,      ^''^"'^^1  forms  to  insure  ,>«  ,..  'defects of 

maclei?.  M  '"'''^'^"^'  ^^  other  men   fo  T    J         °'P''°"-^   ""-"^'^ 

''!,  '^  ^^  '^''^•^■^"\^^  to  the  country  '^''^  ^^^'^'es  which    '"^^'^-e. 

Jiie  tension  of  the  thron,? 

-'"  «->  .hat  ,.,e  .an    %a."  i;'"  "-'-'""  of  B„.,.o„°^,,^  B„..„„. 

'"^■^'^o^'  chYferent  fm      ^       ^^'  °'''^'^'"^^'  ^'  Patent  to  nnk-  H      ,    T     '^^'"  ^"^ 

..,'  ^'-  *^''«"i  of  Pittsfielfl    Ar,  '^-^  °^ '"^iterial  servirn      t 

s"«l  (lie  ^l,„i,i    ■    ,■  -^     ""'a  rotatiivMinnl.      i-,         ""'  "°t-     J  Ins 

Mr    ,„!;""  "'  '"'  '"•■"■''""-••  '   '■'""''   «>nPl«cly  supor- 

';'""='^'=-     'he   n.an„i;i,„,rc   of  this   ,1  '"■"''""'-'  'satisfactory  to 

"^■':/  b  riTr'f  r  '-  "-^'  "--  -.a  "':;™;«";-'^  began/ I. 

"  '■"*  U,o  i'oad  „  "  """•     ^"'"ff  "'=  first  i„   he    '  'r    t """!  "°"='»  '""' 


1 4  i! : 


246 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


iff' 


if .- 


•  Ih 


'■ 


Will' 


Grover. 


of  Howe's 
patent. 


A  new  Style  of  machine  was  patented  in  1851  by  William  O.  Grover  of 
Boston,  in  company  with  Mr.  leaker,  for  making  a  double  loop  by 
means  of  the  use  of  a  circular  rotary  needle.  It  used  no  shuttle, 
worked  well,  and  became  very  popular  from  1854  to  1858,  taking  the  lead  in 
the  market  during  that  period. 

'I'here  were  now  three  companies  busily  engaged  in  manufacturing  sewing- 
machines  for  the  general  market,  —  Singer  ^:  Company,  (Irover  &  I'aker,  and 
Utility  of  ^Vheeler  cV  Wilson.  'I'he  utility  of  the  new  invention  had  been 
sewing-  recognizcd  even  by  journeymen  tailors,  and  the  machine  was  the 

mac  ine.  seusation  of  the  day.  AVeary  women  hailed  its  advent  as  a  bless- 
ing, and  the  sewing-machine  became  the  most  charming  of  gifts.  The  three 
companies  above  named  pressed  their  sales  with  great  energy,  and  became 
extremely  prosperous.  But  these  companies  were  all  infringing  upon  the  patent 
Infringement  of  Mr.  Howe.  It  is  true  that  they  had  first  made  his  idea  useful  to 
mankind;  but  the  patent  laws  of  the  United  States  have  been 
v/isely  framed  to  protect  intellectual  property,  and  prevent  wealtliy 
men  and  corporations  from  taking  advantage  of  the  poverty  of  the  inventive 
geniuses  who  fdl  our  workshops,  but  wlio  do  not  always  i)ossess  the  means  to 
secure  to  themselves  immediately  the  profits  of  their  own  talents.  Mr.  Howe 
sued  the  several  companies,  and  spent  a  great  deal  of  money  in  enforc:ing  his 
claims  against  them.  Having  won  a  test  suit  in  the  courts,  the  companies 
compromised  with  him,  and  entered  into  a  compact,  Oct.  10,  1856,  which  is 
known  as  the  "  Albany  agreement."  By  the  terms  of  this  compact,  it  was 
stipulated  that  each  of  the  three  companies  should  pay  Mr.  Howe  five  dollars 
for  each  machine  made  (he  had  previously  claimed  twenty-five  dollars),  and 
that  licensees  might  be  permitted  to  manufacture  the  several  ma.:hines  in  order 
to  assist  in  supplying  the  country  with  them  s])ecdily,  and  that  fifteen  dollars 
should  be  exacted  from  the  licensees  *br  each  machine.  From  this  latter  roy- 
alty a  ten-thousand-dollar  fund  for  the  pur]-)ose  of  enforcing  the  patents  in  tlie 
courts  should  be  accumulated,  and  the  surplus  receipts  be  divided  among  the 
four  contracting  parties,  Mr.  Howe  getting  the  largest  share.  Under  this  agrce- 
Wheeierand  mcnt  Operations  were  resumed,  the  Wheeler  and  Wilson  macliinc 
Wilson.  taking  the  lead  in  the  sales  from   1858  to  1868,  and  the  Singer 

machine  thereafter.  Tne  first  agreement  lasted  until  i860,  up  to  wiiich  time 
over  130,000  machines  had  been  sold  under  it,  —  55,000  by  Wheeler  &  Wilson, 
40,000  by  Singer  &  Company,  and  35,000  by  Grover  &  leaker.  The  agreement 
was  honorably  executed  :  so  Howe  had  no  more  reason  for  complaining  of 
these  companies.  Mr.  Howe  securing  an  extension  of  his  patent  in  i860  for 
seven  years,  the  Albany  agreement  was  renewed  for  seven  years ;  but  it  was 
stipulated  that  Mr.  Howe  should  rccei\c  only  one  dollar  for  every  machine, 
and  that  licensees  should  pay  seven  dollars.  Mr.  Howe's  income  under  this 
arrangement  was  very  large,  amounting  in  one  year  (1866)  to  $155,000;  hut 
the  expenses  of  his  Invvsuits  consumed  his  estate,  and  he  died  in  com])an)(i\e 
poverty. 


1 1  \ 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


247 


jrover  of 
ic  loop  by 
10  shuttle, 
ic  lead  in 

ig  sewing- 
r.akcr,  and 
.  bad  been 
inc  was  the 
as  a  bless- 
The  three 
nd  became 
n  the  patent 
lea  nseful  to 
have    been 
vent  wealthy 
he  inventive 
le  means  to 
Mr.  Howe 
enforcing  his 
e  companies 
356,  which  is 
npact,  it  was 
five  dollars 
dollars),  and 
nines  in  order 
Ifleen  dollars 
|iis  latter  roy- 
atents  in  tlic 
d  among  the 
ller  this  agrce- 
llson  machine 
1(1  the  Singer 
:o  which  time 
|eler&  Wilson, 
'he  agreement 
miplaining  ^-^ 
lit  in  1S60  for 
Is ;  but  it  was 
■cry  machine, 
[11c   mider  thi^ 
155.000  ;  h'lt 
conil)aniti\e 


The  number  of  applications  for  patents  only  seemed  to  increase  as  time 
rolled  on,  and  up  to  the  present  time  more  than  twelve  hundred   Number  of 
have  been  filed  in  the  Patent  Office  at  Washington.     They  have   patents, 
averaged  about  fifty  a  year  since  1857. 

In  185;  the  Weed  machine  was  invented. 

The  same  year  James  E.  A.  Clibbs  of  Millpoint,  Va.,  devised  an  entirely 
new  machine,  whose  object  was  to  reduce  the  cost  of  these  inventions  by 
simplifying  the  mechanism.  Mr. 
(iibbs  had  never  seen  a  sewing- 
machine,  but  had  heard  of  them 
through  the  newspapers.  On  read- 
ing about  the  use  li  two  threads,  it 
occurred  to  him,  that,  if  sewing 
could  be  effected  hv  a  single 
thread,  much  of  the  iron-work  of 
the  machine  could  be  dispensed 
with.  He  set  his  wits  t(j  work, 
and  in  the  year  named  brought 
out  his  patent  for  a  twisted  loop- 
stitcii,  made  with  a  single  thread 
by  means  of  a  rotating  hook  un- 
derneath the  cloui.  It  was  a  step 
in  advance,  and  its  value  was 
prompdy    recognized.      In    1859 

James  and  Charles  H.  Willcox  of  Philadelphia  obtained  control  of  the  patent, 
and  began  the  manufacture  of  the  Willcox  and  Gibbs  machine,   other 
This  is  one  of  the  most  silent,  swift,  and  easily  run  of  machines,   mventors. 
and  has  had  a  large  and  general  sale. 

Since  the  date  of  that  patent  there  have  appeared  —  in  1858  the  Empire, 
since  joined  with  the  Remington  ;  the  Slote,  or  IClliptic,  since  bought  by 
Wheeler  &  Wils(Mi  ;  two  Howe  machines  (Elias  and  Amasa  15.)  ;  between 
i860  and  1864  the  American  Ihitton-Holc,  the  /l^tna,  and  the  Domestic; 
the  lieckwith  in  1865  ;  and  the  Victor  and  the  Remington,  both  recent  ma- 
chines. 

A  notable  event  occurred  on  tiie  8th  of  May,  1S77,  in  the  history  of  the 
sewing-machine  manufacture.  At  noon  of  that  day  the  last  important  patents 
held  by  the  manufacturer  of  sewing-machines  expired,  leaving  the  Expiration 
market  open  for  all  who  wish  to  compete.  The  leading  makers  °f  parents. 
immediately  put  down  their  prices  from  forty  to  fifty  per  cent,  while  others  ex- 
"prcs'-ed  the  intention  of  speedily  following  suit ;  sixty-dollar  machines  being 
fixed  at  thirty  dollars,  and  seventy-dollar  machines  at  forty  dollars.  A.  B, 
^Vilson's  invention,  used  in  the  four-acti(..i,  rough-surface  feeder,  was  the 
niost  important  of  the  expiring  patents  ;    th    others  being  the  vibratory  needle 


SINGER   SEWING-MACHINE. 


II 


248 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


lit: 


and  rcciproratin.c:  shuttle,  and  the  rotating  hook.  "I'hcrc  are,  perhaps,  a 
thousand  patents  in  iurce,  and  now  held  by  the  various  nianuflicturers  ;  bul 
the  above  were  the  last  of  the  "foundation  patents,"  —  the  patents  needful,  in 
making  a  first-class  machine.  The  Singer,  Wheeler  &  Wilson,  (irover  & 
Baker,  and  Howe  companies,  are  said  to  have  held  the  monopoly  of  the 
Wilson  invention  ever  since  1850,  i)ooling  the  enormous  profits  of  its  manu- 
facture. 

America,  if  not  the  birthplace  of  the  sewing-machine,  is,  at  any  rate,  now 
the  workshop  of  its  largest  manufacture.  No  other  country  in  the  world  has 
Magnitude  SO  many  and  such  large  establishments  devoted  to  this  special  in- 
of  industry.  [Justry.  There  are  now  twenty-five  factories  engaged  in  making 
sewing-machines,  two  of  them  having  branches  in  Europe ;  namely,  the 
Singer  and  the  Howe.  The  Singer  factory  at  Elizabethport,  N.  J.,  is  probably 
the  largest  of  its  class  in  the  world.  The  immense  sales  of  the  Singer 
machine  caused  the  company  to  outgrow  its  very  spacious  (juarters  in  New- 
York  City ;  and  it  accordingly  took  its  fiight  beyond  the  borders  of  the  city, 


11,  ■  iK 


J  !  :  \  ^i 


SINGER   SEWING-MACHINE   COMI'ANY. 


'\U 


■t    F'v 


and  erected  the  magnificent  row  of  brick  l)ui]dings  by  the  side  of  the  railroad- 
track  running  out  of  New  York  to  Philadelphia,  which  are  the  wo  uler  of 
every  traveller  who  sees  them.  The  Wheeler  &  Wilson  and  the  Howe  cslab- 
lishnients  at  Bridgeport,  Conn.,  are  now  both  great  concerns  also.  The  vigor 
which  has  been  manifested  upon  this  continent  in  the  development  of  lhi^ 
important  industry  is  not  confined  to  the  United  States  alone.  Canada,  too. 
has  shown  true  N  irthern  fire  and  intelligence  in  taking  up  this  business.  At 
the  Centennial  Exhibition  at  Phiiadcli^hia.  in  1 876,  Canada  was  represented 
there  by  eleven  different  manufacturers  antl  some  valual)le  mr.>:hines.  making 
a  better  display  than  any  nation  except  the  United  States.  The  concenis 
exhibiting  were  Thomas  Piper  of   Hamilton,   Mr.   Raymond  of  Guelph,   the 


»H: 


!      i! 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


249 


haps,   a 
^rs  ;  but 

cdl'ul  in 
irover  & 
^  of  the 
ts  manu- 

ratc,  now 
vorkl  has 
pccial  in- 
n  making 
mely,   the 
;  probably 
:he   Singer 
s  in  Ncw- 
)f  the  city. 


Ithe  vaih-oad- 

woukv  ut 

Howe  cslali- 

Thc  vi;j;"i' 

li-ient  ol"  ihi- 

L'anada,  too. 


lusiness. 


At 


represented 
lines.  niaUin;^ 
[he  conce'.n^ 
louelph,   the 


Gardner  Sewing -Machine  Company  of  Hamilton,  Wilkie  i^^:  Osborne  of 
Guelph,  W^anzer  &  Company  and  the  Canada  Sewing-Machine  Company  of 
Hamilton,  James  Aurthors  of  Toronto,  ().  St.  Amand  of  ()uebec,  J.  D.  Law- 
lor  of  Montreal,  ().  Morrill  &  Company  of  Rock  Islantl,  and  the  Williams 
Manufacturing  Company  of  Montreal. 

There  is  no  record  of  the  number  of  sewing-macliines  made  and  sold 
prior  to  the  Albany  agreement  of  1S56.  Since  tliat  date  the  record  has  been 
preserved.     The  sales  under  the  compact  at  Albany,  from  rSc6    .,     ^       , 

'  t  .  '  J        Number  of 

to  i86g,  amounted  to  1,500,000  machines,  divided  about  a.'i  fol-   machines 
lows:    Wheeler  &  Wilson,  4^0,000;    Singer,  t?o,ooo  ;    (Irover  iS:   '"^""f^^- 

^  n      '    oj     >  '  tured. 

Haker,  235,000;  Howe,  140,000;  Willcox  &  Gibbs,  105,000; 
Weed,  70,000;  Florence,  60,000;  all  others,  100,000.  From  1S69  to  1S78 
the  sales  have  amounted  to  4,800,000,  making  6,300,000  machines  sold  by 
the  manuflicturers  of  the  United  States,  —  a  product  worth  $360,000,000  at  a 
reasonable  estimate.  Since  1869  the  manufacture,  year  by  year,  has  been  as 
follows :  — 

1869 3--.769 

1S70 4^M,254 

uSyi 606,094 

1872 «5t,236 

1S73 667,506 

1S74 528,918 

187s 5-V5S 

1876 525,o'-'o 

1877 400,000  (tstini'ited.) 

'i'he  success  which  has  attended  the  introduction  of  the  sewini'-machine 
has  been  due  to  tlie  thorough,  rapid,  and  easy  manner  in  which  it 
has  been  made  to  perform  its  work.     The  machine  has  been  im- 
proved in  a  thousand  ways  itself;  and  various  attacinnents  have  been  invented 
t(.    he  operated  with  it,  by  means  of  which  a  variety  of  special   variety  of 
thi.igs,  ^,uch  as   basting,   folding   the    ("lotli    for  h.enaning,  button-    ""°^^  '^°"^' 
holing,  ikiz.,   are   now  performed  in   adtlition  to  the  regular  work  of  sewing 
scams  of  every  character,  and  degree  of  strength.     Sewing  is  ,."r-    Economy  in 
formed  five   times  as  last  as   by  iiand.  and  die   labor  materially   their  use. 
hglitened.     Nothing  except  the  best  metal  is  put  into  the  working  parts  of  the 
iiKu  hines,  so  that  they  have  great  endurance   and   longevity;    and  the  best 
taknls  of  the  cabinet-maker  have  been  employed  in  fitting  the  macliines  with 
a  casing  of  handsome  woods,   for   the   purpose   of  making   them    beautiful 
objects  of  fiuaiiture,  as  well  as  blessings  to  th.'  household.     Competition  be- 
tween tlie  different  companies  has  also  promoted  tlie  sale  of  the   machines 
greatly.      It    has   both    reduced   the    cost   of  the    comi)letcd   machine,  and 
ameliorated  the  terms  upon  which  the  companies  have  been  willing  to  deal 


U'^^ility. 


25° 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


with  their  customers.  Tiio  largest  numl)er  of  those  who  buy  these  machines 
are  peopl';  without  ca])ital,  who  are  not  ahvays  able  to  pay  cash  for  i'^cir  pur- 
chases. In  order  lo  effect  sales,  and  to  accommodate  their  cust  lers,  the 
Modes  of  companies  have  adoptetl  what  is  call' d  "  the  inslalm  hl  wlan,"  by 
seninethen'.  nieaus  of  which  the  customer  takes  a  machine,  and  pn\  for  it  in 
instalments  from  week  to  week,  or  month  to  month,  often  earni':  with  iiie 
machine  itr'lf  the  money  to  defray  the  cost  of  its  purchase. 

In  addition  to  all  this  lias 
been  the  fact  of  persistent  ad- 
vertising of  the  different  ma- 
chines. 'The  sewing-macliine 
companies  have  been  the  best 
advertisers    in    the 

Advertising. 

country,  excelling 
even  the  i)iano  and  stove 
makers  in  the  unllagging  zeal 
with  which  their  inventions 
have  been  brought  before  the 
public  eye.  Th^  newspapers, 
the  old  board  fences,  the  direc- 
tories, the  flagslafis,  the  roi  ks 
of  the  field,  the  trees,  and 
every  other  contiivance  upon 
which  a  description  of  tiic 
merits  of  a  sewing-mochine  can 
be  printed,  pas'.ed,  or  hung, 
have  been  pressed  into  the 
service,  and  emblazoned  by  the  manufacturers.  The  county,  state,  and 
mechanical  foirs  in  all  parts  of  the  country,  and  the  World's  J'^xpositions 
here  and  in  Europe,  have  been  steadily  frequented  by  the  companies ;  and 
their  stilfes  and  competitive  disjilays  iiave  now,  for  twenty  years,  formed  the 
steady  reliance  of  managers  for  one  of  the  attractions  of  these  bazaars  of 
agriculture  and  industry.  Some  of  the  companies  arc  able  to  show  almost  a 
basketful  of  bronze,  silver,  and  gold  medals  won  at  the  different  fairs  of  this 
and  other  countries. 

The  world's  fairs  have  been  an  important  means  of  bringing  the  machines 
to  the  attention  of  people  abroad.  The  fruit  of  the  displays  at  those  fairs  is 
World's  seen  in  the  large  exjwrt  trade   enjoyed  by  the  companies.     Tlie 

^*'"'  numl)er  of  machines   sent   out    annually   now   amounts    to  fmiii 

40,000  to  55,000,  the  custom-house  valuation  ranging  from  $1,600,000  to 
$2,400,000  annually.  Tliey  go  to  iMiglanil,  France,  and  (Germany  i)rincipally. 
England  distributes  them  to  all  the  world.  Many  machines  now  go  direct  lo 
South  America  and  .Australia. 


WAl;UWEl.l.   Sli WING-MACHINE. 


OF  THE    UNITED    STATES. 


2S» 


FIKE-ARMS. 

It  is  one  of  the  peculiar  i)henonKna  of  American  life  that  l!  ?   nanufacture 
of  wcapoi      should  reach  such   a   rcmarkahic  protici^ia^  in  a  n  untry  which 
abhors  war  and  armies  ;  which  is  impatient  it"  tlie  !,fovcrnment  keei)s   Progress  in 
n.  )rc  than  twenty  tiiousand  men   under  arms  in   times  of  jjcace  ;    '""'earms. 
which  once  let  the  standin,^'  army  run  down  to  eighty-six  men  ;    wiiicii  never 
believes  there  is  going  to  he  a  war,  and  never  prepares  fur  one  until  it  comes  ; 
and  whose  ordinary  current  expenditures   for   all   military    purpos*..-.  tlo    nut 
exceed  thirty-five  million  dollars  in  any  one  year.     It  would  be  natural  to  look 
for  tlie  highest  development  in  this  line  in   luirope.     Several  countries  tliere 
spend  a  hundred  uiillion  dollars  annual!     <>»•  army  jnirposes.    The  best  mechani- 
cal talent  in  the  army  and  in  the  privan  wc-     hops  is  kept  constantly  emi)loyed 
devising  new  and  destructive  weapor        '1        •ewards  to  the  successful  private 
inventor  are  great;  tor  lie  is  certaii'  "if  I'crjgnition  from  the  government,  and  a 
large  order  for  arms.     In  America,  nc-vver,  the  whole  business -of  war  is  so 
foreign  to  the   purposes  of  our  people  M\i\  the  genius  of  our  institutions,  that 
liule  national  encouragement   is   ■     ■.■'■•    o  inventors.     Congress  begrudges  the 
smallest  appropriation  for  military  experiments  ;    and   inventors  must  look  to 
luirope  and  Asia,  and  the  world  at  large  generally,  for  the  markets  for  the  sales 
of  the  arms  they  make,   if   they  bring  out  any  worthy  of   particular  notice. 
In  spile  of  this  lack  of  home-encouragement  to  the  manufacturers  of  fire-arms, 
American  weapons  for  the  infantry  service  are  the  best  that  are  made  to-day. 
The  needle-gun  of  Prussia  won  a  world-wide  fame  at  Sadowa ;  but  the  Ameri- 
can Remington  is  as  much  its  superior  as  a  Colt's  revolver  to  a  muzzle-luading 
hoisc-pistol.     'i'he  chassepot  of  France   has  proved  a  weapon  of  deadly  effi- 
cien(  y  in  recent   Europcai.  wars;    but   the  American   Spencer  rifie,  with  its 
niag.izine  of  cartridges  in  tne  stock,  firing  fifty  balls  a  minute,  would  enable  two 
companies  of  American  marksmen  to  annihilate  a  regiment  armed   with  the 
cjiassepot  in  less  than  three  minutes'  fire  at  easy  range.     American  small-arms 
have  long  been   celebrated  ;    and    there  has  not    been  an    important   war  in 
Europe,  from  tiie  Crimea  to   the   last  blootly  struggle   between  Russia  and 
Turkey,  in  which  they  have  not  played    a  considerable  i)art.     And  then,  in  the 
line  of  heavy  ordnance,  the  Americans  have  not  been  a  whit  behind  the  rest 
of  the  world  in  a  thorough  comprehension  of  the  principles  which  should 
govern   the  manufacture  and  use   of  ordnance.     We  have   not  needed,  and 
conse(iuently  have  not  made,  such  tremendous  guns  as  Germany  and  ICngland 
have  proiluced  ;    bu'  American   inventors   and  artillerists  have  given   to  the 
world  some  of  the  most  valuable  ideas  in  ordnance,  which  have  been  utilized 
by  military  nations. 

riic  first  use  of  fire-arms  was  at  the  battle  of  Crecy  in  1346,   First  use  of 
where  the  French  were  routed  in  tremendous  confusion  by  means  fire-arms. 
of  the  astonishment  created  bv  the  English  cannon.     The  cannon  did  little 


!l 


fill 


M^^i: 


»$' 


fiVn us  TRIA  !.    INS  TON  Y 


of  any  consequenro.  cxropt  to  roar;  but  it  hroii^lit  a  new  clement  into  the 
din  of  battle,  and  slriK  k  consternation  into  the  ranks  of  tiie  {gallant  knights 
of  Franct'.  Ilu'sc  early  guns  were  made  of  woo''"n  staves,  bound  with  wire 
and  iron  hoops,  and  using  a  stone  or  a  leaden  bullet.  Pictures  of  thcni  may 
be  seen  in  l''roissart's  "  Chronicles  of  the  Middle  Ages,"  in  which  are  pre- 
served some  rare  old  woodcuts  of  the  olden  time,  representing  battles  in  which 
wooden  cannon  bore  a  jKUt.  It  is  one  of  the  thousand  illustrations  whi<  h 
every  art  supplies  of  the  fact  that  progress  moves  in  every  age  with  slow  and 
measiurd  pace  from  the  old  to  the  new,  passing  only  from  the  crude  to  llie 
better  by  Ihie  shades  of  variation,  that  the  first  iron  cannon  was  made  upon 
identically  the  same  principles  as  the  wooden  ones.  They  were  com|)osed  ol' 
iron  bars  laid  together  like  the  staves  of  a  barrel,  and  bound  about  with  iron 
wire  and  h(jo})s.  They  were  afterwards  welded  together;  ami  then,  the  gun 
being  composed  of  a  solid  piece  of  iron,  the  idea  seems  to  have  occurreil  to 
military  men  for  the  first  time  to  cast  their  cannon  com]>lete  in  one  operation. 


CANNON.      1390. 

It  was  the  explosion  of  one  of  these  early  wrotight-iron  cannon  v.-hirh  caused 
the  death  of  James  II.  of  Scotland  in  1460.  The  fact  is  interesting,  because  it 
has  a  parallel  in  the  history  of  the  United  States.  The  idea  of  making  wrouglu- 
iron  guns  was  never  abandoned  :  and  in  1845  Commodore  Stockton  of  the 
United-States  navy  caused  a  gun  of  that  material  to  l)e  made  under  his 
suiKTvision.  hoping  to  produce  one  which  would  excel  any  cannon  which  luul 
yet  been  made.  The  i)iecc  weighed  seven  tons,  and  carried  a  ball  weighin.L; 
two  hundred  and  fifty  potuitls.  It  was  a  great  gun  for  those  days.  It  was 
calleil  "The  Peacemaker."  After  it  had  been  fired  three  times,  a  l)rilliaiil 
company  of  people  in  official  life  at  Washington  were  invited  down  to  the  war- 
ship *'  Princeton,"  lying  in  the  Potomac  River,  to  witness  the  firing  of  the  gun. 
Secretary  Upshur,  who  ""cared  the  effects  of  the  discharge  of  such  a  tremendotr^ 


Oh    THK    UMTED    STATES. 


=53 


piece,  got  behind  tin-  niasl  for  safely.  I'lie  gun  Mew  up  at  the  first  (hsrharge, 
kilhiig  Mr.  IJpsliur,  Secretary  I  lihner.  ( 'oniinodore  Kennan,  Mr.  Maxey,  and 
Mr.  (Jardner,  and  injuring  Col.  lientDU  an<l  several  others.  In  spite  of  this 
unlowaril  event,  military  men  are  still  experimenting  with  wroiight-iron  guns; 
and  the  comparative  merits  of  cast  and  wrought  iron  may  still  he  said  to  lu' 
an  utisettled  ([uestion. 

The  first  use  of  small-arms  was  at  Arras  in   1414,  when  the   lUirgundians 
<klended  their  town,  in  part,  with  the  aid  of  heavy  gutis,  which  they  poiiued 
over  the  walls.     'I'he    guns  were    provided  with    hooks    near  the   First  use  of 
niii//les,  to  catch  on  the  wall,  and  prevent  recoil  ;  and  were  there-    small-arms. 
lull'  called  anpiehuses,  or  hook-guns.     'I'hese  weapons  were  used  in  the  field 
somewhat  after  that,  but  not  with  great  success  at  first,  because  they  were  too 
lu\uy.     It  took  three  men  to  serve  them,  and  they  could  only  be  fired  by 
reeling  them  on  trijiods.     Kurthermore,  they  could  not  be  fired  rapidly,  and 
were  at  the   mercy  of  the  archers.     .\w    I'aiglish   archer  of  that  day  would 
discharge  twelve  arrows  a  minute,  piercing  two  inches  of  oak  at  a  dislaiu  c 
of  two  hundred  and  foity  yards,  and  allowing  only  one   arrow  to    miss   'he 
ni;iik.     It   has  taken   four  hundred   years   for  mankind  to  ])erfect  a  lire-arm 
which  would  allow  of  eipial  jiractical  rapidity  and  accuracy  of  fiii'  with  that, 
and  it  was  not  until  the  United  States  i)roduced  the  Spencer  rille  that  a  more 
rapid  effective  ilischarge  of  missiles  on  the  field  of  battle  was  attained.     Fire- 
arms did  not  come  into  general  use  in  war  until  after  the  battle  of  I'avia,  in 
1525.     On  that  occasion    Charles  V.  employed  a  large    numl)er  of  muskets 
(so  called  from  the  name  of  the  person  who  first  attached  the  ramroil  and 
barrel  to   the  wooden   stock).      His   bullets    |)ierced    the    best    armor  of   the 
knights  of  France,  which  the  anjuebuse  liad  not  done  ;  and   I''rancis  I.  sent 
oH"  his  famous  message,  "All  lost,  save  honor."     That  battle  revolutionized 
tile  art  o{  war.     The   use  of  the  lance,  the  bow  and   arrow,   and  of  heavy 
armor,  was  discontinued  after  that  in   Furope  by  successive  decrees  ;  and  in 
a   hundred  years  the  ancient  trappings  of  chivalry  hatl  passed  off  the  stage 
lurevL'r. 

The  flint-lock  musket  was  invented  in  I''rance  in   1671  :    it  was  called  the 
fusil,  from  the  steel  which  struck   down  sparks   into  the  iiriming-pan.     The 
linglish  adopted  this  weapon  in   16S6.     It  weighed  nine  pounds   piint-iock 
and  a  half,  and  was  fired  from  the  shoulder.     The  bullet,  which    musket, 
weighed  three  ounces  in  the  ar(]uebuse,  was  diminished  now  to  an  ounce. 

In  the  days  of  the  early  settlement  of  the  United  States  the  weapon  in 
"sc  in  this  country  was  the  rifle.  It  had  been  invented  for  a  long  period, 
having  made  its  appearance  in  the  target-matches  at  Leipsic  as 
eady  as  149S  ;  but  it  had  never  been  used  in  the  armies,  owing  t 
the  length  of  time  it  took  to  load  it.  The  rifle  was  the  sportsmen's  arm,  and 
was  their  familiar  weapon  for  three  hundred  years.  America  first  brought 
the  rille  into  military  use.     The  early  colonists  were  all  armed  with  the  rifle. 


•1 


f! 


354 


liVDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


\i 


Colonists. 


They  were  dependent,  to  a  certain  extent,  upon  their  fire-arms  for  their  sub- 
sistence. iJef'ore  the  land  was  brought  under  cultivation,  their  tables  were 
supplied  chiclly  from  the  woods,  which  swarmed  with  game  of  all  descriptions; 
and,  after  the  soil  hail  been  subdued  and  tilled,  they  still  continued  to  hunt 
both  for  pleasure  and  tiie  hi  nefit  of  their  tables,  and  also  from  the  absolute  ne- 
cessity <>l  iluniui>ii>ing  the  number  of  sijuirrels,  deer,  raccoons,  and  bears,  which 
depredated  upon  their  corn  and  wheat  anil  other  crops.  Organized  Inmting- 
exjieditions,  called  "  drives,"  to  kill  off  all  the  game  in  some  special  tract  of 
country,  and  to  meet  the  armies  of  squirrels  which  migrated  from  place  to 
place,  were  of  constant  occurrence.  Now,  powder  and  shot  were  cosily 
articles  in  those  iKiys,  and  the  colonists  could  not  afford  to  throw  them  away  : 
they  conseipiently  preferred  the  best  and  most  accurate  weapon,  on  this 
account  alone,  if  on  no  other;  and  the  rifle,  accordingly,  was  their  familiar 
and  favorite  fire-arm.  They  became  as  accustomed  to  it  as  to  the  axe.  When 
independence  was  declared,  the  colonists  were  illy  provided  with 
military  weapons  ;  but  they  had  their  rifles,  and  they  used  them 
in  the  battles  of  the  Revolution  with  a  deadly  effect  which  has  become 
historic.  Some  of  the  fields  of  that  war  were  won  by  the  use  of  tl:e  rille 
alone.  The  slaughter  inflicted  upon  the  soldiers  of  King  George  in  the 
Revolution  was  doubtless  principally  due  to  the  marksmanship  of  the  American 
pioneers,  and  not  so  much  to  the  weapon ;  but  the  weapon  got  the  credit 
of  it  chiefly ;  and  England,  in  1 794,  adopted  it  as  a  i)art  of  her  national 
armament. 

In  that  respect  England  went  a  step  fiirther  than  the  United  States.  The 
rifle  was  not  the  official  arm  here  :  the  government  j^referred  the  smooth  borf 
Napcieon  ^^^  ^'^^  army.  Napoleon  scouted  the  rifle,  because  he  could  not 
scouted  the  obtain  a  rapid  fire  with  it.  The  same  idea  prevailed  here  ;  and, 
''  '■  while  the  rifle  remained  the  weapon  of  the  ])eople,  it  was  not  at 

once  adopted  by  the  goverimicnt.  'i'iie  objection  was  this,  —  that,  in  order  to 
make  the  bullet  fit  the  rifling  of  the  gun,  it  had  to  l)e  forced  into  the  gun  under 
pressure,  and  time  and  labor  were  consumed  in  ramming  the  ball  home.  In 
Hall's inven-  1S13  Hall  j^roposed  a  new  idea.  He  suggested  that  the  rifle  be 
*'""•  loaded  at  the  breech  ;  so  that  the  ball  and  powder,  united  in  one 

cartridge,  might  be  inserted  without  delay  and  trouble,  and  tiie  piece  loaded 
and  fired  as  rapidly  as  the  muzzle-loading  smooth  bore,  and  all  the  advantages 
of  the  two  styles  of  weapons  be  thus  secured.  Hall  also  proposed  to  manufai  - 
ture  the  locks  and  other  pieces  of  the  guns  by  machinery,  so  as  to  make  the 
parts  of  the  different  guns  interchangeable.  He  was  emj^loyed  at  the  govern- 
ment armory  at  Harper's  Ferry  to  introduce  the  latter  idea,  and  exi)erinu'nl 
with  the  former.  The  "  interchangeable  "  system  of  manufacture  promised  a 
reduction  of  expenses,  and  that  was  accordingly  pressed  first ;  and  it  was 
soon  introduced  to  all  the  armories  of  th.e  United  States.  In  1S27  a  hundred 
of  Hall's  guns,  which  had  been  sent  to  Springfield  in  1824,  were  brought  bnik 


OF    THE    LXlTEiy    STATES. 


255 


heir  8ub- 
l)lcs  were 
criplior.s ; 
I  U)  Ivnit 
isoUitc  He- 
ars, which 
I  hunting- 
il  tract  of 
n  place  to 
,.cre   costly 
11c  m  away  : 
in,   on   tliis 
K'ir  familiar 
ixe.     When 
oviclocl  with 

vised  thorn 
has  become 

of  the  rillc 
orgc  in  llie 
the  Amcric  an 
ot  the  credit 

her  national 

States.    'I'lie 
smooth  bon' 
le  could  not 
d  here  ;  and, 
it  was  not  at 
t,  in  order  to 
he  gvm  under 
Al  home.     In 
It  the  rifle  be 
limited  in  one 
piece  loaded 
le  advantages 
Id  to  manufac- 
to  make  die 
It  the  govern- 
id  cxperimcnl 
re  promised  a 
];    and  it  wa^ 
_•  a  hundred 
I  brought  bark 


Enfleld, 


to  Harper's  Ferry,  and  placed  witli  a  Inmdrcd  gims  of  current  make.  The 
whole  two  himdred  were  taken  apart,  the  pieces  thorougiily  mingled,  and  the 
guns  then  remounted  from  pieci's  pii  ked  np  at  random.  'I'lie  whole  two 
himdred  fitted  perfectly.  This  method  of  manufacture  reduced  the  (osl  one- 
half.  It  attracted  attention  abroad,  and  I'Jiglaiid  afterward  obtained  machine- 
ry in  the  United  States  to  introduce  the  system  to  iier  factory  at  Knfield. 
I'rior  to  1853,  every  gun  made  in  I'.ngland  was  manufactured  by 
hand.  America  had  thus  already  given  two  iileas  to  the  world,  — 
the  value  of  the  rille,  and  a  new  system  of  manufacture.  The  latter  was  of 
immediate  benefit.  If  war  and  armies  were  inevitable,  and  the  people  had  to 
pay  for  them,  the  cost  of  weapons  might  at  any  rate  be  reduced  ;  and  Yankee 
invention  showed  one  important  way  to  do  it. 

The  i)ercussion-cap  was  projjosed  by  Shaw  of  Bordentown  in  181 7. 

Hall's  idea  of  a  breech-loading  rifle  did  not  attract  much  attention  first 
in  the  United  States.     Ploughshares  and  railroads  were  of  more  importance 
here  than  machines  to  kill  off  regiments  of  men  in  the  shortest   Experiment! 
possible  space  of  time.      France  and  Ciermany  began  to  experi-   ^^  France 
mcnt   with    brecch-loailers ;    but    this    insoiicianf,   good-natured  ^^„y  ^'j^,, 
republic  at  that  time  had  other  things  to  attend  to,  and  paid  so   breech-ioad- 
little  attention  to  arms,  that,  when   it  went  to  war  with  Mexico  in   *"" 
I.S47,  it  absolutely  had  to  send  out  troops  aimed  chiefly  with  ancient  flint- 
lock smooth  bores.      A  few  rifles,  and  a  few  of  Hall's  breech-loading  car- 
bines, were  put  into  the  hands  of  the  mounted  men  ;   but  the  army  carried 
flint-locks,  with  a  few  percussion  smooth  bores  of  recent  make  only. 

The  i)rinci[)al  weapon  of  a  new  type  brought  out  in  the  Mexican  war  was 
a  purely  American  invention,  which  has  not  yet  been  mentioned  ;  namely,  the 
repeater.  Samuel  Colt,  a  seaman,  while  on  a  voyage  to  Calcutta 
in  I1S29,  devised  a  six-barrelled  revolver  to  be  used  with  percus- 
sion-caps. In  1835  he  improved  upon  this,  and  ])erfected  a  six-barrelled 
rotating  breech,  the  bullets  all  making  their  exit  therefrom  through  a  single 
long  barrel,  as  in  the  modern  revolver.  There  is  proof  that  the  idea  of  a  gun 
w1h(  h  should  have  a  chambered  breech,  so  as  to  admit  of  discharge  several 
times  without  reloading,  was  thought  of  in  anticjuily ;  but  such  a  ])iecc  was 
impossible  until  after  the  invention  of  the  American  percussion-cap,  and  the 
idea  was  never  utilized  until  Samuel  Colt  made  his  model  on  board  ship  on 
the  long  voyage  to  C'alcutta.  Patents  were  issued  in  r'n!;!  nd,  iM-ancc,  and  the 
United  States;  and  the  manufacture  of  revolvcv:>  was  carried  ^ v.  a  short  time 
aftLT  1S35  at  Paterson,  N.J.  The  first  use  of  the  new  we.apon  was  in  1837, 
when  Lieut. -Col.  Harney  employed  a  numlur  of  Colt's  carbii  m  in  fighting 
Indians,  to  the  great  astonishment  of  the  latur.  who  did  not  understand  how 
a  soldier  could  fire  six  times  without  reloading.  A  iiiousand  of  them  were 
used  in  the  Mexican  war.  (bolt's  idea  was  a  valirdjlc  one  ;  but  he  secured  no 
important  sale  of  his  weapons  in  this  country  until  the  discovery  of  gold  in 


I 


I  -i| 


h 


\ 


I!  to  ">  ■ 


t  • 


2s6 


/.\7;<'  A  /'A'/./ /.    ///.v y'(9A'  )' 


States, 
of  its 
'oadiiitr 
bullet  ' 
1'.^  I  Ilea  1 
''  tulmii 

>ile  sho( 

in   the 
"'   these 
•lied    inj 
U'eiv   (||. 
";i  ■'^f)tci 
resources 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


'■51 


■or 


nul 


a  nopular  weapon.      The  large  sales  brought  other  manufacturers  upon  the 

scene;    and   the  Allen,   Derringer,  Volcano.    Pettingcr,   Whitney,   „ 

::imith  and  Wesson,  Lovell,  Rupertus,  and  other  revolvers,  were   voivers  in 

introduced  to  the  public,  one  after  tiie  other,  and  have  all  had  a   Southern 

states- 
large  distribution.     They  are  made  of  a  wide  variety  of  i)atterns, 

from  the  heavy  navy  revoh-er,  firing  a  half-ounce  liullet,  to  the  diminutive 
vest-pocket  piece,  with  scarce 
l)ower  enough  to  jienetrate  a 
man's  clothing.  Suited  to  all 
tastes,  and  a  con  v  e  n  i  e  n  t 
means  of  protection  to  trav- 
ellers or  to  residents  in  large 
cities  from  tlie  lawless  classes, 
llicy  are  jiurchased  in  large 
numbers  annually  by  jjcople 
in  all  ranks  of  life.  Of  late 
a  passion  has  been  manifest- 
ed among  young  men  and 
hovs  to  o\v!i  one  of  these 
weapons,  which,  thougli  ab- 
Mirtl  in  the  extreme,  has  ex- 
erted a  material  effect  upon 
the  sales  of  the  manufactur- 
ers of  arms. 

Hall's  breech  -  loading 
weapons  never  came  into 
general  use.  His  idea  was 
valuable  ;  but  he  could  not 
give  it  practical  foi  ni.  Prus- 
sia    preceded     the     I'nited 

States,  thcrefoi.:,  in  getting  a  breech-loader  into  the  handn 
of  its  army.  Dreyse  had  i)erfected  a  breech-  pmssian  in- 
loading  gun  in    1S36,  in  which    a    long    slug-like    ventions  and 

bullet  was    discharged    tnrough   a  rifled  barrel   ^''P""^"^"*^' 

1)\  means  of  a  cartridge  done  uj^   in   pajKM-,  and  containing 

a  fulminate  at  its  base  ;  the   fulminate  being  exploded  by 

the  shock  of  a  blunt  needle  entering  through   a  small  hole 

in  the   breech-plate.     In    1841    Prussia  put  sixty  thousand 

"I  these  rifles  with  cast-steel  barrels  into  the  hands  of  her  army,  one  hun- 

tiird    men    in   each    battalion    being    equipjx-d   with    them.      In   1S4S    tlu')- 

wciv  distributed   to  the  whole  army.     The  king  called   the.      in    his  d(>(ree 

"a  special  dispensation  of  Providence   for  the  strengthening  of  our  national 

resources,"  and  expressed  the  ho])e  "that  the  system  mav  be  ke])l  secret  until 


i\i» 


!    I 


r^iill 


I 


258 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


Needle-gun. 


the  great  part  which  it  is  destinetl  to  play  in  history  may  couple  it  with  the 
glory  of  Prussian  arms  and  the  extension  of  empire."  The  defeat  of  the 
Austrians  at  Sadowa  in  1866  gave  the  needle-gun  a  great  celebrity, 
and  inducetl  all  the  governments  of  the  world  to  change  their 
mu/./.le-loadcrs  and  smooth  bores  for  a  more  modern  style  of  weapon.  .\ 
better  gun  than  the  Ziindnadelgewehr  of  Prussia  had,  however,  been  invented 
in  the  L'niteil  States  in  1852  by  Sharp  of  Philadelphia.  'I'he  breech-pin  in 
Sharp's  this  weapon  was  pulled  down  below  the  barrel  by  using  the  trigger- 

weapon,  guard  as  a  lever,  leaving  the  barrel  open  at  the  breech.  The  ball- 
cartridge  being  inserted,  the  breech-pin  was  thrown  back  to  its  place  by  closing 
the  trigger-guard  to  its  i)lace.  The  sharp  upper  edge  of  the  breech-pin  cut 
off  the  paper  end  of  the  cartridge,  thus  leaving  the  i)ow(ler  in  the  now  closed 
barrel  exjjosed  to  the  fire  from  the  percussion-cap.     The  cap  used  was  not  the 


'■X 


SHARE'S    UIFLK    LO.Ml'ANV,    liKU)(.i:l'l)H  T,    CONN. 


ordinary  thiml)le  cap,  but  was  the  Maynanl  primer,  in  which  twenty  or  lliirtv 
caps  were  arranged  along  a  small  strip  of  paper  or  leather.  The  strip  was 
coiled  up  like  a  watch-spring  in  the  lock;  and,  each  time  the  ])iecewas  cocked, 
a  cap  came  forward  and  rested  upon  the  nipple,  thus  simplifying  and  shorten- 
ing the  whole  operation.  The  Sharp's  rille  was  an  exceedingly  powerful  ami 
efficient  weapon  :  it  speedily  became  a  favorite  with  sportsmen,  especiail\ 
upon  the  pilains,  where  it  frecpiently  brought  down  m\  antelope  at  the  distaiKX' 
of  a  mile.  Mr.  Sharp  has  had  great  success  with  his  rifle.  The  United-Static 
and  luiglish  (Governments  ordered  a  large  number  for  the  use  of  their  armies, 
and  the  weaiion  rec-eived  the  a])])roval  of  militarv  men   in  several 

Success  of  it. 

of  the  leading  nations.  A  iarge  establishment  for  the  manufacture 
was  erected  at  liridgeport,  ("onn..  and  is  still  one  of  the  leading  American  l.ic- 
tories  in  this  dei)artmcnt   of  industry.     Its  riiles  and  pistols  appear  regularly  at 


Ihe 

'i^iinicni 
Xew   1,', 

'■eeei\C(i 


-I . 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


259 


all  the  world's  fairs,  and  occupy  an  important  place  in  all  competitions.  The 
rifle  has  been  improved  of  late  by  the  use  of  the  metallic  rim  fire  cartridge, 
thus  dispensing  with  the  use  of  percussion-caps,  and  still  further  simplifying 
the  weapon.     The  rifle  is  good  for  twelve  effective  shots  in  fifty  seconds. 

The  muzzle-loading  rifle  was  adopted  by  the  United  States  in  1855.  It 
was  called  the  "  Springfield  musket,"  from  the  armory  at  which  it  was  brought 
out.  It  was  ten  pounds  in  weight,  had  a  caliber  of  .58  of  an  inch,  Springfield 
and  carried  a  ball  weighing  five  hundred  grains.  It  was  almost  as  '""sket. 
efficient  a  piece  as  the  Prussian  needle-gun,  from  the  fact  that  the  ball  used  was 
llie  hollow-base  Minie  bullet,  which  could  be  loaded  at  the  muzzle  almost  as 
rapidly  as  the  needle-gun  at  the  breech  ;  and  it  had  a  range  of  two  thousand 
yards,  the  smooth  bores  doing  execution  at  no  greater  distance  than  twelve 
hundred.  This  was  the  musket  with  which  the  Northern  army  were  chiefly 
supplied  during  the  war  of  186 1.  That  war,  however,  gave  an  immense 
impetus  to  the  invention  and  improvement  of  fire-arms  in  America.  A  great 
many  new  ideas  were  brought  forward  in  breech-loaders  and  repeating-rifles. 
The  government  encouraged  invention  by  large  orders  to  private  factories,  and 
sujiplicd  its  troops  as  fiist  as  it  could  with  such  of  the  more  modern  styles  of 
guns  as  were  api)rovcd  by  proper  military  authority.  The  end  of  the  war  found 
tlic  muzzle-loader  virtually  superseded  forever.  Since  then,  nothing  Muzzle  load- 
exccpt  breech-loaders  have  been  issued  either  to  the  army  or  the  e"  gone  by. 
militia.  I'he  part  borne  by  different  styles  of  weapons  in  the  war  may  be 
s''cii  from  the  fcjllowing  statement,  prepared  by  the  ordnance  department  of 
the  army  :  — 


Smooth  bt)re.s       ...... 

Muzzle-loading  rifle?,  Uiiitccl-.States  pattern 

Muzzle-loading  rilles,  foreign 

Ritles,  brccch-loading  and  repeating   . 


1,615.346 

1,055,862 

32,048 


lircecii-loading  carbines 398,251 

Revolvers 376,751 

Pistols,  muzzle-loading -4.95' 

The  total  was  3,966,590,  of  which  1,158.907  were  lost  and  used  up  in  the  war. 

So    much    was    invention    stimulated    by   the    war,    that,    at  the    com- 
petition of  1869,  a   board   of  army-officers  examined   thirty-four  invention 
(lillerent  varieties  of  breech-loading  muskets,   eight  of  carbines,  stimulated 
and  eight  of  pistols.  ^^  '^^■■■ 

The  new  invention?  were  all  the  product  of  private  factories.     These  estab- 
H-iliinents,  scattered  about  the  cotmtry,  but  'irincipally  located  in 

■\ew  iMigland    and    New  York,  where   mechanical  ingenuity  had  [^«w"'*""- 

°  "  •'  tions  the 

ie(  eived    its  highest   development,  were  many  of  them  of  prior   product  of 
''I'l^in,  and  had  been  engaged  in  making  sporting-rifles,  shot-guns.   P"^^*.' 

.       .  ^   ^  o     I  o  I  o         >    factories. 

aiiil  pistols.     When  the  war  broke  out,  they  simply  turned  their 

attention  to  military  weapons.      Others  of  the  number  came  into  being  with 


m. 


lyiii . 


,.» ,>i«^ 


I! 


260 


/A'Z?  l/S  TRIA 1.    HIS  TOR  V 


.M> 


i'!''( 


*:■  4 


the  war.  Tliey  have  all  continued  to  manufarture  both  military  and  sporting 
arms  since  the  restoration  of  peace,  and  find  a  large  sale  in  supplying  the 
new  armament  of  tiie  militia  of  the  several  States  and  the  armies  of  other 
parts  of  the  world.  They  take  part  in  all  the  rifle-competitions  in  Europe, 
and  crowd  every  world's  fair.  Prior  to  1861  the  reputation  of  the  United 
States  for  small-arms  was  sustained  principally  by  Colt.  Sharp,  and  I'lli 
Whitney.  At  the  World's  Fair  of  1873,  where  the  leading  American  fac- 
tories were  all  represented,  nineteen  concerns  were  rei)resented,  all  of  them 
furnishing  highly  creditable  i)roductions. 

The  first  of  the  new  class  of  rifles  to  come  into  notice  was  the  Spencer. 
This  remarkable  weapon  is  a  strong  and  serviceable  piece,  kjailing  at  the 
Spencer  breech,  and  holding  a  magazine  of  seven  cartridges  in  the  stock, 

"^''-  which   are    thrown    forward,  one   at   a  time,  by  a   coiled   sj)ring, 

when  the  breech  is  opened  to  receive  a  new  charge.  The  l)reech-pin  is 
moved  down  l)elow  the  barrel  by  the  guard-lever,  the  empty  copper  shell  of 
the  cartridge  last  fired  being  thrown  out  b'  a  litde  catch  in  the  operation, 
and  a  new  cartridge  then  thrown  forward  into  j)lace  from  the  magazine.  A 
fair  marksman  can  discharge  the  seven  sliots  with  accuracy  in  twelve  seconds, 
and  then  refill  the  magazine  from  his  cartridge-box  in  about  half  the  time  it 
would  take  to  ram  and  caj)  a  muzzle-loading  musket.  The  gun  can  be  used 
as  a  single-loader  l)y  a  very  simple  arrangement,  which  prevents  a  cartridge 
from  coming  uj)  from  the  magazine.  The  soldier  thus  can  load  from  his 
cartridge-box,  and  keep  the  magazine  in  reserve  for  a  critical  moment.  The 
Si)encer  is  a  needle-gun,  the  firing-pin  being  in  the  l)reech-block,  and  being 
struck  by  a  hammer,  as  in  the  ordinary  rifle.  Its  performances  at  Vienna,  at 
the  competition  of  1866,  excited  wonder  The  magazine  principle  has  been 
applied  to  other  American  guns,  prominently  to  the  Winchester, 
in  which  the  magazine  occupies  the  place  of  the  ramrod,  belov; 
the  barrel,  and,  being  a  very  long  one.  enables  the  marksman  to  fire  twenty 
shots  without  reloading.  The  Winchester  rifle  is  admired  in  Europe,  and  has 
been  sold  in  immense  quantity  lo  the  Turkish  (Government.  It  was  largely 
used  in  tiie  late  war  with  Russia. 

The  Snider  rifle  is  better  known  abroad  than  in  America  ;  but  it  is  one  of 
the  recent  American  inventions,  and  loads  at  the  breec'  upon  an  entirely 
novel  principle.  The  l)recch-plate  is  fixed  in  the  gun  solidly ;  but  between  it 
and  the  chamber  there  is  a  space  the  length  of  the  cartridge,  into  which  a 
solid  bolt  is  fitted  to  close  the  chamber,  and  transmit  the  recoil  to  the  breecli- 
l)late.  This  bolt  swings  upward,  and  over  to  the  right,  upon  a  hinge,  when 
the  g-n  is  being  loaded,  so  as  to  leave  an  open  space  in  rear  of  the  chanilur 
for  making  out  the  old  cartridge,  and  putting  in  the  new.  This  style  of  breedi 
lu:' ler  has  been  very  well  like<l  in  Europe.  Dahlgren  gave  it  great  prai;c. 
I'^ngland  ap])lied  it  to  her  Enfield,  Whitworth,  Lancaster,  and  other  rifles ; 
and  the  Dutch  and  other  governments  have  used   large  quantities   of  anus 


Winchester. 


dllt 

Hliei 
soli' 

iraiisi 
hv:\\v 
'liid  s(l 
"I"  Iht 
iliist 
rust  (I 
I"  f«6(| 
It1t   oil 
Hc't  ;  tl 
'"It;  ai 
iiii;-, 

^t  any  t 


Iivgely 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


261 


Remington. 


with  the  Snider  breech.  The  Snider- luifield  has  had  astonishing  siircess  at 
the  \V'imljledon  matches  in  ''England.  I'lngland  converted  several  hundred 
thousand  of  her  ICnfields  to  the  Snider  system.  'The  pecuHar  snider- 
jirinciple  on  which  this  gun  is  made  is  now  a  favorite  with  Ameri-  infields, 
can  makers  of  breech-loading  shot-guns.  It  is  one  of  the  two  leading  meth- 
ods in  use  for  that  class  of  fire-arms  ;  the  other  being  the  system  of  unhook- 
ing the  rear  of  the  barrel,  and  letting  the  barrel  swing  vertically  on  a  pivot, 
so  as  to  bring  tlie  chambers  up  to  view  above  the  breech-plate,  and  then,  after 
loading,  bringing  the  barrels  to  their  place  again,  and  locking  them  with  a 
spring  catch. 

Various  other  American  rifles  have  at  different  times  occupied  attention 
;it  the  competitive  trials  in   ICurope,   including  the   Herdan,   Peabody,  Ham- 
mond,  Maynard,  Joslyn,  Sharp,  and   Remington,  but  none,  per- 
liaps,  to  so  great  an  extent  as  the  Remington.     This  gun  is  the 
i)roduct  of  a  factory  at  Ilion,  N.Y.,  which  was  founded  in   1825  by  Kliphalet 
K  minrton,  a  young  mechanic  who  had  been  making  gun-barrels  in   Herki- 
me.    County,  New  York,  with  some  success   for  several  years,  and  who,  in 
1.S25,  moved  to  Ilion,  and  started  a  gun-factory.     This  establishment  grew  by 
successive  enlargements  until  it  represents  to-day  an  investment  of  at  least 
tiiree  million  dollars  in  machinery,  buildings,  and  stock.     Mr.  Remington  took 
his  two  sons  into  partnership,  and  has  devoted  his  factory  to  the  manufacture 
both  of  arms  and  various  other  inven'ions,  a  sewing-machine  and  a  mowing- 
machine  l)eing  among  their.      The  bricch-load'ng  rifle  invented  at  this  factory 
has  the  simplest,  strongest,  and  best  uiechanisni   at  the   breech  ever  yet  dis- 
covered.    When  the  hammer  is  cocked,  the  breech-pm  swings  upon  a  heavy 
pivot  down  into  the  lock,  opening  tht    breech  for  the  cartridge,  and  pulling 
out  the  old  shell.     The  breech-plate  1     then  swung  up  by  the  thumb  to  its 
pluce,  and  the  trigger  pulled.     Thougl.      e  breech-plate  is  entirely  unsupported 
when  the  hammer  is  set  free,  yet  the      'avy  shank  of  t)ie  hammer  [)resents  a 
scilid  shoulder  to  the  plate  in  its  desc.  n>  ;    and,  before  the  hammer  reaches  the 
firing-pin,  the  plate  is  locked  firmly         ts  place.     The  shock  of  the  recoil  is 
transmitted  to  the  shoulder  presenter    ly  the  hammer,  and  is  sustained  by  the 
heavy  pivot  on  which  the  hammer     ofks  back  and  forth.     Nothing  so  simple 
and  scientific  has  ever  been  invented.     This  gun  is  in  every  way  the  superior 
of  the    Prussian  needle-gun.     The  latter  is  easily  disabled  by  moisture  and 
iliist ;   whereas  the   Remington  will  \\  irk  perfectly  while  entirely  coated  with 
rust  (breech-j)late  and  all),  and  covered  with  dust.     One  of  the  guns  at  Vienna 
ill  1866,  chosen  at  random,  was  tested  by  firing  two  thousand  rounds.     K  was 
Ifit  out  on  the  ground  over  night ;    wTter  was  poured  into  it,  and  it  was  left 
wcl  ;  the  whole  breech  was  covered  v  fu  road-dust,  and  then  roughly  shaken 
out ;  and  the  gun  was  fired  from  beginning  to  end  of  the  trial  without  clean- 
ing;.    It  went    through    the  whole    test   perfectly,   the  only  troul)le  occurring 
ill  any  time  being  caused  by  sand  which  had  got  between  the  sprmg  and  the 


I    I 


I ;  !k] 


I   : 

i 


I' 


ii 


I'l 


!l-    ,' 


i6a 


IND  US  TRIA  f.    n/S  TOR  Y 


\ 


-^^:n 


iir^!' 


■  I'!       : 


m 


hammer,  making  it  difficult  to  get  the  hammer  at  full  cock.  Those  few  grains 
of  sand  were  taken  out,  and  tlie  gun  was  i)ut  to  work  again  without  further 
cleaning  of  the  breech.  The  average  speed  of  the  gun  was  thirteen  rounds 
a  minute,  'i'he  gtm  has  excited  the  greatest  admiration  throughout  the  world 
since  tiiat  time.  It  has  been  adopted  by  the  United  States,  England,  Spain, 
Denmark,  Sweden,  and  other  governments,  and  is  ])robably  the  most  effec- 
tive single-loading  arm  of  the  present  day.  It  is  the  principal  style  of  rillc 
which  is  being  put  into  the  hands  of  the  militia  of  the  several  States  of  tliis 
republic.  Its  accuracy  is  so  great,  that  it  has  enabled  American  riflemen  to 
Great  sue-  ^'"  ^*^  great  matches  of  Dollymounl  in  1876,  and  (Veedmoor 
cess  of  this  in  1877,  against  the  best  shots  of  (Ireat  Britain.  Fulton  jjrefers 
weapon.  ^j^^  niuzzle-loading  Remington,  and  with  it  made  a  score  of  171 
out  of  a  possible  180  at  the  800,  900,  and  1,000  yard  ranges  at  Creedmoor 
in  1874  ;  which  is  the  higiiesl  ever  known. 

The  Peabody  rifle,  with  a  breech-plate  dropping  below  the  barrel,  operated 
by  the  guard-lever,  is  also  a  good  gun.  A  part  of  the  'i'urkish  troops  were 
armed  with  it  in  the  late  war. 

The  barrels  of  American  small-arms  are  generally  made  of  wrought  iron, 
chosen  with  reference  to  its  tougliness  and  tenacity  ;  though  of  late  years 
makers  have  begun  to  use  steel  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  in  combination  with 
iron.  At  one  time  bars  made  from  old  horseshoe  nails  were  largely  used,  and 
the  "stub  and  twist"  barrels  were  considered  the  toughest  and  best  in  the 
market;  but  they  have  been  superseded  by  later  ideas  in  laminated  iron  and 
steel.  For  revolvers,  cast-steel  alone  is  used  for  the  chambers  and  l)arrels.  In 
gun-making,  the  bars  which  are  to  compose  the  barrels  are  heated  to  a  white- 
heat,  their  edges  first  having  been  bevelled,  and  are  then  bent  by  machinery 
into  a  barrel,  the  edges  being  carefully  welded  either  by  machinery  or  by 
hand.  The  barrels  are  then  straightened  by  machinery.  Sometimes  the  bar 
is  the  length  of  the  barrel  which  it  is  to  make  ;  but  often  it  is  only  one-third 
the  length,  and  is  drawn  out  in  welding.  The  locks,  springs,  sights,  and  other 
small  metal  parts  of  the  gun,  are  stamped,  bored,  and  shaped  by  machinery. 
There  are  often  eighty  different  pieces  in  the  construction  of  the  piece,  besides 
the  stock  and  barrel.  The  production  of  all  of  these  by  machines  s])ecially 
adapted  to  the  jjurpose  has  brought  about  an  immense  reduction  in  the  cost 
of  manufacture,  and  has  added  materially  to  the  resources  of  the  republir 
by  insuring  a  speedy  supply  of  weapons  whenever  wanted.  This  system  of 
forging  small-arms  with  swages  and  dies,  and  of  finishing  them  with  mill- 
ing machines,  was  first  brought  to  success  in  the  government  armories  oi 
the  United  States ;  but  it  has  since  found  its  way  into  all  the  private 
factories. 

In  the  manufacture  of  cannon  the  United  States  has  not  orcii 

Cannon.  .,,..., 

pied  SO  distinguished  a  position  as  in  reference  to  small-arms  ;    nut 
its  artillery  has  always  been  of  a  good  (luality.     The  cannon  made  during  ili'' 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


263 


loicu 
;    bill 

g  ilv 


Revolution  were  all  of  a  small  size,  adapted  for  field-service  and  for  use  on 
sliips.  A  number  of  founderies  were  employed  in  casting  them  in  different 
parts  of  the  country,  but  principally  in  New  England,  Pennsylvania,  and  Mary- 
land, whence  the  guns  were  distril)uted  to  the  different  i)arts  of  cannon  of 
the  country.  They  ranged  in  size  from  four  to  thirty-two  pounders,  Revolution, 
hut  were  niosUy  of  the  smaller  sizes.  A  few  of  them  were  cast  hollow  ;  but  the 
majority  of  factories  cast  them  solid,  and  bored  out  the  caliber  by  machinery. 
'["  e  factories  were  prolific ;  and  Washington  had  all  tiie  artillery  he  wanted 
during  the  Revolution,  —  more,  at  times,  than  he  could  profitably  use,  in  fact, 
considering  the  scarcity  of  powder.  The  guns  were  of  very  simple  construc- 
tion, plain  and  unornamented,  and  in  this  respect  bore  a  marked  contrast  to 
the  splendidly-decorated  pieces  employed  by  our  French  allies  in  that  war. 
'["he  gun  presented  by  Lafayette,  and  long  owned  by  a  well-known  family  of 
Virginia,  and  now  in  the  Metropolitan  Museum  at  New  York,  inscribed  humor- 
ously. "  Ultima  Ratio  Regum,"  and  otlierwise,  is  a  striking  illustration  of  the 
perfection  of  the  arts  in  France  at  that  day,  and  the  manner  in  which  refine- 
ment touched  and  glorified  every  thing  used  by  the  French  people  in  war  as 
well  as  in  i)eace.  One  gun  i'  .^d  in  the  Revolution  was  of  wrought-iron  staves 
hound  with  hoops  ;  but  it  a,  tiu Kd  litde  attention. 

In  the  war  of  181 2  the  Uii.'.ed  States  began  to  use  a  better  style  of  cannon 
of  native  manufacture.  The  government  permitted  its  private  citizens  to  nt 
out  ships  to  cruise  against  England's  commerce,  and  there  was  a  great  demand 
for  long  and  efficient  guns  of  all  calibers  for  use  on  shipboard.  Some  large 
founderies  were  started  during  this  war.  At  Richmond  three  were  established, 
capable  of  boring  the  heaviest  ordnance,  and  of  making  three  hundred  pieces 
a  year.  One  at  Pittsburgh,  Joseph  McClurg's,  made  the  cannon  for  the  battles 
of  Lake  F'rie  and  New  Orleans. 

No  long  guns  for  shells  had  been   used  until  the  war  of   181 2  in  any 
country:  the  shell  had  only  been  discharged  from  the  mortar  and  the  how- 
itzer.    In  1814  Col.  Bomford  of  the  Ordnance  Department  invent-   _j^     manu- 
ed  a  long  gun  for  shells,  which  he  called  "  the  Columbiad."     It   facture  of 
l)ccame  a  f:ivorite  gun  with  militarv  men  at  once.     It  was  intro-   B""8for 

°  '  shells. 

<iuce(l  to  the  fortifications  and  ships  of  the  United  States  as  an 

important  resource  for  attack  and  defence  ;  and  (ien.  Paixhans  carried  the  idea 

to  France,  and  brought  out  the  gun  there  under  his  own  name. 

The  principle  of  a  long  gun  for  shells  was  adopted  by  all  military 

nalions. 

Although  the  United  States  were  at  peace,  and  cared  nothing  for  fortifica- 
tions or  a  navy  except  to  insure  jjrotection  to  commerce,  anfl  consequently 
gave  slight  encouragement  to  the  invention  of  new  implements  of  war,  two  guns 
had  l^een  brought  out  by  federal  officers,  previous  to  the  war  of 
1 86 1,  which  were  decided  improvements  on  all  the  cannon  then  in 
iise.      One  was  the  gun,  invented  by  Capt.  Dahlgren  of  the  navy,  for  nine  and 


Paixhan*. 


Dahlgren. 


\\y 


m 


^^^mm 


in 


'V, 


'l! 


!64 


/JV/)  US  TRIA  I.    HIS  TOR  Y 


'■•  k 


Rodman. 


eleven  incli  shells.  It  was  cast  solid,  and  bored  out  l)y  machinery,  and  in 
shape  was  very  much  like  a  champagne-bottle,  having  a  great  weight  and 
thickness  of  metal  around  the  chamber  of  the  gun,  and  then  rai)idly  tapering 
away  forward  of  the  trunnions,  exactly  after  the  litshion  of  a  champagne-bottle. 
The  eleven-inch  guns  of  this  jjattern  are  a  hundred  and  seven  inches  long  in 
the  bore.  They  were  great  favorites  during  the  late  war,  and  were  extensively 
einjjloyed  in  tiie  operations  along  the  coast  ami  on  the  Western  rivers.  Fifteen 
anil  twenty  inch  guns  have  latterly  been  made  of  Dahlgren's  pattern,  but  are 
cast  hollow,  and  cooled  from  the  interior.  The  idea  of  casting  a  gun  hollow, 
and  cooling  it  by  a  curren :  of  water  made  to  flow  into  and  out  of  the  bore,  so 
as  to  gain  density  of  metal  on  the  interior,  is  the  invention  of  Capt.  Rodman 
of  the  Ordnance  Department,  The  pieces  of  heavy  American  onl- 
nance  made  in  this  manner  are  called  "  Rodman  gims."  The  gun 
differs  little  from  Dahlgren's  in  shape  ;  but  it  is  generally  considered  more  beau- 
tiful on  account  of  its  more  flowing  lines.  For  the  same  size  of  bore  it  is  of 
smaller  size  and  weight,  owing  to  the  strength  gained  by  the  peculiar  method 
of  cooling.  The  largest  cannon  ever  made  in  any  country,  prior  to  1861,  was 
a  Rodman  gun  cast  at  the  Fort-F'tt  Foundcry  in  Pittsburgh,  and  j^laced  in  the 
works  at  Fortress  Monroe.  It  was  a  sixteen-inch  gun,  with  a  bore  fifteen  feet 
deep,  and  weighed  49,099  pounds.  This  style  of  gun  has  been  greatly  admired 
in  Europe.  A  twenty-ton  Rodman,  fifteen-inch  bore,  with  a  shot  of  four  hun- 
ilred  and  fifty  pounds,  was  tried  in  England  shortly  after  our  late  war,  and 
produced  an  unwonted  sensation  there.  England  hatl  long  been  experiment- 
ing in  the  direction  of  seven  and  nine  inch  rifled  cannon  ;  but  the  American 
fifteen-inch  smooth  bore  did  what  the  best  English  guns  did  not,  and  it  pro- 
duced such  a  terrible  effect  on  the  eight-inch  Wamis  target,  that  iMiglish 
military  men'candidly  confessed  that  the  American  gun  could  certainly  hull 
their  best  ships.  The  twenty-ton  Rodman  was  compared  at  the  exhibition  of 
1867  at  Paris  with  the  forty-ton  French  smooth  bore.  That  was  the  largest 
gun  France  had  ever  made  :  its  bore  was  sixteen  inches  and  a  half,  and  it 
carried  a  shot  of  six  hundred  and  fifty  pounds.  The  comparison  made  was 
favorable  to  the  Rodman  gun.  Making  all  allowances  for  differences  in  bore, 
Ike,  it  was  held  that  the  Rodman  gun  would  do  the  same  work,  with  twi..nty 
thousand  pounds  less  of  metal  consumed  in  the  construction  of  the  gun. 
Rodmans  have  been  made  since  the  war  for  sea-coast  defence,  and  for  iron- 
clads of  twenty-inch  caliber.  They  weigh  fifty-eight  tons,  and  throw  a  shut 
weighing  1,060  pounds.     The  first  twenty-inch  gun  was  made  in  1863. 

The  war  gave  an  impetus  to  invention  in  the  way  of  cannon  as 
it  did  to  the  manufacture  of  small-arrns.  A  vast  number  of  guns 
were  re(]uired  for  the  different  purposes  of  the  war.  The  most 
extensive  set  of  fortifications  known  in  history  was  thrown  up 
around  the  city  of  Washington,  and  eight  hundred  and  seven  guns 
and  ninety-eight  mortars  were  recpiired  for  its  defence.     There  were  employnl 


War  gave 
impetus  to 
improve- 
ment of 
cannon. 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


■(>5 


11 


Parrott. 


in  the  war,  on  the  part  of  the  North,  fifteen  hiuulrcd  fickl-guns  and  twelve  hun- 
(hed  siege-guns.  The  government,  being  williout  the  means  to  produce  these 
readily,  depended  largely  upon  private  makers ;  and  iron  founders  and  in- 
ventors, in  turn,  stood  ready  to  supply  the  government  with  a  large  mnnber  of 
new  guns,  which  were  conceived  by  them  with  the  first  alarm  of  war.  'I'hree 
of  these  ne\v  guns  i)roved  of  service,  antl  became  prominent.  One  was  the 
Parrott,  a  cast-iron  rifled  gun,  long,  and  almost  straight,  but 
rc-eiiforced  at  the  breech  by  heavy  coils  of  wrought  iron  wound 
around  the  piece.  The  first  one  was  cast  in  1 86 1  at  the  West-  l^oint  Foundery. 
During  the  war  they  were  made  of  all  sizes,  from  the  three-inch  ten  pounder  for 
field-service  to  a  ten-inch  gun  with  a  three-hundred-pound  shot  for  ship-siege 
and  coast-service.     Another  of  the  new  guns  was  the  W'iard,  made 

°  Wiard. 

at  Trenton,  N.J.,  of  cast-steel.  This  metal,  as  is  well  known,  is  the 
favorite  with  the  Germans,  who  employ  it  in  small-arms  as  well  as  in  artillery. 
Mr.  Wiard  made  guns  of  this  material  for  the  first  time  in  this  c:ountry,  and 
secured  large  orders  from  the  government.  He  fitted  out  the  Hurnside  expe- 
dition with  very  nearly  its  entire  armament.  The  third  gun  referred  to  alxjve 
was  the  Galling  Battery,  an  automatic  machine-gun,  with  six  steel  barrels. 
Cartridges  are  fed  to  the  battery  from  a  hopper,  and  are  discharged  by  turning 
a  crank.  An  incessant  and  steady  fire  can  be  kept  up  with  this  battery,  and 
about  a  hundred  cartridges,  containing  a  thousanil  missiles,  discharged  per 
minute.  Its  performance  is  ecpial  to  that  of  fifty  good  riflemen  armed  with 
breech-loaders.  A  hundred  batteries  of  this  gun  were  ordered  by  the  govern- 
ment from  the  C'olt's  l-'ire-Arms  Company.  One  of  them,  sent  to  Paris  in  i>S67, 
was  the  sensation  at  the  World's  Fair.  It  has  a  large  sale  abroad  since  that 
time. 

The  best  material  for  large  guns  is  iron  ;  though  whether  in  the  form  of 
<ast-steel,  cast-iron,  or  wrought-iron,  or  a  combination  of  these  several  varieties, 
is  not  yet  decided.  Germany  prefers  cast-steel  for  breech-loaders  :  Best  material 
all  Ikt  guns  are  made  on  that  metal.  Krupp,  the  principal  maker,  f"""  s"ns. 
has  turned  out  several  thousand  such  field-guns,  and  two  thousand  of  the  six, 
seven,  eight,  nine,  eleven,  twelve,  and  fourteen  inch  guns.  'l"he  latter  are  fifty- 
ton  guns,  costing  a  hundred  and  ten  thousand  dollars  each.  Two  only  have 
been  made.  England  employs  cast-steel  with  wrought-iron  rc-enforcement  at 
the  breech,  wrought-iron  tubes  with  wrought-iron  coils,  and  cast-iron  ;  and  is 
going  back  to  muzzle-loaders.  France  uses  iron  tubes,  with  steel  rings  at  the 
lirocch.  The  whole  (juestion  of  material  may  be  said  to  be  open  at  present, 
and  can  only  be  solved  l)y  years  of  further  experiment.  Possil)ly  it  may  never 
he  solved  :  that  depends  largely  on  the  amount  of  war  in  the  figure  of  the 
World.  For  field-guns  the  best  material  is  bronze:  it  is  expensive;  but  it  is 
;i  beautiful  metal,  and  very  tenacious. 


mm 


tit 


266 


IND  US  TAW  A  L    JUS  TOR  Y 


'! 


m 


4"i  t  f' 


Golden  age. 


I  RON-WOK  KINC;    MACHINERY. 

There  are  those  who  consider  the  golcKn  age  ol"  the  world  to  he  in  tlie 
future.  They  do  not  fbok  for  it  in  Jie  simple  times  of  the  past,  in  the  days 
()(  the  shepherd's  pipe,  the  stage-coach,  the  sun-dial,  and  the 
hand-loom  ;  for,  with  all  their  romance,  those  were  ill-regulatcd 
times   in   many   respects,   tyrannical,   disobedient  to  law,   and   ignorant,   with 

poverty  and  deprivatinn  among  the  jieo- 
pie.  'ihey  believe  that  the  better  times 
lie  in  the  future.  — in  an  age  when  man 
shall  have  been  released  from  the  greater 
part  of  the  depressing  muscular  toil  now 
imposed  upon  him  ;  when  there  is  a  more 
general  dillusion  of  ediu  atioii,  comfort, 
and  content  among  the  jieople  ;  when  tlu' 
higher  faculties  and  (lualities  ct^me  inon.' 
generally  into  play  in  even  tlie  humblest 
occupations,  and  toil  itself  becomes  a 
pleasure. 

If  ever  there  dawns  for  man  a  -:ol(h.u 
age  of  this  description,  (and  who  will 
deny  its  ])robability?)  the  change  will 
come  about,  in  part,  through  the  larL;t'r 
employment  of  machinery,  whereby  man. 
Employ-  instead  of  struggling  w-itli  the 
ment  of         forccs  of    Nature  as    of   old, 

machinery.     ^j^,^jj     ^^^^^     ^j^^.^^^     ^^    ,^j^    ^^^^.,^ 

use,  and  compel  them  to  labor  for  him. 
and  shall  thus  throw  off  a  part  of  his 
burden  of  physical  toil,  and  gain  oppor- 
tunity for  cherishing  antl  employinjr  tlic 
mind.  The  present  century  is  alroa(l\ 
distinguished  by  the  extent  to  which  ii 
has  utilized  machinery  in  all  the  indus- 
trial arts.  It  is  alreatly  called  the  ago 
of  machinery  ;  and  orators  and  writers  have  more  than  once  called  atten- 
tion to  the  additional  comfort,  luxury,  and  content  it  has  brought  to  the 
people.  There  seems  no  limit,  however,  to  the  extent  to  which  machinery  can 
be  employed.  .A. 'thousand  new  uses  are  found  for  it  every  year,  and  its 
ameliorating  influences  are  capable  of  being  extended  almost  indefinitely  in 
all  departments  of  labor. 

Development  has  been  the  most  r'^arkable  in   the   field   of  machinery  tur 
the  working  of  iron,  and  especially  m  ihe  United  States,  where  the  progress 


BEEAST    DKiI.I.. 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


267 


?' 


the 
;lays 

llu- 
latct I 
Willi 

times 
mar, 
re  ate  r 
I  m)w 
.  more 
)mt"on. 
len  the 
I  more 
niVolest 
)mes  a 


linery 


lias  been   the   most  sweeping  and  electrifying.     'I'lie  high  cost  oi  labor  here, 
ami  the  'lesirability  of  rendering  this  country  independent  of  the  OKI  World 
lor  its  supplies  of  iron- manufactures,  ga\o  a  powerful  stimulus  to 
American  invention  in  this  field  of  effort;    and,  from  the  <lays  of  rntruorma- 
the  nail-making  machine  to  the  present,  it  has  been  busily  em-   chinery  for 
ployed  in  devising  means  for  rhe  fashioning  of  iron-manufactures   |^°''*""K 
1)V  machinery,  and  dispensing  with    die   old    pro<  esses  of  doing 
tlie  work  by  hand.    The  success  has  been  wonderful.     Our  factories  and  shops 
are  filled  now  with  ma<hinery,  rather  than  with  toiling  human  beings  ;  and  nine- 
tenths  of  all  the  old  operations  which  re(|uired  any  particular  expenditure  of 
luuuan  toil  are  now  performed  by  machinery,  and  better  and  faster  ])erforme(l 
also.     The   difference    between    an  Aii    rican   and  a   foreign  factory  in  this 
respect  may  be  seen   by  comparing  the   lialdwin  Locomotive  Works  with    its 
three  thousand   nun  and   the  great  locomotive  works  at  Berlin  with   its  ten 
il'.ousand  men.  die   latter  turning  out  less  work  in  tlie  year  than   the   former. 
The  dirferen(  e  is  caused  by  the  mat:hinery  of  tin-   I'.aldwin  Works,     'i'lie  same 
( uinparison  could  be  made  between  an  American  and  a  l>ritisii  iron  ship-yard. 
I'he  general  applii  ,iiion  of  machinery  to  the  wi>rking  of  iron  has  called 
into  e.\istence  a  special  class  of  establishments  devotcil  to  the 
inakiiig  of  iron-working  tools  and   machinery,  adding  a  re- 
enl'orcement  of  about  filteen  hundred  shops  to   _.        .     , 

'  Fai  Lories  for 

the   thousands  of  those  devoted  to   the   manu-   making  iron- 
facture  of  iron  anil  steel   for  the  ortlinarv   pur-    ^°['""e 

'  tools. 

jioses  of  life.     These  fifteen  hundred  shops  em- 
ploy about  a  hundred  thousand  men.     Many  of  them   are, 
in  I  irt.  founderies,  and  carry  on  the  manufixcture  of  general 
iii;u  hinery ;  but  'hey  all  make  iron-working  tools  and  ma- 
chiiies  as  a  regular  1\  ature  of  their  business. 

In  general,  iron-working  machinery  may  be  classified 
Miiilcr  the  following  head:;,  —  turning-lathes,  borers,  drills, 
I'lancs,  shears,  rolls,  hammers,  lies,  punches  for  making 
IikIcs,  screw  and  bolt  cutters,  riveting  and  welding  machines, 
<mnes.  grooving,  slotting,  and  milling  ma(  hines,  and  jjolish- 
erv  The  variety  of  forms  under  each  of  the  above  heads 
is  intuiile.  Obviously,  the  metal  parts  which  go  to  make  uj) 
a  \vat(  h,  and  those  which  enter  into  a  locomotive,  a  steam- 
eiii^ine.  or  an  iron  ship,  must  differ  in  extraordinary  re- 
^pec  ts ;  and  these  differences  in  the  size,  j)urpose.  and  strength  of  the  thou- 
^'ind  objects  into  which  iron  and  steel  are  fashioned,  and  the  complexilv 
<'t  tl,c  i)arts  which  sometimes  go  to  make  up  single  inventions,  give  rise  to  an 
i-Mraordinary  variety  of  iron-working  machines.  Some  of  these  machines 
lUrai  t  attention  from  their  size  and  power ;  as,  for  instance,  the  planers,  which 
iKuc  been  made  large  enough  to  plane  a  horizontal  iron  jjlate  forty-two  feet 


II 


HAS'I)    DHII.I.. 


!ia' 


21 .  113.1 


IMAGE  EVALUATION 
TEST  TARGET  (MT-S) 


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Photographic 

Sciences 
Corporation 


23  WEST  MAIN  STREET 

WEBSTER,  N.Y.  14580 

(716)  873-4503 


"iJ)^ 


o 


268 


INL   ^S  TA'/A  I.    I//S  rOR  Y 


i:,r:,  i 


Planers. 


(iiii 


long  by  twenty-five  wide,  the  plate  being  carried  slowly  backward  and  forward 
under  a  sharp  cliisel  which  cuts  only  one  narrow  paring  at  a  time  from  its 
rough  surface.  Planers  have  been  made  to  smooth  vertical  sur- 
faces twelve  feet  long  and  eight  feet  high.  Lathes  are  made  to 
turn  a  piece  of  work  eight  feet  and  a  half  in  diameter,  and  boring-machines 
to  smooth  the  itHeriors  of  steam  cylinders  of  the  same  size.  Drills  are  made 
to  bore  a  hole  twenty-two  inches  in  diameter  through  solid  iron.  At  the  iron 
shijj-yards,  shears  are  used  to  cut  up  solid  iron  i)lates  two  inches  thick. 
Steam  hammers  are  used  which  strike  a  fifty-ton  IjIow,  which  could  easily  be 
increased  to  seventy-five  tons ;  while  the  hammers  are  so  tractable,  that  they 
can  be  used  to  crack  walnuts.  Cranes  easily  handle  whole  boilers  and  pieces 
of  machinery  weighing  twenty-five  tons.  Rolling-mills  are  made  of  suili 
power,  that  at  Chester,  Penn.,  iron  plates  are  made  six  inches  thick  for  tiie 
armor  of  men-of-war.  Squeezers  are  often  employed  in  our  rolling-mills 
capable  of  taking  a  thousand-pound  bloom  from  the  puddling-furnace,  and 
squeezing  it  into  a  compact  pig  of  wrought  iron  in  less  than  a  minute,  'i'lie 
power  and  size  of  this  variety  of  machinery  appear  to  be  limited  only  by  the 
demands  of  the  country  for  its  employment. 

Other  machines  are  noteworthy  for  their  special  adaptation  to  the  perform- 
ance of  some  process  and  for  their  labor-saving  qualities.  Such  are  the  small 
Trip-  trip-hamnv,Ts,  striking  from  forty  to  a  hundred  blows  a  minute,  for 

hammers.  drawing  out  the  tines  of  a  pitchfork  from  the  little  chunk  of 
metal  two  inches  long  from  which  the  fork  is  made.  Such  are  also  the 
Inventions  countless  inventions  for  stamping,  twisting,  boring,  and  shaping  of 
for  boring,  the  wheels,  springs,  and  pieces  of  metal  which  enter  into  watclics. 
twisting,  c.  f,rj..jjf,^g^  tools,  and  small  machines  of  all  kinds.  Others  are  the 
grooving  and  mortising  machines,  those  for  turning  the  rims  of  pullevs,  for 
cutting  the  'oeth  of  wheels,  for  paring  and  bevelling  the  edges  of  boiler-plates, 

for  planing  the  edges  of  locomotive 
frames,  for  bending  carriage-springs,  for 
cutting  thv.  threads  of  screws  and  bolts, 
&c.  The  system  i)revalent  in  the  best 
WRENCH.  American  shops  leads  to  the  mi:ltipli<  a- 

tion  of  this  class  of  machines  year  by 
year.  Invention  is  encouraged  ;  and  the  workman  is  given  a  part  of  llic 
benefit  of  his  invention,  if  he  will  suggest  a  machine  which  will  save  manu.il 
labor,  and  facilitate  the  operations  of  the  shop. 

Still  another  class  of  machines  is  remarkable  chiefly  for  accuracy  of 
,,    . .  oiieration  :    these   are  the   ones  used  in   all    fine    machine-work. 

Machinery  ' 

for  making  Before  the  general  application  of  machinery  to  iron-working, 
minute  inaccuracies  of  a  hund.-edth  part  of  an  inch  micrht  be  detcctoii 

things.  '  ° 

by  a  very  experienced  workman,  but  no  smaller  defects  than  that. 
Fine   machine-work  was    almost    impossible,  because    mechanism  which  was 


OF    THE    rXlTED    STATES. 


269 


rd  and  forward 
I  time  from  its 
3th  vertical  sor- 
es are  made  to 
joring-machincs 
Drills  are  made 
m.     At  the  iron 
o   inches   thick. 
,  could  easily  be 
ctable,  that  they 
)ilers  and  pieces 
;  made   of  such 
les  thick  for  the 
our   rolling-mills 
lling-furnace,  and 
a  minute.    'Ihe 
nited  only  by  the 

n  to  the  perform- 
uch  are  the  small 
ilows  a  minute,  for 
;   litde    chunk   of 
^uch  are  also   the 
J,  and  shaping  of 
nter  into  watches. 
Others  are  ihe 
ms  of  pullevs,  for 
^s  of  boiler-plates, 
es   of   locomotive 
arriage-springs,  for 
screws  and  bolls, 
ivalent  in  the  best 
to  the  multipliia- 
jmachines  year  l>y 
[-en  a  part  of  the 
will  save  manual 

for    accuracy   ot 

[le    machine-work. 

to    iron-working. 

Inight  be  detccuVl 

defects  than  thai. 

lanism  which  wis 


below  a  certain  size  was  sure  to  be  full  of  inaccuracies,  and  work  badly.  All 
machinery  was  clumsy.  American  ingenuity  first  insured  absolute  accuracy  by 
the  general  use  of  machinery  in  the  making  of  the  small  parts  of  complicated 
mechunism,  and  thus  made  fme  and  delicate  mechanism  possible  by  sup])lyuig 
the  means  to  detect  and  measure  differences  of  a  ten-thousandth  of  an  inch. 

The  steam-riveting  machine 
is  one  of  the  new  inventions. 
It  weighs  eighteen  tons,  and  con- 
tains one  forging  of  steam  rivet- 
five     tons.        It    rivets    ine-machine. 

the  bolt  wiUi  a  single  blow,  and 
dcjes  its  work  so  silently  and  rap- 
idly as  to  obviate  the  fearful  din 
of  boiler-shops  in  general,  and 
greatly  reduce  the  cost  of  opera- 
tion. 

.'\nothcr  late  invention,  and 
one  which  carriage-spring  makers 
have    been    studving   ,,    . .     , 

■^     Machine  for 

for  twenty  years  how  bending  and 
to  construct,  is  a  ma-   tampering 

jprtngs. 

chine  for  bending  and 
tempering  springs  at  one  opera- 
tion. It  weighs  less  than  a  ton. 
and  is  a  simple,  straightforward 
device  for  performing  a  jjrocess 
luitil  now  always  done  by  hand. 

S])ecial  machines  are  now  made  for  most  of  the  oi)erations  of  locomotive 
and  iron  ship  and  engine  building,  for  car-shops,  rolling-mills,  cloth  and  gun 
shops,   the   sewing-machine,    tool,  and    other   factories,   in   large 
numbers.      A  great  many  of   these   machines   are    sent    abroad,    makingparts 
where  they  give  emphatic  pleasure,  and  receive  a  great  deal  of  of  locomo- 
l)raise  on  account  of  the  originality  of  idea,  and  high  constructive   *'J.**'  '["'^ 

'  o  .'  '  o  ships,  &c. 

al)ility  displayed  in  their  manufacture. 

It  has  been  pointed  out  that  the  construction  of  iron-working  machinery 
and  of  machinists'  tools  underlies  all  other  branches  of  manuilic-    utility  of 
ture.     Take  any  finished  product,  whatever  it  may  be,  and  trace   such  instru- 
l«a(  kward  the  means  by  which  it  has  been  produced.     We  shall   "'="*^' 
inevitably   reach   at   length   the    hammer  and  the  cutting-tool  of  the  lathe, 
I'lnne.  or  borer.     Upon  the  efficiency  and  accuracy  of  iron-working  tools  and 
machines,  therefore,  depends  a  great  deal  more  of  human  progress  and  comfort 
than  one  would  imagine  upon  a  su]3erficial  examination  of  what  it  is  that  pro- 
motes ihese  things. 


MIU.ER  S-FAI.I.S   \ICK. 


370 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


and  cross- 
cut saw. 


iifiiu 


AXKS    AND    SAWS. 

'I'he  hroad-axc  and  the  cross-rut  saw  are  the  typical  agencies  for  the 
Woodaxe  working  of  wood.  The  former  lays  low  the  great  tree  in  the 
backwoods  :  the  latter  cuts  it  up  into  logs  which  can  he  rafted 
down  stream  to  market.  All  the  tools  which  touch  it  after  that, 
from  the  saw-mill  to  the  last  operation  in  the  shop  of  the  carpenter  and  joiner, 
are  only  modifications  of  the  i)arent  cutting  and  sawing  edges. 

No  implement  has  had  such  universal  use  as  the  axe  :  it  was  foremost  in 
war  and  in  peace  from  the  beginning  of  history  until  gunpowder  was  invented. 
Universal  ( lunpowder  swept  the  blood-stained  battle-axe  from  the  stage  of 
use  of  axe.  civili/cd  wartarc,  anil  tlic  inii)lement  became  then  devoted  only 
to  the  purposes  of  peace ;  but  its  use  has  only  increased  as  time  has  rolled  on. 
The  axe  is  the  indispensable  adjunct  of  i)ioneer  life  in  the  woods:  it  ileared 
the  fields  and  built  the  houses  of  our  forefiithers.  Wiierever  ])()pulati>jii 
crowds  the  ])lains,  and  the  waste  timber-lands  must  be  reclaimed  to  make 
room  for  man,  tlie  broad-axe  is  found  swinging  in  thousands  of  hands  for  the 
conven.ion  Kii  the  wilderness  to  a  place  fit  for  the  abode  of  humanity.  Iacu 
in  tiie  I'nited  .States,  where  there  is  plenty  of  room  in  the  open  country  and 
to  spare,  the  axe  is  still  vigorously  wielded  I)y  thirty  thousand  lumberineii, 
who  are  sent  into  the  woods  every  year  to  get  out  the  timber  for  which  shi]) 
ping,  building,  and  manufacture  has  created  such  an  extraonUnary  demand. 
The  axe  plavs  a  ])art  on  e\ery  farm.  It  lays  low  an  oak  or  a  big  majjle  when- 
ever tile  farmer  wants  money,  and  it  gathers  the  winter's  stock  of  fire-wood 
when  the  lal)0''s  of  the  liarvest  are  over.  It  enters  into  the  economy  of  the 
houseliold  under  every  roof  in  the  whole  wide  land. 

Until  witiiin  fifty  years,  the  axes  used  in  America  were  imi)orteil.     .\  few 
rude  blades  were  forged  at  the  blacksmith-shoi)s  by  village  greens ; 

Axes  im-  ^  1^00 

ported  until     but  the  busiuess  was  of  so  little  account,  that  it  was  not  thou-ht 
within  fifty     ^vorthy  of  protection  by  Congress,     During  the   Revolution  ami 

years.  ^  '  .»  o  o 

the  war  of  1812,  when  the  United  States  were  cut  oil  from  then- 
principal  source  of  supply  for  manuflictures  of  iron  and  steel,  axes  were  largelv 
made  by  the  American  blacksmiths  ;  but  the  return  of  peace  brought  fre-h 
importations,  which  checked  the  industry  again.  No  tax  was  levied  by  C'oii- 
gress  on  an  article  of  such  extended  use  in  the  United  States,  and  sc^  indis- 
pensable to  the  development  of  the  country.  The  first  axe-shop  m 
the  country  was  started  by  Samuel  W.  and  1).  C.  Collins  of  Hart 
ford.  Conn.,  in  1826.  They  thought  that  there  was  a  field  for  the  manufac  tine 
of  axes  here ;  and  they  put  up  a  little  stone  trip-hammer  shop,  with  a  capacity 
of  eight  axes  a  day,  and  began  drawing  patterns,  and  forging  and  temperiiiL; 
blades.  In  1828  Congress  levied  a  duty  of  thirty-five  per  cent  on  axes  to 
ascist  the  dawning  industry.  The  Collinses  moved  to  Collinsville,  Conn.,  and 
opened  a  large  factory,  which  after  some  years  passed  into  the  hands  of  a  coin- 


CoIIins. 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


271 


^encies  for  the 
;at  tree  in  the 
1  can  be  rafted 
ch  it  after  that. 
Miter  and  joiner. 

was  foremost  in 
er  was  invented, 
im  the  stage  of 
i\\  devoted  only 
ne  has  rolled  on. 
oods:  it  cleared 
rever   population 
•lainied  t(j  make 
of  hands  for  the 
humanity.     l'.\en 
C)i)en  country  and 
sand  hnnbermen. 
cr  for  which  ship- 
ordinary  demand. 

big  maple  when- 
tock  of  fire-wdoil 
;  economy  of  tlie 

imported.     A  tew 
by  village  greens ; 
It  was  not  thought 
Revolution  and 
ut  off  from  llieir 
axes  were  largi-K' 
ce  brought  fixdi 
las  levied  by  C'on- 
ites,  and  so  indis- 
|e  first  axe-shop  in 
.  Collins  of  11. n  I 
|r  the  manufaitiirc 
|p.  with  a  capacity 
ng  and  tempering 
cent  on  axes  to 
isville.  Conn.,  and 
hands  of  a  coin- 


Douglass. 


WdKKS  or  Dori.i,. 


.  AXK    (.1  MI'ANV,   l:\SI     11(11  l.l.ASS,   MASS. 


pany,  called  Collins  &  Company.  The  business  has  since  grown  to  gigantic 
proportions  and  world-wide  celebrity.  .Vfter  the  Collinses'  shops  were  opened 
others  were  started,  the  principal  ones  of  which  are  now  the 
Douglass  Axe  Company  of  Kast  Douglass,  Mass.,  and  the  con- 
cern at  Cohoes,  N.Y.  A  numl)er  of  small  factories  are  scattered  through  the 
country  :  two  of  them  are  in  New- 
ark. N.J.  The  Collins  Factory  is 
the  largest  in  the  world  :  it  eni- 
l)loys  from  four  hundred  and  fifty 
to  five  hundred  and  fifty  men,  pro- 
duces two  thousand  axes,  sledge- 
hammers, anil  cast-steel  tools  a 
day,  and  consumes  in  the  course 
of  the  year  eighteen  hundred 
Ions  of  iron,  three  hundred  and 
fifty  of  cast  steel,  and  seven  thou- 
sand of  c-oal. 

'The  process  of  axe-making  is 
full  of  interest ;  indeed,  is  exciting 
I  luring  some  stages  of  the  manu- 
fa(  lure.  The  first  operation  con- 
sists in  ( lippjng  from  long.  Hat 
bars  a  half-foot  of  American  iron,  which  is  ipiickly  transformed  into  the  poll 
of  an  axe.  which  is  merely  the  head  and  eye,  and  al)out  half  the  process  of 
blade  ;  the  balance,  or  cutting  part  of  the  blade,  being  composed  axe-miking. 
(if  nearly  a  pound  of  the  best  Jessop  steel,  so  inlaid  with  the  iron  that  the 
tiiol  may  endure  years  of  grinding,  and  still  retain  its  fine  steel  edge.  Other 
kinds  in  the  market  can  boast  of  a  greater  spread  of  steel  surface  ;  but  they 
aiv  entirely  innocent  of  that  sort  of  *•  northern  iron,"  as  the  Prophet  Jeremiah 
terms  it,  in  the  centre  of  the  tool,  which  will  enable  it  to  stand  the  hard  usage 
in  store  tor  it.  The  real  difference  between  the  two  metals  is  finely  brought 
out  in  the  polishing  process,  in  which  no  amount  of  furbishing  can  leave  that 
fine  surface  on  the  iron  which  the  steel  reatlily  takes,  and  which  forms  a  per- 
fect mirror  in  the  finished  implement. 

Passing  over  a  variety  of  intermediate  handlings,  in  which  the  essential 
objects  obtained  are  complete  welding  of  the  two  metals  and  perfect  symmetry 
m  the  several  patterns  made  (all  of  which  are  accomplished  amid  the  distrac- 
tions of  an  army  of  large  and  small  trip-hammers,  whose  din  at  times  is  well- 
nigh  deafening  to  an  outsider),  we  reach  the  tempering-room,  where  a  score  or 
so  of  men  are  occupied  in  bringing  the  steel  to  the  proper  degree  of  hardness, 
—  a  point  reipiiring  the  utmost  nicety  of  attention.  Small  furnaces  arc  kept 
bi'.rning  on  the  iron  tables  of  the  workmen  (or  watolimen,  rather  ;  for  about  all 
tiiey  du  is  to  keep  a  keen  eye  on  the  color  assumed  by  the  iron)  ;   and,  the 


373 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


instant  the  right  hue  is  developed,  tlie  axe  goes  into  a  salt-water  bath,  whicli 
fixes  the  c  arboni/ed  state  of  the  iron  forever,  unless  again  put  throuj^  ■  the 
fiery  torture. 

'I"he  next  stage  in  the  progress  of  the  axe  toward  completion  brings  us  to 
the  grinding  and  polishing  departments.  Some  idea  of  the  relative  importance 
of  this  branch  of  the  manufacture  may  be  had  from  the  fact  that  it  costs  one 
hinidred  dollars'  worth  of  grindstones  daily  to  bring  the  axe  to  the  marketable 
stage,  to  say  nothing  of  the  immense  expenditure  of  emery  in  polishing  after- 
ward. Huge  stones  from  Nova  Scotia  and  the  West  lie  about  the  shop-yards, 
full  seven  feet  in  diameter  many  of  them  :  and  in  no  longer  than  three  weeks' 
time  they  are  used  uj).  Many  of  the  men  ride  on  "  horses  "  while  grinding, 
thus  enabling  them  to  bring  their  whole  bodily  avoirdupois  to  aid  the  pro- 
cess of  abrasion  ;  while  the  fine  dust  flics  in  clouds  from  the  stones  in  every 
direction,  notwithstanding  the  stones  are  all  the  time  completely  deluged  with 
water. 

The  men  in  this  section  are,  from  their  peculiarly  hazardous  work,  ruled  nut 
of  all  the  life-insurance  companies ;  since  the  constant  inhalation  of  the  grit 
and  bits  of  steel  thrown  off  in  the  process  induces  the  "  grinders'  consump- 
tion," as  it  is  rightly  termed,  from  which  a  premature  death  is  rarely  averted. 
It  is  said  that  Americans  will  not  work  in  these  rooms,  which  are  filled  by 
French  Canadians,  who  stop  a  few  years,  and  then  go  home  to  linger  a  while 
and  die. 

But  sometimes  the  peril  to  life  is  of  another  kind  altogether,  arising  from 
the  rai)idity  with  which  the  stones  must  be  made  to  revolve.  A  flaw  in  thr 
stone,  or  possibly  a  loosening  in  the  clamp  holding  it  upon  the  shaft,  sends  the 
flying  fragments  furiously  hither  and  thither,  —  perhaps  through  the  grinder's 
body,  or  throws  him  through  the  roof.  It  is  but  justice  to  add,  however,  that 
sucli  casualties  hai)pen  only  at  rare  intervals. 

There  yet  remains  the  bevelling  of  the  poll  of  the  axe  near  the  eye,  which 
the  trade  insist  upon  in  their  orders,  and  which  was  formerly  done  by  the  slow 
process  of  grinding  out  on  the  stones.  This  is  done  l)y  an  iron  wheel  thirty 
inches  in  diameter,  its  periphery  being  an  inch  tire  of  softest  iron.  Rcvolvini,' 
with  great  velocity,  it  does  the  bevelling  almost  instantly,  literally  melting  that 
portion  of  the  axe  away. 

The  American  broad-axe  is  a  handsome  blade.  It  has  a  thick,  flat,  liroad 
iron  head,  with  a  cast-steel  blade  slightly  flaring  as  it  approaches  the  edge,  ami 
American  a  cresceut-shapcd  edge.  The  eye,  or  hole  for  the  wooden  handle, 
broad-axe.  g^^j^  straight  through  the  head.  In  this  the  axe  differs  from  tin.' 
less  convenient  Spanish  implement,  in  which  the  handle  is  fitted  into  a  loo])  at 
the  back  of  the  blade,  on  the  principle  of  a  plantation  hoe.  Nearly  all  the 
processes  of  manufacture  are  carried  on  by  machinery.  The  head  is  cut  from 
a  bar  of  iron,  the  eye  punched  out,  and  the  head  flattened  and  pressed  into 
shape  while    hot,    by  machines  made    for   the  purpose.       The  edge  of  the 


Ol'     THE     CAT  11: 1)    SlAThS. 


^73 


er  bath,  which 
It  throng  ■■  the 

11  brings  us  to 

Live  importvance 

at  it  costs  one 

the  marketable 

pohshing  after- 

the  sliop-yards. 

lan  three  weeks' 
while  grinding, 
to  aid  the  pro- 

■t  stones  in  every 

fly  deluged  wilh 

IS  work,  ruled  out 
Uition  of  the  gril 
•inders'  consiunp- 

is  rarely  averted, 
lich  are  filled  by 

to  linger  a  while 

:ther,  arising  from 

e.     A  flaw  in  the 

lie  shaft,  sends  the 

ugh  the  grinder's 

dd,  however,  iiiat 

[ar  the  eye,  which 
[done  by  the  slow 
iron  wheel  thirty 
iron.     Revolving 
trally  melting  that 

thick,  nat.  broad 
Jhes  the  edge,  and 
|e  wooden  handle, 
differs  from  the 
|ted  into  a  looi)  at 
Nearly  all  the 
head  is  cut  from 
[and  pressed  into 
rrhe  edge  of  the 


WORKS   OK   DOIGLASS   AXE   COMPANY. 


head  is  grooved,  and  a  narrow  ])iece  of  c.ist-steel  welded  to  it  at  a  white- 
heat.  'I'iie  steel  is  dniwii  out  to  form  tiu'  l)l;ide  in  tiie  welding-opera 
tion,  the  steel  being  thoroughly 
smitiied  to  condense  the  metal, 
and  render  it  tough.  'I'iie  axe 
is  tempered  very  hard  ;  and  tiie 
hardness  is  then  drawn  down  to 
what  is  called  a  blue  temper, 
when  it  is  ground,  polished,  the 
head  painted  re<l  or  black,  and 
the  a\e  sent  to  the  packing- 
room.  In  old  times  the  axe 
was  not  siiaqjened  at  the  fac- 
tory :  every  purchaser  gave  it 
an  edge  on  his  own  grinil- 
stone  at  home.  Dif-  Different 
erent  styles    of   axes    kinds  of 

1        r  IT,-  axes. 

lire   made    tor  (iiller- 

ent  purposes  and  different  tastes. 

Some  are   made  for  the  foreign 

market    exclusively.      American    heavy   edge-tools   have   a   great   reputation 

abroad,  and  they  form  a  i)roniinent   feature   in  the  shipment  of  hardware  to 

Kngland,  (lermany.  Australia,  Cuba,  and  .South  .\merica.     .\mong  the  \arieties 

made    are    hatchets,   axes    for  turpentine-making,   ad/es.   machetes.   (leavers. 

broad  scjuare,  and  crescent  blades.  iVc. 

The  consumption  of  axes  is  enormous.  From  thirty  thousand  to  forty 
thousand  men  go  out  annually  in  the  Lbiited  States  and  Canada  to  (ait  lumber, 
the  area  cut  off  every  season  amounting  to  bet\.  -n  three  hundred  and  fifty 
and  four  hundred  and  fifty  sfiuare  miles.  \\\  axe  M'ldom  lasts  a  month.  .\ 
handle  lasts  only  three  weeks.  The  axes  are  ground  every  day,  consumption 
and  the  blade  soon  becomes  so  worn  that  it  is  thrown  away.  The  °'  "''^^■ 
old  axes  are  not  utilized  afterward.  IJut,  besides  the  lumbermen  of  America, 
the  United  States  now  supply,  in  part,  the  pioneers  of  the  vast  forests  of 
South  America,  where  the  harder  woods  —  the  mahogan\-.  rosewood,  and  other 
(al)inet  timber  —  create  a  still  more  prodigious  consumption  of  blades.  There 
is.  besides,  a  constant  demand  for  general  purposes  all  through  the  populatioi? 
of  the  countries,  which  the  American  makers  su])plv. 

Tiie  style  of  axe  preferred  varies  in  different  parts  of  .America.  The  lum- 
bermen are  the  true  connoisseurs  of  blades.  A  Maine  backwoodsman  selects 
a  long,  narrow  head,  the  blade  in  crescent  shape,  the  heaviest  part  of  the  axe 
Iteing  in  the  head  above  the  eye.  New- York  cutters  choose  a  broad,  crescent 
blade,  the  head  rather  short,  the  weight  evenly  l)alanced  about  the  eye. 
A   Western    lumberman    selects   a   long    blade,    the    corners    onlv    rounded 


a  74 


IND  US  TRIA .'..    INS  TOR  Y 


ofT,  tlic  eye   holding  the  weight   of  the  axe.      The   Canadian    rhnpptT  pre- 
fers a  broad,  scinare  Made,  witii   the  wei^.it  largely  in  tiie  blade,  the  handle 

being  short  and  thick. 
'I'he  difference  in  taste 
in  regard  to  the  shape 
of  the  axe  extends  also 
to  the  manner  in  whic  ii 
the  (Utter  llings  himself 
at  a  tree.  .An  expert  in 
the  woods  can  tell  the 
state  or  the  nationality 
of  a  man  by  glancing  at 
his  axe,  and  seeing  him 
strike  one  blow.  The 
swinging,  graceful  cut  of 
the  1  )own-easter.  flung  at 
the  tree  from  over  the 
left  shoukler,  with  both 
hands  at  the  extreme 
end  of  the  handle,  is 
the  motlel  blow.  It  is 
claimed  that  a  Yankee 
cutter  will  do  one-fifth 
more  work  in  the  sanu" 
length  of  time  than 
either  the  direct-hittini,' 
Westerner,  or  the  Ca- 
nuck (who  strikes  more 
from  over  the  head), 
and  with  less  fatigue. 

The  saw  followed  tht- 
early  settlers  of  Amerir:! 
into  the  forest  almost  from  the  start.  It  was  the  hand  or  cross-cut  saw  at  fii^t. 
Saw  and  — a  long,  Straight  piece  of  flat  steel  toothed,  fitted  with  a  handle  ;it 
sawmill.  ^,,j,.|^  end,  and  worked  back  and  foith  by  two  persons,  —  or  el-^f 

a  shorter,  stiffcr  saw,  designed  to  be  used  by  one  person  by  means  of  a  handle 
at  one  euil.  liut  sawmills  were  in  use  extremely  early.  The  first  of  whi'  ti 
there  is  any  record  was  put  up  at  New  York  in  1633,  and,  in  the  abseixc 
of  water-power,  was  driven  b\-  the  vanes  of  a  windmill.  One  was  also  Imilt 
Early  estab-  °"  Governor's  Island  in  the  harbor,  and  in  1639  was  loaned  tor 
lishment  of  a  consideration  of  five  hundred  merchantable  boards  yearly.  ImIi 
^^'  oak,   half  pine.     Another  sawmill   was    in  operation    as    e;irly  as 

1634,  at    the  Falls  of  the   Piscataqua  at  IJerwick,  Me.,  by   rjiglish  settkrs. 


LESTER  SAW. 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


275 


,op\uT  pre- 
i\k-  handle 
ami    tl^i'k- 
ice  in  taslo 
)  ihL-  shape 
extends  also 
ncr  in  \vhi<  h 
lings  himself 
An  expert  in 
can  tell  tlu- 
ne   nationality 
l,y  giant: ing  at 
v(i  seeing  hi>" 
..   blow.      'Hie 
graceful  cut  of 
-caster,  flnnji  ^^^ 
from  over  the 
Uler.  with  both 
X    the    extreme 
the   handle,   is 
lei  blow.      It  i^ 
that   a  Yankee 
■ill   do   one-fifth 
,rk  in  the  same 
of     time     than 
Ihe    direet-hitliiv4 
,^.1-,    ox   the    C'a- 
•l^o  strikes  moro 
,vcr    the    head), 
,h  less  fatigiK'- 
saw  followed  tlu' 
lulcrs  of  Ameri.  ;i 
is-evit  saw  at  fn-t- 
with  a  handle  at 
,crsons,  —  or  el^e 
,cans  of  a  haivlle 
L  first  of  whu  h 
ll,  in  the   al-en-' 
,,.  was  also  InuU 
.(;  was  loaned  lov 
[oards  yearly.  IvaH 
,tion    as   earlv  a^ 
Vnulish  seUUr>. 


Another  was  built  at  S(  ituate.  Mass.,  in  1656,  under  a  stipulation  by  the 
authorities  that  tlie  owners  should  saw  for  the  public  before  sawing  for  them- 
selves, and  should  have  one  half  the  lumber  for  sawing  tlie  other  half  Others 
were  built  on  the  1  )elaware,  by  the  Dutch  and  Swedes,  before  IVnn  arrived. 
.\nu  rica  was  a  hundred  years  in  advance  of  [jigland  in  the  employment  of 
llie  sawmill.  Ihe  lil)erd  1  )ul(  hnien  employed  it  in  Holland,  and  introduced  it 
both  to  Mngland  and  Americ".  ;  but  there  was  so  much  opposition  in  Kngland, 
that  Parliament  prohibited  its  use,  and  as  late  as  1760  a  sawmill  was  de- 
stroyed by  a  mob.  In  America  sawmills  were  a  great  !)oon,  and  were  gladly 
welcomed.  They  soon  came  into  general  use  throughout  the  colonies. 
'Ihey  followed  the  pioneer  everywhere,  and  formed,  with  the  gristmill,  the 
nu(  leus  of  every  settlement  and  neighborliood.  The  saw  in  these  mills  was 
a  straight  blade  until  about  i  790,  when  circular  i)lates  were  invented. 

The  saws  of  early  times  were  all   imported,  large  and  small.     There  was 
both  a  lack  of  capital  and  skill  for  making  them  here.     The  oldest  in.stance 
of  an  attempt  to  make  saws  in  the  United  States  is  the  case  of  piratsaw* 
William  Rowland  of  I'liiladelphia  in  1802.     Other  attempts  were   wereim- 
niade  :  they  all  failed.     About  f(jrty  years  ago  the  manufiicture  was   ''°'  ' 
finally  established  by  an  English  mechanic  named  Henry  Disston,  who  had 
served  an  apprenticeship  in  a  shop  in  Philadelphia,  and  finally  became  foreman 
of  it.     He  was  ingenious,  and  resolved  to  try  to  make  saws.     His   Henry 
early  efforts  were  on  a  small  scale.     The  plate  steel  had  to  be  im-   disston. 
ported  from  England,  and  was  expensive  ;    and  there  was  a  prejudice  against 
American  work  of  this  description.     Disston  managed  to  get  his  saws  at  length 
into  the  hands  of  merchants,  and  built  up  a  considerable  business.     All  his 
steel  was  imported,  the  precious  scraps  of  it  being  saved,  and  sent  bac:k  to 
I'lngland  to  be  rolleil  into  plates  again.     In  1861   Mr.  Disston  resolved  to  cut 
loose  from  English   steel,  if  possible,  and  make  his  plates  himself     The  tariff 
of  that  year  gave  him  protection,  and  he  fitted  up  his  shop  for  the  experiment. 
1  le  succeeded,  and  soon  became  an  independent  manufacturer.     The  estab- 
lisliineiit  he  built  up  is  now  the  i)rincipal  fictory  of  its  class  in  America.    Other 
saw- factories   have   been  started,   however,  and  the   industry   is  a  large  and 
rapidly-growing  one.     All  sorts  of  saws  are   now  made.     They  range   in  size 
and  power,  from  the  delicate  watch-maker's  and  dentist's  tool  to   Kinds  of 
tile  heavy  circular  plates  for  wind   and  steam  sawmills,   and  the   "ws. 
siill  larger  ones  for  working  the  gigantic  trees  of  the   Pacific  coast.     Chain 
saws  for  surgeons  are  also  made.     At  the  factory  of  R.  Hoe  &  Company,  in 
New  York,  circular  saws  are  produced  eighty  inches  in  diameter,  and  cross- 
cuts more  than  ten  feet  long.     American  saws  are  now  regularly  exported. 
Shcttield  makers  ha\'e  lost   several   important  markets  on  account  of   them 
wiihin  the  last  five  years. 

Saws  are  made  from  ingots  of  steel,  hammered  to  condense  and  toughen 
^1k;  metal,  and  then  rolled  out  into  ivlates.     The  sheets  are  slit  up  into  the 


2^(} 


IND  us  TA'  I A  A    //AS  TOKY 


proper  si/c-s  ami  ^Iiapi's  for  the  (li(Tcrt.'nt  saws.  The  (Mittin^  edges  beinj,' 
ProccMii  oi  ^,'rnim(l  IriH'.  till' ti'etli  are  pimclied  out  by  a  (ly-press  :  the  roiij,'li 
making.  iili^'cs  ari'  then  filed  down,  and  the  teeth  sharpt'iied.     'Ilie  blades, 

heated  to  redness,  are  plunj,'ed  into  a  troiij,'h  of  oil,  mixed  with  tallow,  bei>wa\, 
and  rosin,  to  harden  them  ;  and  then  the  hardness  is  drawn  down  to  the  ri^^ht 
point  by  wiping'  off  only  a  part  of  the  (  omposition  from  the  blade,  and  settiii;^ 
fire  to  the  residue.  This  is  i  alli'd  "  bla/iiif^  off :  "  it  softens  the  blade  to  tlir 
rij^ht  point,  leavinj;  it  elastii  ,  and  the  teeth  hard.  Tlu  saw  is  then  well  smithed 
on  an  an\  il  of  polislud  steel  to  j^i\c  nnili)rm  density  to  the  plate  :  and  tlu 
blade  is  then  ground  away  ba<  k  of  the  teeth  upon  grindstones,  this  thinning  of 
the  plate  being  one  of  the  means  resorted  to  to  prevent  the  saw,  in  operation, 
from  being  clogged  with  sawdust.  The  teeth  of  the  saw  are  generally  pointed 
forward.  In  the  eross-cnt,  which  is  desigiud  to  cut  both  ways,  no  pit<h  i> 
given  to  them  either  way.  In  the  ciiw  nlar  saw  a  tooth  has  been  introdmcd 
by  Mr.  Disston,  pointing  about  straight  forward,  the  imder  \ya\\.  being  well  (iit 
aw.iy,  its  outline  strongly  resembling  that  of  a  fish  hook.  Its  advantages  are 
facility  of  sharpening,  and  long  wear,  without  diminishing  the  diameter  of  the 
saw.  In  all  small  saws  a  set  is  given  to  the  teeili  ;  that  is.  they  are  bent  oiit- 
w.'xrds  to  right  and  left  alternately.  This  causes  the  teeth  to  make  a  cut  wider 
than  the  blade,  and  so  gives  the  latter  free  play. 


.STOVKS. 

The  old-fashioned  fireplace  will  never  cease  to  be  loved  for  the  beautiful 
atmosphere  it  imparts  to  a  room,  and  the  snug  and  cheerful  effect  of  an  opin 
Old  fash-        wood-fire.     NVhen   stoves  were  first  introduced,  a  feeling  of  uii 
ioned  fire-       utterablo  rcixignancc  was  felt  by  all  classes  toward  adopting  them  : 
'' *'^*"  and  they  were  used  for  a  generation  chiefly  in  s(  hoolhouses,  court 

rooms,  bar-rooms,  shops,  and  other  public  and  rough  ])laces.  For  the  home, 
nothing  except  the  fireplace  would  do.  The  open  fire  was  the  true  centre  of 
the  home-life,  and  it  seemed  perfectly  impossible  to  everybody  to  bring  up  ;i 
family  around  a  stove.  It  was  once  thought  that  the  fireplace  was  an  insntfi- 
cient  means  of  warming  a  house,  and  the  impression  had  its  influence  in  se(  tir- 
ing the  introduction  of  stoves.  Hut  it  is  now  understood  that  the  trouble  in  nM 
times,  which  made  it  possible  to  see  one's  breath  upon  the  air  sitting  by  iho 
fireplace,  and  find  ajjples  frozen  iipon  the  table  in  the  centre  of  the  room  wluii 
the  fiimily  were  roasting  in  the  bla/e  of  the  log-fire,  was  not  due  to  the  inetii 
ciency  of  the  fireplace,  but  to  the  bad  construction  of  houses,  which  alK)wnl 
the  cold  air  to  i)enetrate  to  the  interior  in  gales.  With  better  built  houses  tin' 
huge  fireplace  of  colonial  times  became  too  large  and  too  hot,  and  had  to  be 
reduced  in  size.  The  convenience  of  the  stove  for  cooking  had  more  iniln 
ence  on  its  eventual  i)0]Milarity  than  .all  other  causes  combined.  Food  \v,b 
better  cooked  in  the  old-fashioned  fireplace,  but  not  so  conveniently  :   in  lad. 


Ol-     TlIK    rXITh.n    STATl:S. 


277 


'Ihc  l)Uulcs. 
)\v,  beeswax, 
to  tho  ii:J^> 
.  and  sctlm:^ 
l.lacU-   l<>  »>'^' 
well  hjuillu'il 
ate  ;  and  tlir 
IS  thinning  ol 
in  ()\ierali')n. 
crally  itointed 

s,  no  l>il'  1^  '^ 
en  inlrodui  ed 

being  well  (  ut 
Advantages  are 
Uameler  of  llu- 
,•  are  bent  o(\t- 
ake  a  cut  wider 


tile  operation  was  a  very  slow  and  laltorioiis  one  inilil  llie  cooking-stove  was 
invented. 

One  of  tlie  first  attempts  at  a  stovi-  or  closed  fireplace  was  made  by  (!ardi- 
nal  I'olignac  in  I'Vance  about  1700-      I'lie  ( ardinal's  little  treatise  on  the  sub- 
JKt  sliows  by   its  title  why  I'luroprans  < oiiM   be  easily  interested    Poiignac'* 
111  eviry  new  style  of  heating-apparatu  i.     It  was  calle<l  "  La  Me-    '''°^=' 
(aiiii|ue    du    I'Vii,  ou  I'Arl   d'eii   aiiginenter  les   Mffets,   et  d'en  diininuer    la 
hepense."     Wood  was  becoming  scarce  in    lairopc.  and  fuel  dear.      Holland 
i'uiiiled  the  i)lain  box-stove,  witii  a  single  door  in  front  to  mtro-   other  Euro- 
(hice   the    fuel,  a   single   hole   in   to|).   and  a   small    sm()ke-|)i|)e.   pean  inven- 
I'xith   the    Holland  and  the    INiligiiac    stoves  saved    fuel;  but   the   "°"*' 
pr(i|ile  did  not  take   to   them  Ibr  \\\v  same  reasons  that  retarded  their  intro- 
(lu(  lion  in  America.     I''raiikliii  paid  a  great  deal  of  attention  to  stoves.     That 
philosopher  made  some  very  valuable 
suggestions.      In  1745  he  invented  a 
(iieplace,    capable    of    being    closed 
cdiupletely,  in  wliic  h  the  current  of 
lliuie  and  air  from  the  fire  ])assed 
tiin)u,L;li   air-bo\es   in   the   sides  ;   by 
wliirli  uieans  nearly  all  the  heat  was 
saved,  and  radiated  into  the  room. 
The  stove  had  a  damper,  and  would 
have  been  air-tight.  e\cei)t  that  cast- 
ings (ould  not  be  made  at  ihal  time 
111  lit  close  enough   to  bo  air-tight. 
In    1771    l'"ranklin    invented  a  stove 
Inr    liituiiiiiioiis   coal,    with  a  down- 
ward draught,  and  consuming  its  own 

smoke.  Count  Kumfonl,  an  American,  devised  many  imp'"()ve- 
iiuiits  from  17X5  to  1795.  lie  invented  cooking-ranges,  lined 
with  liiv-brick  and  soapstone,  with  \eiitilating-ovens,  which  were  used  in  New 
Nink  in  1 7<;N,  and  in  JJoston  in  1800.  The  stoves  made  in  Vermont  and 
nllur  places  at  that  day  were  mainly  of  the  Rumford  ])atterns.  Stoves  made 
very  little  headway  in  popular  estimation,  however,  for  a  long  period. 

I'p  t(j  1.S35  stoves  were  made  at  the  bog-iron  and  otiier  blast-furnaces,  the 
lilates  for  them  being  cast  directly  from  the  iron   in  the  smelting- 


Rumford. 


Early  manu- 

tiiriiaces.     The   principal  makers  were  in   Salisbury  and  ("anaan,    facture  in 
Conn.,  Rutland  County,  Vt.,  Cold  Spring,  N.Y.,  and  in  Pennsyl-   t^e  United 

■^  1         f^'  '  3        States. 

vaniu  and  New  Jersey.     The    first   furnace   to   cast   stoves    from 
I»ig-injn  was  built  at  New  York  in   1835  by  Jordan  L.  Mott,  who  had   been 
making  self-feeding  soft-coal    stoves  since  1827,  and  anthracite-    First  cast- 
coal   stoves   since   1833.      In   1835  Mott  bought  some   immense   iron  stoves. 
r<-lnsr-heaps  in  the    Schuylkill    coal-yards,  and  screened   them    for  nut   and 


a7« 


INn  t  'S  TKIA  I.    It  IS  TOR  V 


Mott. 


Nott. 


pea  coal  for  his  stnvos,  and  solil  it  in  New  V'ork  to  tin*  owiuts  of  his  stovi'v,. 
Mott's  succt'ss  was  so  ^.-riMt.  thai,  lu'lnn-  llu-  rml  of  iS^s.  oilur  sIom-  l-u  torirs 
wi'rr  starli'tl  in  Niw  Nork  and  in  AlUany  ;  J<k1  U.ilirDonc  Itiiy- 
in;;  an  old  Inriuu  r  in  tlu'  latter  phu'c  for  the  purpose,  and 
thus  l)ej,'innin^'  the  stovedxisiness  as  a  rej^ular  industry  in  tluit  <"ity.  The 
manufacture  l>e^;an  in  l'roviden<  e,  K.I.,  at  nearly  the  sanu'  time. 
It  was  about  this  time  that  1  )r.  I'.lii)halel  Nott  of  I  iiiun  (  nllrm- 
hc^an  experimenting  with  stoves.  The  talented  |)resident  of  the  ( olii  j^c 
was  a  f^reat  me<  hanical  j^iiiius  ;  and,  like  I'ranklm.  he  spent  yi-ars  of  lalxir, 
and  thousands  of  dollar^,  in  perfecting,'  the  hasednirner  and  other  stoM-s. 
The  stove-trade  is  under  a  great  weij;ht  of  oltji^atidu  lo  the  old  doc  tor. 
who  never  himself  reajjed  the  harvest  of  what  he  had  so  laboriously  .uid 
wisely  sown.     Others  made  fortuni-  •  fnin\  his  idias. 

The  opening  of  llu'  llrie,  the  (hamplain,  and  other  canals  and  routes  of 
trans])()rtation,  gave  an  immense  impulse  to  the  stove-business  by  (  heapeniug 
thi'  transportation  both  of  the  stoMs  and  also  tlial  of  coal.  The  patterns  of 
stoves,  too,  were  improving  very  fast,  and  the  convenience  of  cooking-stoves 
was  bi'ginning  to  be  understood.  The  manufacture  of  ( ook in i,'  stoves  I'spe- 
Cookinc-  cially  incriMsed  with  great  rapidity.  The  early  patterns  in  .Mliauy 
Btovc  made  were  the  teu-plate  oval  stoves,  witli  the  oven  above  the  (ire,  ami 
"  ""*'■  a  single  hole  in  the  top.  Tin-  saddJt-bag  pattern  <  .uue  next,  the 
oven  i)eing  in  the  middle,  over  tlu'  lire,  and  the  stove-(<)llar  and  pipi'  o\cr  it  ; 
while  on  either  side  were  oval  proje<  tions,  a  bjiler-hole  in  each,  level  with  the 
stove-top.  'I'he  next  pattern  was  the  horse-blcx  k  st(ne,  the  rt-ar  part  being 
a  step  higher  than  the  front.  ,\  rotary  stove  was  also  made,  with  a  moval)le 
top  to  bring  any  parti<  ular  vessel  directly  over  the  fire.  Then  <  ame  the 
parent  of  the  modern  cooking-stove,  the  Buck,  for  wood  and 
coal,  with  the  fire  al)o\e  tlu'  oven,  whi<  h  carried  the  fiame  around, 
behind,  and  below  the  oven,  the  opening  into  the  stove-pipe  being  about  on 
a  level  with  the  oven-floor.  There  have  been  several  hundred  modifit  ations 
of  this  i)attern  of  cooking-stove.  In  heating-stoves  there  have  been  many 
changes  and  improvements,  tlu'  l)asi'-burning  and  self-feeding  princijjle  being 
applied  to  the  greater  number,  l)Ut  many  popular  heaters  being  the  ordmary 
coal-burner,  with  the  draught  through  the  whole  mass  of  coal.  In  all,  there 
Number  of  '^''^^'^'  ''^'^"'^  nearly  a  thousand  patents  issued  in  this  country  for 
patents  stoves  ;  and  the  manufacture  has  now  become  so  skilt'ul,  and  tin; 

""'  ■  stoves  so  tight,  their  conveniences  for  cooking  so  perfect,  and  the 

blaze  of  the  fires  of  the  |)arlor-stoves,  shining  out  through  mica  windows,  so 
cheerful,  that  the  fireplace  has  been  jmictically  superseded  even  in  couiitn 
houses,  and  the  stove  is  in  universal  use. 

Magnitude  Tlicrc  are  now  about  220  firms  and    companies   engaged   i.i 

of  industry.  ^^^  industry  in  the  country.  They  consume  from  250.000  to 
340,000  tons  of  jjig-nietal  yearly,  and  employ  about  28,000  men,  produciiii^ 


The  Buck. 


Oy    THE    r XI TED    STATES. 


a  79 


if  his  stovoy,. 
Dvi-liK  torifs 
tl\i)()iu'  buy- 
mrposi",  ;n\ii 
I  ( ity.  'I'Ih- 
L-  sanu'  tinu', 
■nit)n  ColliK^" 

i-ars  of  hibor, 

olluT  StOM'S. 
;  old  (l<)<t()r. 
borioiisly   iiixl 

and  rouU's  ot 
l,y  clKiiiK'ninti 

(•()()kinj;-si(>v(.-> 

m  stoves   I'Spl'- 

tiins  in  Alluny 
I'  U»i'  i'lrc'.  ;in<l 
( anic  next,  the 
id  pipe  over  it ; 
1.  U-vel  with  the 
roar  part  being 
Iwitli  a  movable 
I'licn  <anie  die 
for   wood    and 
,v  flai\ie  ariiund. 
Ibeing  about  on 
■d  niodifications 
;ne  been  many 
prin(il)le  being 
ng  the  ordinary 
In  all.  there 
Itliis  country  tbr 
skilful,  and  the 
[perfect,  and  the 
ica  windows,  so 
:ven  in  country 

lies  engaged  i.i 
lom  250.000  to 
Imen.  producing 


from  a,  100,000  to  2,686,000  stoves  a  yc.tr,  worth  about  ;?5o,ooo,ooo.  'I'lu- 
stoves  made  vary  in  size,  from  the  nhniite  gas  and  petroleum  burning  affairs 
(with  whicli  experiment  is  now  making),  all  the  way  through  the  long  list 
of  large  and  small  cooking  stoves.  —  with  two.  four,  six,  and  eight  holes 
for  kettles,  and  with  fixed  boilers  and  double  ovens.  —  to  the  large  ranges, 
japablo  of  (ooking  for  the  thousand  guests  of  a  l.irge  iiotel,  and  the  furnaces 
for  the  basements  of  buildings,  capable  of  heating  structures  of  every  size, 
from  a  dwelling  to  a  court-house.  'I'he  largest  firjiis  are  in  Albany,  'I'roy, 
I'luladelphia,  Ihiffalo,  Pittsburgh,  Cleveland,  Dayton,  Cincinnati.  Chicago.  St. 
Louis,  Milw.mkee.  Iloston.  Norwich,  I'rovidcnce,  Portland.  Mane  luster,  and 
\\  heeling.  IVrha|)s  no  persons  have  displayed  greater  energy  in  pushing  the 
nianuf.icture  and  sale  of  their  wares  than  the  stove-makers.  Of  the  superior- 
ity of  each  new  invention  as  it  appeared  the  public  has  been  ((uitkly  and 
thoroughly  intbrmed  thrcjugh  the  medimn  of  the  press  and  in  other  ways.  The 
production  in  1S76  was  distributed  throughout  the  different  States  as  fol- 
lows :  — 


STATR. 


Maine  . 

New  H.inipshirc 

VVrmont 

Massachusetts 

UIkxIc  Maiul 

Connecticut 

New  York   . 

New  Jersey . 

Tcnnsylvania 

Marvl.uul 

Virginia 

West  Virginia 

Georgia 

Michigan 

Ohio    . 

Kentucky     . 

Missouri 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Wisconsin    . 

Iowa    . 

Kansas 

California     . 

Total 


NO. 

OF  KACTORIES. 

NO.  OF  STOVKS. 

3 

7.200 

S 

9,600 

t 

2,SS0 

13 

139,200 

6 

8i,rxx) 

3 

20,OSo 

45 

765,600 

•> 

14,400 

29 

500,640 

2 

24,000 

I 

14,400 

7 

67,200 

I 

4,Soo 

2 

48,000 

4= 

453,600 

6 

88,Soo 

7 

182,400 

10 

120,000 

7 

64,800 

S 

48,000 

I 

14,400 

I 

7,200 

I 

7,200 

200 


2,6S6,ooo 


2  So 


h\D  I  -S  7'A'  /A  I.     ins  TORY 


Like  the  sewing-marhine-maki.  rs,  the  stovc-iiiakers  are  indebted  for  part 
of  tluir  iKJi)nkirity  and  large  sales  to  the  county  fairs  of  the  coun- 
try, whore  they  have  had  numerous  and  sharp  competitions,  which 
advertised  them  extensively. 


County  fairs. 


SAFES. 

The  subject  of  strong-boxes  to  secure  valuable  articles  and  money  against 
fire  and  theft  attracted  very  little  attention  in  this  country  until  after  the  rise 
T'he  strong-  of  the  commercial  cities  upon  the  coast.  The  strong-box,  pre- 
''°''-  vious  to  I S 20,  was  nothing  more  than  a  heavy  oaken  chest.     Its 

contents  wCi  ;  protected  from  robbery  merely  l)y  a  stout  lo('k  and  the  blunder- 
buss  of  its  owner.     Its  only   security  against  fire   was   the   address  and   tiie 


MARVIN  SAFE. 


Strong  muscles  of  the  occupants  of  the  building  where  a  fire  broke  out.  In 
Europe,  where  wealth  abounded,  and  the  industrial  arts  had  been  developiil. 
the  i)eople  were  scarcely  any  better  off  for  strong-boxes.  A  few  iron  t:ulTeis 
with  complicated  locks  were  in  use  :  but  the  great  majority  of  those  who  hail 
occasion  to  stow  away  \alual)les  at  all  depended  upon  wootlen  chests  and 
their  own  personal  vigilrnce  for  their  protection.  These  chests  were  often- 
times gilded,  over  e\ery  inch  of  the  visible  surfoce,  and  decorated  with  paint- 
ings,   being   very   showy   and   costly   articles    of    furniture.      They  were   no 


\  for  part 
the  coun- 
Dns,  which 


ney  against 
tor  the  rise 
ig-box,  pro- 
dicst.  lis 
he  bUuvli-'r- 
jss  ami  the 


kke  out.     Ill 
tn  (Icvclopcil. 
\f  iron  cotlcis 
iiose  who  had 
In   chests  ana 
were  often- 
[d  with  paiiit- 
Ihey  were   no 


OF    TJIE    r XI TED    STATES. 


2<Sl 


Bouchaud. 


protection  against  fire  ;  and  in  this  respect  the  world  was  no  better  off  than 
in  the  days  of  King  I'riani  of  Tro)-.  whose  treasure,  carried  in  a  wooden  box 
with  a  coi)per  key,  was  left  on  the  walls  of  'I'roy  at  the  fall  of  the  c:ity,  and 
was  dug  from  the  calcined  ruins  by  Dr.  Schliemann  in  187,3,  its  contents  half 
melted  and  distorted  by  fire. 

The  earliest  safes  used  in  this  country  were  imported  from  France  about 
1S20  by  josci)h  liouchaud,  a  merchant  of  New  \'ork  engaged  in  Earliest 
vcrv  extensive  commercial  transactions.  I'iiey  were  called  fire-  safes. 
pro(jf.  They  were  simply  l)oxes  of  hard  wood  i)lated  on  the  outside  with 
thick  iron,  and  on  the  inside  witli  sheet  iron.  Hands  of  iron  two 
inches  wide  covered  the  outside  (jf  the  chests,  crossing  each 
other  at  right  angles,  and  being  secured  in  place  by  heavy  wrought-iron  nails, 
which  penetrated  through  baml.  plate,  and  box,  and  were  secured  on  the 
inside  l)y  clinching.  These  boxes  were  bought  by  merchants  and  bankers  in 
large  numbers  for  several  years.  James  Conner,  a  ty])e-foun(ler  of  New-York 
("ity.  invented  a  better  safe  than  tins  t'or  his  own  use  about  this  time,  but  does 
not  appear  to  have  realized  the  value  of  the  invention,  (lypsuni,  or  i)lasler 
of  Paris,  had  long  been  used  in  I'' ranee  for  building  fire-proof  houses.  Con- 
ner was  familiar  with  the  (pialities  of  this  substance,  plast  t  of  Paris  ha\  ing 
heen  at  that  day  extensively  used  in  making  the  moulds  for  casting  stereotype- 
plates  ;  and  he  ai)plied  it  to  the  protection  of  an  iron  chest  he  had  in  his 
office,  and  which  he  continued  to  use  thereafter  lor  many  years.  Had 
Conner  been  visited  with  the  calamity  of  a  fire,  he  would  have  become 
aware  of  the  properties  of  his  safe.  As  it  was.  its  value  was  not  made  known 
to  the  workl :  and  the  first  manufacturer  of  sales  of  whom  there  is  any  ac- 
c:ouiU.  Jesse  Deland  of  New  \'ork,  began  making  fire-jiroof  strong-boxes,  in 
1S26,  of  the  Paris  ])attern  ;  that  is.  of  wood  plated  with  iron, 
lie  patented  one  improvement  upon  this  style  of  box,  however, — 
the  coating  of  the  wood  with  a  mixture  of  clay,  lime,  plumbago,  anil  mica, 
to  make  it  incombustible ;  and  he  also  thought  of  saturating  the  wood  with 
potash,  lye,  and  alum,  for  the  same  purpose.  In  1.^33  Charles 
J.  Caylor  [)atented  the  idea  of  using  a  lining  of  asbestos  between 
the  iron  itlaling  anil  the  wooden  box.  His  asbestos  fire-proof  safes  had  a 
large  sale  ;  and  one  of  them,  preserv  ing  its  contents  in  a  fire  at  'I'homaston, 
Me.,  was  dubbed  a  salamander  bv  some  athniring  individual  ;  and  the  name 
lias  often  Ijeen  applied  to  safe^  since  that  date.  Deland  and  Cray  lor  both 
sold  large  numbers  of  their  strong-boxes  ;  but  there  were  only  sixty  of  the 
latter  in  use  when  the  great  fire  i^i\  1S35  took  place  in  New-York  City,  and 
\eiy  few  of  them  proved  serviceable  in  the  intense  neat  of  that  great  confla- 
gration. Something  more  efficient  than  that  pattern  was  needed, 
and  inventors  and  chemists  began  to  think  of  the  matter.  John 
Scott  invented  another  asbestos  safe,  anil  in  837  Ik-njamin  Sherwood  got  a 
patent  for  one  with  charcoal  and  plasler-of- Paris  filling. 


ueland. 


Gaylor. 


Sherwood. 


28: 


IND  US  TRfA L    HIS  TOR  Y 


*-  *,  i 


]    iJi 


Fitzgerald. 


It  soon  became  evident  tliat  sul)stan(:es  like  fire-clay,  asbestos,  mica,  iVc, 
whicb  were  al:)solulely  indestructible  tbeniselvcs,  were  not,  after  all,  the  right 
material  for  fire-proof  safes.  In  a  hot  fire  they  became  heated  to  redness 
and  e\en  to  a  while-heat  themselves,  and  accorilingly  destroyed  the  books, 
l>ai)ers,  bank-notes,  and  other  (  ontents  of  the  safes.  The  need  of  the  hour 
was  for  something  which  should  not  conduct  heat.  In  1843 
Daniel  fit/gerald  invented  the  safe  witii  outer  and  inner  boxes 
of  iron,  the  space  between  being  either  vacant,*  or  filled  with  plaster  of  Paris 
mixed  with  water,  and  ]>oured  in.  The  jjlasler,  setting  hard,  and  taking  the 
water  into  combination,  formed  an  excel'ent  protecting  material.  When 
subjected  to  heat,  it  gave  out  its  water  as  steam,  which  is  itself  a  valuable 
non-conductor ;  and  the  contents  of  the  safes  were  protected  in  a  maniKr 
previously  unknown,  f'itzgerald  had  a  contest  over  his  invention  with  Mr. 
Conner,  who  now  came  forward  to  claim  the  merit  of  originating  that  st\le  of 
safe.  The  courts  confirmed  the  patent  to  Mr.  I'itzgerald,  hcnvever,  on  the 
ground  (.)f  equity  and  sounil  public  policy,  Mr.  Conner  not  having  made 
public  his  idea,  and  thus  secured  the  right  to  it.  Knos  Wilder  becoming 
associated  with  i'^itzgerald,  the  safes  were  introduced  to  the  market  as  the 
"Wilder  Patent  Salamander  Fire-Proof  Safes."  The  patent  was  transferred 
to   15.   (i.  ^^'ilder   in    1844.       Mr.  Silas   C.   Herring   had  become 

Herring.  ^ 

interested  in  this  i)atent  in  1841,  and  had  obtainetl  the  right  to 
make  them  ;  which  he  still  retained  after  1844.  Herring  began  in  a  small  way 
in  the  cellar  of  a  Water-street  store  in  New  \'ork,  but  soon  became  the  prin- 
cipal manufacturer  of  safes  in  the  Cnited  States.  The  business  becoming 
profitable,  Roberts  >S:  Rich  began  the  manufacture  of  chests  with  the  plaster- 
of-Paris  filling  also.  'I'his  letl  to  lawsuits  and  a  compromise,  by  which  both 
firms  were  to  carry  on  the  manufacture.  In  1854  Herring  iS:  Company  virtu- 
ally abandoned  the  Wilder  patent  for  one  of  their  own.  They  had  advertised 
for  a  better  filling  than  plaster,  and  promised  a  thousand  dollars'  reward  lor 
the  discovery.  Mr.  Spear,  a  chemist  of  Philadelphia,  found  that  chalk  treated 
with  sulphuric  acid,  washed  and  dried,  and  then  rammed  into  a  safe  in  a  fme 
powder,  had  superior  (pialities  to  plaster  of  Paris.  It  gave  u[)  its  water  of 
combination  more  slowly  and  in  less  (piantity,  protecting  the  safe  better,  and 
obviating  a  dangerous  tendency  of  the  Wilder  filling,  in  fires,  to  fill  the  sale 
with  steam,  and  obliterate  the  precious  writing  in  books  and  papers,  and  also, 
when  in  ordinary  use,  to  rust  the  safe  by  slow  evaporation  from  day  to  d:i>. 
Herring  tV  Company  devoted  themselves  to  utilizing  this  new 
idea;  and  15.  C.  Wilder,  Roberts  t\:  Rich,  and  their  successors. 
manufactured  under  the  old  patent.  Herring  took  a  first  premium  at  the 
World's  Fair  in  London.  It  is  claimed  by  the  firm,  that,  since  their  humhle 
beginning  in  1841,  they  have  made  and  sold  four  million  safes. 

There  have  been  a  great  many  improvements  in  the  salamander  (]ualities  ol 
safes  since  i860.     The  patents  have- beeii  very  numerous.     Roberts  <S:  Ridi. 


Wilder. 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


283 


mica,  i^c, 
,  the  ri[;hl 
to  redness 
the  books, 
f  the  hour 
In    1S4;, 
liner  boxes 
icr  of  I'aiis 
taking  the 
ial      ^Vhen 
■  a  vaUiable 
a  a  manner 
)n  with    Nb-. 
hat  sl\le  ol" 
jver,  on  the 
lavini;    niade 
cr  beeoniin.u; 
larket  as  the 
IS  transferred 
had  become 
the  right  to 
n  a  small  way 
une  die  i>rin- 
■ss  becoming 
It  tlie  pUtsler- 
.y  which  bodi 
)mi)any  vinu- 
lad  advertised 
'  reward  lor 
(dialk  treated 
riafe  in  a  fine 
its  water  ot 
|fc  belter,  and 
)  fill  the  safe 
iers,  and  also, 
|i  day  to  day. 
ng   this   new 
,ir  successors, 
mium  at  the 
their  hmnl'le 

:r  (pialiues  ol 


and  their  successors,  Rich  iv:  Roff,  Roff  i*v  Stearns,  and  Steams  i"t  Marvin,  con- 
tinued to  experiment  witli  tlie  Wilder  patent  ;  but  an  imi)rovement  other 
upon  the  hydrated  plaster  whicii  they  used  was  at  length  effected,  '"ventors. 
wherebv  the  safes  were  filled  with  calcined  plaster,  rammed  in  dry,  with  small 
lumps  of  alurn  scattered  through  the  nniss.  Alum  contains  fitty  per  cent  ot 
water  in  combination,  which  is  given  off  only  at  a  heat  of  212'  I'ahrenheit. 
The  tendency  to  rust  the  safe  has  been  obviated  by  this  arrangement,  and  the 
Marvin  'rrue-Slaiulartl  safe  is  now  made  upon  this  principle. 


HERRING  SAFK. 


Among  recent  inventions  are  the  following :  the  vise  of  common  salt  for 
filling,  a  cement  filling  witli  small  water-vessels  sto])ped  with  glue  or  mucilage, 
clay  or  concrete  simply  as  non-comluctors,  air-spaces  containing    ^^^^^  recent 
vessels  of  water  to  give  otT  steam  during  a  fire,  the  use  of  non-    improve- 


ments. 


conducting  material  between  the  plates  of  the  door  ami  the  door- 
casing,  and  a  wall  matle  in  layers,  thus,  —  a  wooden  inner  casing,  a  layer  of 
felt,  a  metallic  lining,  a  layer  of  cement,  a  water-chamber,  a  layer  of  cement, 
and  an  external  metallic  casing.  The  safes  made  within  the  last  ten  }ears 
liave  been  extremely  serviceable.  In  recent  great  fires  in  lioston,  Chicago, 
and  New  York,  they  have  repeatedly  brought  their  contents  through  unscathed, 
though  hidden  in  the  burning  ruins  of  buildings  for  two  or  three  days.     The 


284 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


industry  has  now  liccomc  very  large.  I'actories  have  been  started  in  Chicago, 
I'hiladclphia.  IJoston.  New  \'ork,  and  elsewhere.  Safes  are  manufactured  at 
an  average  cost  of  three  hundred  dollars,  and,  having  been  thus  popularized, 
are  purchased  in  immense  numbers.  None  liave  ever  been  imported,  except 
the   few  strong-boxes   brought    from    France  about    1820:    on   the    contrary. 


HERRING   BURGLAR-PROOF  SAFE. 


many  are   now  being   exported,   especially  to   South  America,   France,  and 
Germany. 

To  be  fire-proof  is  not  the  only  quality  of  a  good  snfe,  nor  the  only  tiling 
which  renders  it  in  such  uni\ersal  demand.  No  one  wants  a  safe  now 
Burglar-  unless  it  is  at  the  same  time  burglar-proof.  The  first  decided  stcj) 
proof  locks,  i,^  the  direction  of  a  box  which  would  defy  the  adroit  thief, 
whose  resources  of  drills,  files,  saws,  gunpowder,  sledge-hammers,  wedges, 
blow-pipes  for  softening  steel,  &c.,  are  so  varied,  wa;j  taken  by  Mr.  Lillie  of 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


285 


n  Chicago, 
facturccl  at 
opularized, 
ted,  except 
li   contrary. 


France,  and 

|he  only  thini; 
a   safe  now- 
decided  step 
adroit  tliief, 
liiers,  wedges, 
Mr.  Lillic  ot 


'I'roy,  N.V.,  wiiu  was  Herring's  early  comi)etitor.  Mr.  I.illie  employed  thick 
slabs  of  chilled  cast-iron,  pouring  cast-iron  over  wrought-iron  Liiiie's 
ribs  in  their  construction.  Safes  of  this  style  were  largely  used  invention, 
by  i)anks  both  for  tiieir  large  vaults  and  the  inner  strong-box,  which  constituted 
only  a  single  feature  of  the  furniture  of  its  interior.  Liiiie's  chilled  iron  is  still 
largely  used  ;  but  it  has  been  i)enetrate(l  with  the  drill,  and  blown  up  with 
powder.  Herring  (S:  Company,  within  the  last  fifteen  years,  have  adopted 
the  plan  of  using  an  external  casing  of  boiler-plate,  and  an  inner  casing  of 
steel,  filling  tlie  intermediate  space  with  Franklinite,  the  hardest  of  all  known 
ores.  This  safe  has  defied  the  drill-and-file  burglars  who  once  penetrated  to 
bank-safes  by  digging  nniler  the  vault  in  secret,  and  oi)erating  at  leisure  on  the 
lloor,  or  by  working  in  from  an  adjoining  building.  'J'hey  have  been  thrown 
into  despair  by  the  use  of  l-Vanklinite,  and  are  dri\en  to  operate  solely  on  the 
lock  and  the  doors  of  the  safe  and  vault.  The  doors  and  locks  having  now 
l)cen  made  so  tight  that  gunpowder  cannot  be  blown  into  the  crevices  and 
exploded,  a  safe  completely  burglar  and  fire  jiroof  seems  to  have  been  secured. 
Joseph  L.  Hall  of  Cincinnati,  who  established  the  business  of  safe-making  in 
that  city  in  1848,  also  brought  out  a  good  safe.  The  coni])any  which  manu- 
factures them  employs  walls  of  alternate  plates  of  iron,  welded  iron  and  steel, 
and  carbonized,  decarbonized,  and  crystal  steel,  the  whole  united  by  bolts  from 
the  inside.  What  new  resources  the  burglars  may  bring  to  bear  against  the 
strong-box  can  only  be  learned  by  time  ;  but,  for  the  present,  the  race  of 
malignants  appears  to  be  com[)letely  defeated. 

As  the  subject  of  locks  will  be  treated  elsewhere,  nothing  further  need  be 
said  about  tliem. 

IRON    BRIIXiKS. 

The  construction  of  this  class  of  engineering  works  of  iron  and  steel  is 
one   of  the    new  intlustries   of  the   United    States.     It  has  come  into  being 
within   the    last   thirty   years,    and    has    attained    its    inii)ortance 
within  the  last  fifteen.     It  is  now  one  of  the  ten  or  twelve  princi-   making  a 
pal  iron  and  steel  consuming  industries  of  the  country.     Before 
the  stoppage    of  railroad-building  in  1873   by  the  panic  of  that 
year,  150,000  tons  of  pig-metal  were   absorbed  annually  in  the  iron-bridge 
factories. 

With  rare  exceptions,  all  the  early  long  bridges  of  the  country  were  of 
wood.  The  short  bridges  were  generally  of  wood  ;  but  here  and  there,  on 
well-traversed  rural  roads  or  city  streets,  bridges  were  occasionally  wood 
built  of  stone,  with  massive  arches  and  rising  roadway.  In  1810  bridges. 
there  were  eight  bridges  in  the  country  built  on  the  suspension  principle,  the 
plank  roadway  in  each  l)eing  supportetl  by  two  heavy  chains  hung  across  the 
stream,  passing  over  tall  stone  towers  on  the  shore,  and  anchoring  themselves 
in  a  mass  of  masonry  back  of  the  towers.     The  first  of  these  bridges  was  built 


new  in- 
dustry. 


ill: 


2  86 


/A7J  i/S  TRIAL    I] IS TOK  V 


Y'U 


f'  n 


I 


'  1 1 


l\\\ 


\"m 


Toll-bridges. 


:;»! 


>'f: 


in  I. So  I  over  Jacob's  Creek.  A  patent  for  these  was  obtained  by  James 
Finlay  in  i8o<S.  Tiie  chief  of  the  eight  referred  to  were  over  die  Falls  of  the 
Schuylkill,  with  306  feet  span  ;  over  the  Potomac,  at  Cumberland,  Mil.,  with 
130  feet  span  ;  over  the  Brandywine,  at  Wilmington,  with  145  feel  span;  and 
over  the  Potomac,  near  Washington.  'I'he  suspension  principle  was  first 
apjilied  to  bridges  in  the  United  States.  The  English  engineers  did  not  take 
up  the  idea  until  1814.  Wood,  however,  was  the  jjopular  material  for  bridges. 
It  was  easily  worked,  did  not  cost  much,  and  was  sufficiently  serviceable  for 
the  travel  of  that  age.  Even  wooden  bridges  were  not  built  where  they  could 
be  avoided,  because  few  localities  were  rich  enough  to  bear  the  expense  of 
them.  Streams,  lakes,  antl  bays  were  forded  or  ferried,  whenever  possible. 
'I'he  inscription  on  a  crumbling  gravestone  in  an  ancient  graveyard  at  Water- 
town,  Mass.,  "  He  built  the  famous  bridge  over  the  Charles  River  in  this  town  " 
(a  little  wooden  affair,  only  thirty  feet  long),  shows  how  rare  the  bridge- 
builders  were  in  early  times,  and  how  much  of  an  incident  it  was  to  throw  a 
roadway  over  a  stream. 

The  toll-bridges  built  along  from  1810  to  1840  by  the  private  companies 
chartered  for  the  purpose  by  the  legislatures,  were,  almost  without 
exception,  of  wood. 
With  the  era  of  railroad  and  canal  building,  bridge-building  received  an 
impetus,  and  became  a  special  art.  Highways  had  to  be  carried  across  canals, 
Railroads  ^'""^  railways  across  ravines ;  and  the  country  became  stocked 
with  l)ridges.  These,  again,  were  generally  of  wood;  and  a  great 
deal  of  'iigenuity  was  expended  in  the  invention  of  wooden 
framework  which  would  have  the  requisite  stiffness  and  strength 
ior  s])anning  200  and  250  feet  chasms,  and  at  the  same  lime 
consume  the  smallest  amount  of  material  in  the  structure.  Howe,  Purr,  Long, 
and  McCallum  became  known  as  inventors  of  successful  trusses  for  the  pur- 
poses of  the  railroads  and  canals,  and  their  patterns  were  extensively  utilized 
in  bridges.  The  wooden  bridges  were  heavy,  clumsy,  and  unornamental,  and, 
Defects  of  '^''^^'^  ^^^^  Companies  knew  how  to  protect  them  from  the  weather 
wood  antl  from  fire,  short-lived.     It  may  be  said,  however,  that   tlu'V 

Res.  wi^xc  always  favorites  with  the  railroad  comi)anies  and  municiiKil 

corporations,  because  of  their  comparative  cheapness,  and  they  are  still,  ami 
are  being  largely  used  to-day.  Notable  bridges  of  wood  have  been  built,  even 
of  late  years,  since  the  passion  has  been  for  a  different  material.  The  bri(l;^c 
at  Pellows  Falls,  and  the  Sus(]uehanna  ]3ridge,  put  up  by  the  Philadelphia, 
Wilmington,  and  lialtimore  Railroad  Company  at  a  cost  of  $2,000,000,  with 
2?o  feet  sixins,  are  among  the  number. 

When  sub-  0  1'  t.  ,  ,  ,  ■ 

ject  first  en-  About  1845  attention  in  this  country  was  drawn  to  the  value  ot 

gaged  atten-    jj-on  for  l)ndge-building.     The  American  idea  of  chain-bridges  li.ul 

been    adopted    abroad,  and    the    use    of  wire  was   sul)stituted  in 

them  for  tliat  of  iron  chains.     WrouLrht-iron   beams  were  beiiT:;'  lanvh'  usiil 


and  canals 
gave  great 
impetus  to 
this  indus- 
try. 


OF    THE    UXITED    STATES. 


287 


^  James 
s  of  the 
III.,  with 
an  ;  and 
was  firsl 
not  take 

r  brids^-'^- 
cable  for 
licy  ("ouUl 
;pense  ol 
■  possible, 
at  Water- 
his  town" 
le  bri(l};e- 
to  throw  a 

companies 
,ost  without 

received  an 
:ross  canals, 
me   stocked 
and  a  great 
of  wooden 
nd  strength 
same  lime 
r,urr,  Long, 
for  the  pur- 
ively  utilized 
cental,  and, 
the  weather 
that   they 
1  municiP'^l 
re  still,  and 
|i  buiU,  even 
The  brid-e 
hiladelphia. 
30,000,  wiUi 

jlhe  value  ol' 

(bridges  had 

bstituted  in 

aVL'-elv  useil 


in  the  construction  of 
houses  and  stores.  Iron 
rods  were  being  freely 
introduced  into  wooden 
trusses  and  into  roofs. 
'The  additional  lightness 
and  strength  of  structure 
gained  by  the  use  of 
iron  caused  engineers  to 
study  the  capacities  of 
this  metal  as  the  sole 
material  for  trusses  and 

framework.     Early  exper- 

E.\i)erimcnts  'ments. 
in  I'^urope  to  determine 
the    tensile    strength    of 
materials    gave    an    ini- 
])etus    to    the    growing 
tendency.      The  conse- 
(juence  was,  that  a  num- 
her    of    iron-makers    in 
different    parts    of    the 
country    made    a    few 
short    iron-truss  bridges 
of  angle  and  plate  iron 
and  stout  l)ars,  and  put 
tiiem     up     for    railroad 
companies   over    short 
sjians    as     experiments. 
'J'here  was  considerable 
jjopular  doubt  as  to  the 
heluuior  of  iron  frame- 
work   in    the    cold     of 
winter  and  extreme  heat 
of  summer  ;    and  confi- 
•  lence.  always  a  plant  of 
slow    growth,    was    not 
conceiled    to    the    new 
structures    tmtil    after 
years   of    trial.      About 
the  time  of  the  war  they 
heLran  to  come  into  gen- 
eral use  on  railroads  and 


anals. 


'i-  LI-   P 

m 


w  ti 


2.SS 


/A7)  I 'S  VA'/.I  I.     Ills  TOR  \ ' 


Roebling. 


A  new  era  of  siispcnsion-bri'lj^cs  l)cgan  about  the  same  time  as  interest 
awoke  in  iron-truss  l)ri(li;i's.  'I'iie  needs  of  the  raihvay  system  of  the  I'lastern 
Suspension-  States  reciuired  tiie  (Tossing  of  tiu'  cIkinmi  of  the  Niagara  River  at 
bridges.  some  point  near  the  Falls.     John  .\.  Rothling,  an  .\merican  engi- 

neer. ])ropose(l  a  suspension-bridge  of  wire  below  the  Falls.  So  much  ability 
was  manifested  in  his  i)lans,  that  he  obtained  the  contract  to  build  the  bridge 
against  the  competition  of  all  the  noted  builders  of  I'.nglaiul, 
in<'lu(ling  Sir  James  Jvairbarn.  'Hie  structure  \sas  erected  about 
the  year  1S46  with  .S21  feel  span,  the  material  being  supplied  by  the  i'lueiiix- 
ville  Iiridge  \\'orks  of  I'ennsylvania.  Roebling  afterward  put  up  the  Cincimiati 
and  ("o\ington  iiridge,  with  1.057  fei't  span.  It  was  comjileted  in  1S67. 
Niagara  River  was  ai'terwards  spanned  by  another  suspensicMi-bridge,  called  the 
*■  Clifton."  1.26S  feet  long  from  tower  to  tower.  It  was  a  less  important  struc- 
ture than  the  former,  iiowever,  as  it  was  designed  onlv  for  wagon-travel.  I'"ew 
susjjcnsion-bridges  luue  been  i)Ut  up  besides  these.  The  preference  is  for  tlu' 
other  style  of  structure. 

Up  to  1862  all  the  iron-truss  bridges  built  were  of  short  span.  The 
Schuylkill  ISridge.  with  spans  of  192  feet,  and  i  le  dreen  River  anil  the  Monon- 
gahela.with  spans  of  200  feet  (the  latter  built  by  .Albert  l'"ink),  were  the  longest 
in  the  United  States.  In  1862  tiie  Sleubenville  IJridge  was  designed  by  J.  II. 
First  long  I  .iiiville,  containing  one  span  "320  feet  long.  'This  was  the  j)ioneer 
spans.  Qj-  iong-s])an  stru(  lures.     The  Monongahela  Bridge  at   Fittsburgli. 

with  spans  of  260  feet,  was  undertaken  the  same  year.  These  structures  were 
closely  studied  by  engineers  in  all  the  States.  Fa(  li  one  was  an  experiment, 
recpiiring  special  tests  of  material,  special  rolling-mills  to  get  out  the  angle  and 
T  iron,  special  patterns  of  plates  and  beams,  and  separate  appliances  for  ere( 
tion.  They  were  all  truss  bridges,  the  plates  and  beams  being  fastencil 
together  by  riveting,  and  the  bars  and  rods  being  fitted  to  their  places  to  bra(  r 
the  structure  by  nuts  and  screws.  After  the  coni])letion  and  success  of  thcM 
works  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  Railroad  ordered  two  long-span  bridges  for  their 
road,  one  of  which  was  built  at  Parkcrsburgh,  with  two  spans  of  348  feet,  Ibm 
of  200  feet,  and  several  shorter  ones.  The  other  was  erected  at  Hellaire.  at  .1 
cost  of  $1,000,000.  It  had  one  span  of  348  feet,  one  of  250,  four  of  200  feet. 
and  a  numb.er  of  107  feet  spans,  the  approach  consisting  of  forty-three  stone 
arches  of  twenty-eight  feet  four  inches  each.  Nothing  has  seemed  impossible 
since  the  construction  of  these  works.  A  general  introduction  of  large  iron 
bridges  has  taken  place  accordingly  in  all  parts  of  the  country,  but  especiall} 
in  the  A\'est.  'I'he  wooden  structures  have  been  taken  away  as  they  ha\e  be 
„     ,  .      ,     come  worn  out  or  shattered  bv  freshets,  and  have  been  rei)laceii 

Exploits  of  ^  ' 

the  West  in    with  the  lighter  and  more  substantial  bridges  of  iron.     New  roads 
have  been  generally  built  with  iron  viaducts  only. 

The   \\'est   has   been   the  theatre    of  the  greatest  exploits  in 
bridge-building  up  to  the  present  time,  because  of  the  greater  necessity  for  tjic 


bridge 
making. 


01-     Till:     rxri'EI)    STATES. 


2S9 


•0  the  longest 


creation  of  via<lii(  ts 
across  great  streams.  In 
1S67  a  frame-bridge  was 
begun  across  the  Ohio 
River  at  Louisville,  wiiieh 
took  three  years  to  com- 
plete, having  spans  of 
400  feet ;  and  tiie  New- 
port  anil  Cjncinnati 
bridge  was  erected 
abotil  tlie  same  time, 
witli  a  great  span  of  420 
feet,  which  remains  to 
the  i)resent  lime  the 
largest  truss  in  the 
L'liited  States.  A  very 
iiUeresliiig  structure  was 
built  at  St.  Josei)!i,  Mu., 
iu  I  <S 7 2-73,  across  the 
Missouri  River.  The 
current  of  the  river  is 
of  tVightful  velocity  and 
force  at  this  point,  and 
tJK'  work  of  constructing 
the  ])iers  was  a  great 
engineering  task.  1  n 
order  to  j)repare  the 
rivL-r  to  receive  the 
l)ri(lge  it  was  necessary 
to  confine  the  current 
to  a  specific  channel, 
«)  that  it  might  not  af- 
terward wear  away  the 
abutments.  This  was 
successfully  done  by 
<-'ol.  ]•:.  I).  Mason,  the 
engineer  in  charge  ;  a 
sand-bar  more  than  a 
mile  long  and  half  a  mile 
«iile,  containing  8,000,- 
000  cubic  yards  of  earth, 
being   removed    in    the 


operation.     The    bridge    is    1.345    feet    long   from  bank   to    bank,   and  cost 


I 


!     -.   Ik 


290 


JNDCSTNIAr.    UlsrONY 


j?  1 ,000,000.  Another  great  l)ri<lgL'  was  thrown  across  the  Missouri  at  St.  Charles, 
for  the  St.  l,oiiis.  Kansas-City,  and  Northern  Short  Line  Railroad,  by  a  com- 
pany which  leases  it  to  the  road  at  a  perpetual  rental  of  ;?!  170,000  a  year. 
'I'he  work  is  a  mile  and  a  (piarter  long,  cost  $2,250,000,  and  is  the  finest 
structure  of  its  class  in  the  country.  The  approaches  to  the  bridge  jjrojier 
are  over  iron  trestles,  of  which  t'nere  are  forty  each  side  of  the  stream  ;  and 
the  stream  is  crossed  by  seven  trusses,  two  of  305  feet  span,  two  of  306 i,  two 
of  317^,  and  oneof  32trJ.  In  this  structure  are  em|)loyed  the  two  styles  of 
bridge  used  upon  railroads  and  higiuvays.  The  central  three  s])ans  are 
"  through  "  spans,  technically  so  called,  because  they  have  the  track  on  a  level 
with  the  lower  chords  :  the  others  are  "  deck  "  spans,  having  the  track  on  a 
level  with  the  upper  chords.  The  ([uantity  of  iron  used  was  7,690,000  pounds, 
and  every  bar  and  plate  was  tested  up  to  20,000  pounds  to  the  s<|uare  inch. 

The  greatest  bridge  of  all  in  the  West  crosses  the  greatest  r'ver  of  the  rci)ul>- 
lic  at  St.  Louis,  and  is  adapted  both  to  railway  and  ordinary  travel.  It  is  coui- 
St.  Louis  posed  of  three  spans,  —  two  502  feet  in  length,  and  one  of  520  feet. 
Bridge.  — which  are  crossed  by  steel  tu])ular  arches,  sujjporting  a  doulile 

roadway,  one  for  railway  and  the  other  for  wagon  and  foot  travel.  Mach  arch 
is  com]iose(l  of  cast-steel  tubes  twelve  feet  in  length,  there  being  four  sets  of 
tubes  in  each  arch,  —  two  above  to  form  the  upi)er  chord,  and  two  below  lo 
form  the  lower  chord,  the  chords  being  united  vertically  by  zigzag  bracing,  and 
laterally  by  huge  iron  rods.  The  structure  is  really  a  double  bridge,  or  two 
bridges  side  by  side.  Each  span  is  accordingly  crossed  by  two  arches.  Work 
was  begun  ujjon  this  great  viaduct  in  .August,  1S67,  under  the  super- 
vision of"  Capt.  James  15.  Kads,  its  originator  and  engineer ;  and 
the  .superstructure  was  completed  in  A})ril,  1S74,  at  a  total  cost  of  $12,000,000. 
The  materials  used  in  construction  were  supjjlied  under  contract  by  the  Key- 
stone Bridge  Company  of  Pittsburgh  and  Philadelphia.  Every  beam,  tube.  l);u-. 
Construction  and  bolt  was  fitted  to  its  place  with  microscopic  exactitude  Ijeforc 
of  the  bridge,  jj  ]^.ft  ^\^q  works  for  the  scene  of  the  bridge.  The  pieis  of  this 
work  were  built  by  the  process  employed  at  St.  Joseph,  Mo.,  and  afterwards 
on  the  East  River  at  New-York  City.  It  is  called  the  pleuro-pneumatic.  It 
was  necessary  to  excavate  the  bed  of  the  river  down  to  the  solid  rock,  a 
distance  of  119  feet  below  ordinary  high-water  line.  In  order  to  accomplish 
this,  huge  caissons  of  wooa  and  iron  were  built,  eighty-two  feet  long,  sixty 
wide,  and  twenty-eight  feet  high  when  launched,  open  below  like  diving-bells. 
The  masonry  of  die  pier  was  built  upon  the  caisson,  so  as  to  be  constantly 
above  the  surface  of  the  water  as  the  caisson  slowly  settled  down  into  the 
water  to  the  mud,  and  then  into  the  excavation  made  for  it  by  the  workmen 
in  the  open  air-chamber  below.  The  pressure  of  air  in  this  chaml)er  was  fifiy- 
two  feet  to  the  scjuare  inch.  It  was  very  trying  to  the  workmen  ;  but  this  plan 
of  building  a  pier  in  deep  water  proved  very  efficient  and  successful.  Eads's 
sand-pump,  invented  to  assist  in  excavating  the  bed  of  the  river,  has  sim  e 


Eads. 


or  Tiir.   rNiTF.n  states. 


SQI 


Chark's, 

a  com- 

1  a  year. 

he  fiiK'st  I 

Tf  \)ro\)cr 
;am;  ami 

styles  of 
spans   art' 
on  a  k-vcl 
.rack  on  a 
oo  pounds, 
jc  'uvb- 
•  the  rcpnb- 
It  is  I  o\n- 
of  520  feet, 
ing  a  ilouhU' 
Kach  an  h 
four  sets  ot 
,wo  below  lu 
l.racini^,  ami 
.vlclge,  or  two 
rches.     ^Vork 
(ler  the  supiT- 
ngineer;  ami 
$12,000,000. 
\)y  the  Key- 
jam,  tube.  bar. 
^ctitude  before 
piers  of  ilii^ 
,iu\  afterwards 
.neumatic.     U 
solid  rock,  a 
to  accompli^^^ 
|eet  long,  si^^^' 
X  diving-bells. 
\)e   constantly 
[down  into  tlv; 
ly  the  workmen 
Vber  Nvas  fiftv- 
;  but  this  pk"^ 
lessful.     Kads'> 
•iver,  has  sin<e 


become  famous.     This  bridge  lias  the  long'ist  cxistin},'  si)ana  of  its  class  in  the 
world. 

In  the  ICast  there  have  been  no  great  bridges,  except  the  International  at 
Niagara  Falls,  until  recently.  .\  suspension-bridge,  however,  is  now  building 
at  New-York  City,  over  the  lOast  River,  to  lirooklyn.  whi(  h  not  Ea»triver 
only  surpasses  any  work  of  its  <  lass  in  the  ( ouiury,  but  in  tiie  Bridge, 
world.  The  great  stone  lowers  for  this  work  are  260  feel  higii.  and  the  bridge- 
w.iv  will  be  suspended  in  the  air  at  a  distance  of  1,^0  feet  from  tlu'  water, — 
a  lieiglit  sufficient  to  allow  vessels  of  all  sizes  to  pass  without  striking  a  spar. 
e\<  ejil  in  the  case  of  a  few  of  the  great  sailing-ships  in  die  (".difornia  and 
Ciiina  trades,  and  these  wmII  seldom  have  occasion  to  pass  tiiis  jtoiiU.  'The 
di^t.uK  e  from  tower  to  tower  is  1,620  feet,  and  to  the  New-N'ork  and  Brooklyn 
am  borages  from  the  towers  1,3.57  and  X37  feet  respectively.  l''rom  end  to  end 
llu-  liridge  will  be  over  a  mile  in  length.  It  will  weigh  3.600  tons,  and  iiold 
1,400  tons  of  freight.  This  great  bridge  was  begun  in  1870,  and  at  this  time 
half  of  the  sup[)orting  ( al)les  are  laid.  It  will  require  a  year  to  lay  the  other 
lialf,  the  cables  being  strung  and  built  up  wire  by  wire.  The  total  <  t)st  will  be 
ji13.000.000.  The  bridge  was  begim  by  John  \.  Roebling,  its  projector,  and 
sim  e  his  death  is  being  carried  on  by  his  son,  Col.  W.  A.  Roebling. 

American  constructive  talent  lias  found  a  jiroblem  worthy  of  its  powers 
in  gr.ippling  with  the  subject  of  ( njssing  the  great  streams  of  the  republic, 
livery  venture  so  far  has  been  attended  with  creditable  success.  The  engi- 
neers Jiave  had  a  great  advantage  in  the  fact  that  .American  iron  is  of  superior 
ten;u  ity,  which  enables  them  to  impart  greater  lightness  to  the  cables  and 
trusses  of  bridges,  without  loss  of  stre  gth.  with,  in  fad,  a  gain  of  strength, 
since  the  weight  of  the  structure  is  diminished.  lOvery  difficulty  so  far  has 
been  solved  by  tiie  ready  invention  of  engineers  and  the  intelligence  and 
tare  of  the  workmen.  It  is  impossible  to  tell  what  gigantic,  work  ma)'  not  yet 
he  atteni|)ted.  The  Newport  Uridge  at  Cincinnati,  with  its  ])eerless  truss  of 
420  teet,  was  once  considered  the  acme  of  effort  ;  but  the  steel  arches  at  St. 
bonis  have  passed  it ;  and  a  corner-stone  has  been  laid  for  a  "deck"  bridge 
at  I'oughkeepsie,  N.Y.,  designed  by  Linville,  like  the  one  at  Newport,  standing 
iQo  feet  above  the  water,  with  five  spans  of  525  feet  each.  Hut  who  shall  say 
that  .American  builders  will  stop  even  with  5 25 -feet  trusses?  or  who  can  safely 
predict  that  the  Brooklyn  Bridge  is  the  limit  of  i)ossibility  in  the  direction 
of  suspension-bridges  ? 

Iron  bridges  of  small  size  for  general  purposes  are  now  .argely  manufac- 
tured as  a  regular   industry  in  all   parts   of  the  country,  except   the  South. 
Ihere  are  no  factories  at  present  south    of   Mason    and  Dixon's 
Line.    That  there  will  be  in  a  very  few  years  there  can  be  little  building  a 
doubt,  owing  to  the  needs  of  the  Southern  States,  and  their  abun-  regular  in- 
•lant  coal,  iron,   and   water-power.      American   bridges   find    the 
railways,  of  course,   their  principal   consumers ;    but  the   purely  agricultural 


i()2 


/.\7>r.s/A'/ 1/    ///s roh'Y 


r-'iSi, 


w 


or    Till:     IXIII-.n    STATUS, 


■"Ji 


I  (IIH 
HUTS, 

ri  n  .1. 
ic^  cn- 
z  mail- 
at  prt-s- 
uviiuy- 
umil  "*-'!■ ; 

,   VI' 1"'''" 

uiit    ui 
ncry,  a  in  I 


ilolhcnn.i 

S  O    HI   >' 

ich    li;'^'' 
l\n(  'u'li^  '"■'' 

with 


hut 


'I'lro  oM  pri'ss  nsi'il  by  tlu'  Cirsi  |iriiiiiTs  was  tniTcIy  a  tahlc,  upon  whic  h 
tin-  typo  loiinmj;  llu-  pa^'c  to  l)i'  pnntitl  was  laiti,  Ikmh;;  hound  togitlur  liy 
.1  t'raiiK'  ami  wcduis  into  what  is  <  alltil  a  "  I'orm."      The  type  was    ., 

'^  ■"  Dencriptlon 

inked    liy  patting'  it   with  an    inking  liall,   or   rnniiin^  an    inking     oi  old  presi, 

roller  over  it.      I'he  paper  wa^  laul  on   l.v  hand,  ami  a   Hal   plate    ""^  •""J*' «>' 

.  '  working  it. 

(it  wood  or  iron  was  broiij^ht  down  on  it  by  liirniii;;  a  s(  rew.  whic  h 

Imninht  the  type  iindir  pressure.      The  Ivirl  of  Slanhopi-  invented  an  iinprove- 

im  lit  upon  this,  by  whii  h  a  lever  was  used   in  tiinnettioii  with  the  s<rew.  and 


La  be  n""-''i 


GtrrENiiKi«.  s  HUM'  ri((i(iF. 

the  plate,   or   platen,  was   lirounlit    down    more   (|ui(kly  ;  and    a   carriaj^e  was 

made  to  run  the  form  out   from   umler  the   platen  after  the   impression,  so  as 

til  ink  it  a^Min  more  easily.      The  seri'w  was  afterwards  superseded  by  a  lever 

;iiiil    by    an    elbow-joint    of    iron,    the 

•>traiL;lueninj;    of     the     joint     bringing 

ilowii  tiie  platen.     This    sort   of  press 

\va^  the  oiK-  used  bv  the  earlv  Aineri- 

i;'n  printers.      liooks.  newspapers,  the 

^irmoiis  and  i)amphlets  of  which  there 

was  Mich  a  |)rodigious  number  in  early 

'l;iy>.  and  all  fine  work,  were  printed  on 

liressi-;  ,,f  this  general   deseription.     The  pattern   has   not  gone    out    of   use 


1  nMr(islN<.-s  I  l(  K. 


iMi|.sj!<' 


if 


^3i 


1  illliii*lliiM^ ,,  ^ 


'i^.m 


M>  ,J 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


";5 


11 


\i 


\\ 


Hoe. 


\l 


even  yet.     It  is  a  convenient  style  of  machine  for  printing  posters,  placards, 
iVc,  in  small  ofifices. 

The  first  step  ui  advance  was  in  1 790,  when  the  idea  of  a  cylinder  press 
was  broached.  The  original  style  of  machine  never  came  into  First  cyiin- 
use  ;  but  the  idea  was  a  good  one,  and  it  became  the  theme  of  ^"  press, 
numerous  inventors.  A  Saxon  by  the  name  of  Frederick  Konig  built  the 
first  cylinder  press  to  run  by  steam  in  1814  for '' The  London 
Times."  This  style  of  press  was  introduced  into  the  United  States 
in  1830  by  Robert  Hoe,  and  Screno  Newton  his  pa-rtner,  who  built  the  first 
press  in  use  in  the  country.  Mr.  Hoe 
imi^roved  this  press  immensely ;  and 
his  son,  Richard  M.  Hoe,  has  added 
to  its  capacities  still  more.  The 
principle  of  the  original  cylinder 
press  was  to  cause  the  tal)le  bearing 
the  form  to  move  horizontally  back 
aiul  forth  under  a  large  cylinder. 
This  cylinder  was  supplied  with 
paper,  a  sheet  at  a  time,  the  paper 
being  held  to  the  surface  of  the 
cylinder  with  tapes  strung  taut  over 
it.  As  the  form  went  under  the 
cylinder,  the  paper,  moving  at  the 
same  rate  of  speed,  was  brought 
into  contact  with  it  with  pressure, 
and  an  impression  taken.  The  form 
flew  back  under  the  cylinder  again, 
when  a  depressed  part  of  the  surface  of  the  latter  was  presented  to  it,  to 
advance  again  lor  another  impression.  Th's  was  called  technically  the  single- 
cylinder  press.  A  number  of  American  inventors  improved  the  machine  as 
well  as  Hoe,  —  Campbell,  Babcock,  and  others  among  the  number,  —  and 
it  has  been  made  capable  of  printing  from  two  thousand  to  three  thousand 
ncwsjjapers  an  hour. 

In  1830  and  1836  Isaac  Adams  of  Boston  patented  the  press  which  has 
always  been  called  by  his  name,  and  which  has  not  yet  been  superseded  in 
value  for  book-work  and  fine  printing.     In  this  machine  the  table 

Adams. 

holding  the  form  rises  and  falls  vertically  through  thi  action  of 

a  jxiwerful  toggle-joint  below  it,  making  a  (piiet  and  strong  impression  on  the 

l)ai)iT. 

The  cylinder  press  was  improved  by  Richard  M.  Hoe   in   1847    ^^    ,  . 
in  a  new  and  extraordinary  way.     The  t)'iK'  was  locked  uj)  in  a    provements 
form  called  a  "  turtle,"  from  its  resemblance  to  the  back  of  that   '"  ''^^^ 
amphibian.     The  turtle  was  curved,  and  was  made  so  that  the  form  could  be 


FRAi-.KUN   PRESS. 


296 


IND  US  TRIA  L    HIS  TOR  V 


ii'H'fa 


li  \i 


Ui 


•m 


iui 


fitted   to   tlie    surface  of  a  large  cylinder,  and  made  to  revolve  at  any  rate 
of  speed  without  flying   off,  or  parting  with   its   type.     Hoe   enormously  in- 
creased the  capacity  of  the 
cylinder  press    by  thi-s   in- 
vention.     The    paper   was 
presented   to   the    form  as 
the  latter  revolved  upon  tlie 
big  cylinder  l)y  a    number 
of  small  cylinders,  each  at- 
tended by  a  separate  work- 
man.     The   feeding  cylin- 
ders have  been  as  high  as 
eight,   ten,   and    twelve    in 
number.    The  monster  Hoc 
press   lately  removed   from 
the    press-room    of    "  The 
Tribune "    office    at    Xcw 
York,  to    make  way   foi    a 
more  modern  machine,  was 
of  the  ten-cylinder  pattern. 
The    twelve-cylinder    press 
would  print  about  four  hun- 
dred   ])apers   a  minute,   or 
twenty-four    thousand     an 
hour.    'I'he  adoption  of  the 
Hoc  press  by  "Tlie  London 
Times"  showed  its  value. 
The  next  and  last  step  forward  has  been  the  perfection  of  the  web-press. 
This  is  an  American  invention,  and  is  to  be  credited  to  William  A.  Bullock 
of  Philadelphia,  who  got  a  patent  for  it  in   1S61,  anu  patented  it 
in    England    in   1862.     The  idea  has  been  taken   up  abroad  by 
Walter  of  '"The  Tondon  Times"  and  others;  but  the  American  inventors  slill 
retain  the  lead   in  the  construction  of  the  machine.     Hoe  &  Company  and 
Campbell  have  both  perfected  web-presses  of  their  own,  which   are  in  sonic 
respects  better  than  Ikillock's.     The  principle  upon  which  these  presses  are 
Hoe  and  Bui-   iii^flc  is  to  feed  the  paper  to  the  press  from  a  huge  roll,  or  web, 
lock  presses     upon  whicli  there  is  wound  up  from  three  to  five  miles  of  paper. 
Lightning-like    shears   in  the  press   cut  off  the  sheets  from  the 
roll,  either  before  they  are  printed,  as  in  the  Bullock  press,  or  afterwards,  as  in 
the  others.     The  forms  are  stereotyped,  and  mounted  on  two  large  rollers ; 
those  for  one  side  of  the  newspaper  on  one  roller,  and  those  for  the  other  side 
of  the  sheet  on  the  other.     The  paper  goes  to  one  roller,  and  receives  the 
impression  of  one  set  of  forms,  anil  then  goes   to  the  other,  and  is  printed  on 


STANSnURY   HAND-PRESS. 


m 

I,,  !i 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


297 


ny  rate 

isly  in- 

j  of  the 

thk    in- 

^er   was 

form   as 

ipon  the 
mim\)er 

each  al- 

Lte  work- 

ig  cylin- 

;  high  as 

welve    in 

ister  Iloe 

ved   from 

of    "'I'he 
at    New 

vay   foi    ^< 

:hinc,  was 

;r  pattern. 

xler    press 

t  four  hnn- 

ininiite,  or 

isand     an 

tion  of  the 
le  London 

its  vaUie. 
web-press. 
A.  Bullock 
patented  it 
abroad  by 
entors  still 
mpany  and 
■e  in  some 
presses  arc 
oil,  or  web, 
:s  of  paper, 
.s  from  the 
-ards,  as  in 
■ge  rollers ; 
other  side 
eceives  the 
printed  on 


the  other  side,  and 
passes  on  to  the  fly, 
to   be    delivered  to 
the  men  who  carry 
the    papers    to    the 
folding-room.      The 
II oe  presses  have  a 
capacity    of    18,000 
impressions      with 
folder  an  hour,  and 
25,000  without  this 
attachment.         The 
I'ampbell  press  has 
a  capacity  of  35,000, 
but  is  generally  op- 
crated  with  a   fold- 
ing-machine,  which 
reduces      its     work 
to  10,000  an   hour. 
The    advantage     of 
this  style  of  press  is 
not  so  much  in  the 
number   of  impres- 
sions per  hour  as  in 
the    saving    of    the 
original  cost  of  tlie 
niacliine,    and     ex- 
panses of  operation. 
A  web-press  is  well 
scr\ed     by    two    or 
three  men,  while  the 
I'll!    style     of    Hoe 
press    of    the    same 
capacity   would    re- 
Miiire  ten  or  twelve 
men. 

The  United  States 
is  greatly  interested 
in  the  progress  of 
tlu'  printing-press, 
because  the  news- 
l'M"^r  and  the  book 
'i^ivc    now    become 


M;^'<^ 


iK  I 


29S 


nvD  us  trih  r.  nrs  tor  y 


essentials  in  the  life  of  every  intelligent  person,  and  the  cheapening  of  the  pro- 
cesses of  making  them  is  of  vital  importance  to  the  welfare  and  progress  of 

our  beloved  coun- 
try and  its  inhab- 
itants.     When    this 

Importance  cheap- 
of  printing-  e  n  i  n  g 
press.  ,• 

can  be 
done  by  the  employ- 
ment of  machinery, 
instead  of  by  the 
cheapening  of  the 
wages  of  labor,  the 
progress  made  is 
wholesome  and  sat- 
isfactory. 


WIRE. 


The  manufLiclure 
of  wire  is  a  very 
ancient  art ;  but 
the  metal  originally 
used  was  almost  ex- 
clusively eilher  gold 
or  silver,  and  malle- 
ability was  taken  ad- 
vantage of  in  the 
production  of  the  wire  rather  than  ductility.  The  metal  was  hammered  out 
into  thin  sheets,  and  then  cut  into  narrow  slips,  or  slivers,  which  were  after- 
Ancient  wards  rounded  by  hammering.  The  fabled  net  of  Vulcan  was 
made  of  such  wire.  Fabrics  were  also  woven  of  it ;  and  a  golden 
garment  weighing  thirty-six  pounds,  made  from  wire  of  this  sort, 
was  found  in  the  tomb  of  the  wife  of  the  Emperor  Honorius  when  opened 
at  Rome  in  1544.  An  allusion  is  made  in  the  Book  of  Exodus  to  the  tact 
that  "  they  did  beat  the  gold  into  thin  plates,  and  cut  it  into  wire,"  for  deco- 
rating the  rich  garments  of  the  priests.  "  The  beautifully-twined  tassels  of 
solid  gold  "  of  the  .4!)gis,  referred  to  in  the  "  Iliad  ; "  the  /one  which  Juno  put 

on  to  captivate  Jupiter,  — 

"  All  around 
A  huiicirecl  tassels  hung,  mre  works  of  art, 
All  gold,  each  one  a  hundred  oxen's  price ;  " 

and  the  wonderful  head-dress  of  a  profusion  of  gold  chains  found  by  Schlic- 
tnann  at  Troy,  —  were  all  matle  of  hammered  wire. 


NEWSI'Al'EK   I'ROOK-rKESS. 


wire-mak 
ing. 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


299 


of  the  pro- 
-)rogress  ol 
ved    coun- 
its   inhal)- 
When    this 
c  h  e  a  p- 

e 

5-     e  n  i  n  g 

can    be 
the  employ- 
■  machinery, 
of   \)y   ibc 
ihig    Ol    the 
3f  labor,  the 
s     made     is 
ame  and  sat- 

•y- 

WIRE. 

e  manufacture 
j-e    is    a   very 
It     art ;      but 
letal  originally 
was  almost  ex- 
ely  either  gold 
^er,  and  malle- 
was  taken  ad- 
^e    of    in    the 
Ihammered  out 
|ich  were  after- 
,of  Vulcan  was 
;   and  a  golden 
re  of  this  sort, 
_  when  opened 
[lus  to  the  tatt 
ire,"  for  deco- 
[ined  tassels  of 
which  Juno  p"t 


md  by  Schlie- 


It  was  not  until  some  time  after  1300  that  wire-drawing  became  an  art. 
A  race  of  wire-drawers,  who  made  iron  wire  by  hand,  and  afterwards  by  water- 
power,  then  sprang  up  in  Oermany,  and  became  famous  in  luirope.  Nurem- 
l)erg  was  the  great  centre  of  the  industry.  It  was  introduced  vvjre. 
thence  into  Mngland  about  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century,  drawing  in 
In  the  original  machine  processes  the  wire  was  stretched  out  from  "s  an 
slender  iron  bars  by  pincers  driven  by  water-power,  which  came  forward  and 
<auglit  the  wire  and  retired,  and  tlv  n,  letting  go,  came  forward  again  and  took 
another  hold,  to  retire  again.  England  afterwards  applied  steam-power  to  the 
(irawing-i)rocess,  and  then  made  use  of  the  drawing-plate.  She  became  in 
time  tlie  principal  wire-making  nation,  from  the  fact  that  her  policy  was 
steadily  directed  to  the  breaking-down  of  the  Dutch  and  (lerman  industries, 
and  to  the  development  of  her  own.  In  the  present  century  she  has  furnished 
wire  to  all  the  world,  and  especially  to  the  United  States  and  the  other  coun- 
tries of  the  American  continent.  Her  manufacturers  bid  eagerly  for  contracts 
for  supplies  for  telegraph  companies  and  suspension-bridges  on  this  continent, 
and  liave  been  in  the  past  very  successful  in  securing  contracts  against  all 
competitors. 

'I'liis  industry  was  introduced  into  the  United  States  early  in  the  present  cen- 
tury. It  gained  very  little  headway  until  a  very  recent  date.  There  was  little 
demand  for  iron  wire  at  first :  and  when  the  telegraph  was  invented  vvire-mak- 
by  an  American,  and  a  new  and  extraordinary  demand  for  wire  ing  in  United 
was  thus  created,  foreign  competition  was  too  powerfiil.  Factories  *^*^^' 
were,  however,  started  in  lioston,  Worcester,  Providence,  New  York,  and  other 
cities ;  and  the  industry  has  now  become  a  considerable  one,  and  successfully 
competes  for  most  of  the  large  American  contracts.  It  is  singular,  however, 
that,  while  there  has  been  immense  progress  in  this  country  in  every  other 
industry,  in  this  one  very  few  new  ideas  have  been  evolved.  Up  to  1874 
there  had  been  only  five  patents  issued  concerning  wire  out  of  the  146,119 
recorded  up  to  that  date.     In  1874,  however,  twelve  patents  were  issued. 

The  uses  of  wire  are  now  constantly  increasing.  It  would  seem  as  if  there 
were  nothing  like  wire  for  a  thousand  purposes  for  which  hemp,  and  iron 
<:hains  and  bars,  cobwebs,  and  other  things,  have  been  employed,  uses  made 
\Vire  lias  now  for  forty  years  been  twisted  into  cables  for  sui)port-  °'  ^''■''• 
iiit;  bridges,  hoisting  elevators  in  mines  and  buildings,  securing  anchors, 
rigging,  and  guns,  and  threading  the  oceans  and  seas  for  telegraph  communica- 
tion. For  cables  and  ropes  it  is  far  lighter  than  hempen  cordage,  and  more 
easily  handled.  Eight-inch  hawsers  of  steel  wire  have  recenUy  been  made  in 
i'.ngland  to  take  the  i)lace  of  the  enormous  twenty-five-inch  hawsers  used  on 
iron-clads.  The  steel  hawser  weighs  only  one-third  as  much  as  the  one  of 
licui]),  and  is  handled  by  twelve  men ;  whereas  the  other  takes  forty-eight. 
\\  ire  is  the  universal  material  for  telegraph  and  telephone  lines.  It  is  drawn 
for  all  kinds  of  pins  and  needles,  for  the  wire  cards  usetl  in  spinning,  for  the 


>!#; 


fi:'.J"r 


300 


/A^D  US  TRIA  L    HIS  TOR  V 


strings  of  pianos,  and  for  fences,  and  is  woven  by  niarliincry  for  a  great  variety 
of  purposes.  Recent  deep-sea  soundings  have  been  made  witli  piano-wire, 
which  have  been  a  huntlred  times  more  satisfactory  than  any  ever  l)elbre  made 
with  cords  and  rope,  (iold  and  silver  wire  for  chains,  and  filigree-work, 
and  lace,  are  extensively  used  in  the  decorative  arts ;  and  platinum  wire  is 
Wire  for  drawn  out  as  fine  as  a  cobweb  for  the  jjurposes  of  the  crossed 
telescopes.  j^^irs  in  the  telescope.  The  finest  wire  made  is  for  the  telescope. 
.\n  ingot  of  platinum  is  surrounded  with  silver,  and  the  compound  wire 
drawn  down  to  the  finest  point.  The  silver  is  then  dissolved  with  nitric  acitl, 
leaving  the  microscopic  thread  of  platinum  behind.  Wire  thus  made  has  been 
as  fine  as  j^iiTjj  of  an  inch. 


m 


n 


WASHBURN   &   MOEN   WIRE-WORKS,    WORCESTER,   MASS. 

The  process  of  wire-drawing  is  simple.  I''or  ordinary  commercial  wire,  iron 
rods  of  tough  quality  are  bent  into  coils,  and  put  into  large  tumbling  boxes  or 
Process  of  rotating  cylinders,  with  water  and  gravel  to  remove  the  scale.  They 
wire-draw-  are  hcatcd  and  re-rolled  until  they  arc  reduced  to  a  coarse  wire  of 
'"^'  about  an  eighth  of  an  inch  in  diameter.     They  are  then  passed 

cold  through  the  draw  plate.  This  is  a  piece  of  hardened  steel  pierced  witl".  a 
large  number  of  tapering  holes,  the  smallest  part  of  each  hole  being  on  the 
side  from  which  the  wire  emerges.  The  end  of  the  wire,  being  carried  through 
the  largest  hole,  is  attached  to  a  reel,  and  the  rod  drawn  through  with  power  at 
the  rate  of  from  sixty  to  two  hundred  feet  a  minute,  stretching  it,  and  reducing 
its  size.  It  is  then  passed  through  a  smaller  hole,  and  the  process  is  repeated 
until  the  requisite  size  of  wire  is  obtained.  The  wire  is  often  passed  through 
ten,  fifteen,  thirty,  and  even  more  holes,  to  get  it  down  to  the  requisite  fineness. 
The  continued  drawing  rendering  the  wire  brittle,  it  is  necessary  to  anneal  it 
several  times  during  the  process  of  reduction  to  make  it  soft.     It  is  heated 


t  variety 
no-wire, 
re  mailc 
ec-work, 
1  wire  is 
crossed 
elesco\)e. 
and  wire 
trie  acid, 
has  been 


5*^-- 


01'     THE    UNITED    STATES. 


301 


to  redness  in  coils,  and  allowed  to  cool  gradually  in  kilns.  Twenty-four  hours 
is  the  usual  length  of  time  for  cooling  f(jr  the  smaller  wires.  The  scale  is 
removed  after  each  annealing  by  pickling  in  dilute  oil  of  vitriol. 

C'ast-steel  wire  is  made  from  rods  hannnered  to  a  ([uarter-inch  diameter 
l)y  the  tiit-hanmier.  It  makes  the  toughest  wire  known  ;  and  it  will  stand  a 
strain  of  about  200,000  poimds  to  the  scjuare  incii  against  100,000  Cast-steei 
|)ounds,  which  is  the  strain  the  best  iron  wire  will  endure  to  the  ^""^• 
s(iuare  inch.  Spurious  gold  wire  is  made  by  heating  copper  wire  to  redness, 
and  exposing  it  to  the  fumes  of  zinc,  which  converts  the  exterior  of  the  wire 
into  brass.  .Vmerican  inventors  have  brought  out  a  wire  with  a  steel  core  and 
copper  exterior,  which  is  claimed  to  have  advantages  for  telegraphy.  In  1858 
Henry  Waterman  invented  a  jjlan  for  tempering  flat  steel  wire  for  crinolines 
(made  by  drawing,  and  rolling  afterwards),  whicii  reduced  the  cost  of  temper- 
ing from  three  dollars  to  three  cents  a  pound.  Previously  the  wire  had  been 
wound  into  great  volute  coils,  interlaced  with  iron  wire,  and  in  this  form 
exposed  to  the  baths,  &c.,  of  the  tempering  process.  Waterman  drew  the  wire 
through  the  heating-furnace  directly  into  the  hardening  bath  by  machinery. 
His  process  is  applied  to  all  tempered-steel  wire  now. 

Wire-drawing  has  not  received  the  conspicuous  development  in  the  United 
States  to  which  it  is  entitled,  both  because  of  foreign  competition  and  of  the 
limited  uses  of  \.  '.re.     Present  indications  point  to  an  enlargement   Deveiop- 
of  the  industry  on  account  of  the  growing  applications  of  wire,   ment  of  in- 
and  the  probability  of  fintling  a  large  market  for  the  .American     "^  ''^' 
article  in  South  .\merica  and  Australia.     If  China  and  Japan  would  introduce 
tile  telegraph  generally,  a  great  impetus  would  be  given  to  the  factories  of  this 
<;ountrv. 


•ial  wire,  iron 
[ng  boxes  or 

scale.   They 
)arse  wire  of 

then  passed 
terced  witl".  a 
l)eing  on  the 
Irried  through 
[with  power  at 
land  redurint: 
Iss  is  repeated 
Tssed  through 

[isite  nneness. 
to  anneal  it 
It  is  heated 


\vater-\viiki:ls. 

The  rugged  ranges  of  mountains  and  hills,  and  the  generally  broken  quality 
of  thj  surface  of  the  country  of  all  the  States  lying  along  the  .Atlantic  coast 
of  this  country,  have  been  to  our  people  a  boon  of  decided  value. 
Causes  which  lie  so  far  away  behind  the  setting  of  the  stage  upon    ^^^^^. 
wliich  the  incidents  of  history  take  place  as  to  be  invisible  to  the    power  in 
])hysical  eve,  and  almost  to  the  mind,   ot'ten  exercise   the  most   „"''^ 

'     -^  '     '  '  States. 

pcjwcrful  of  influences  upon  all  that  occurs.  \  large  part  of  the 
wonderful  progress  of  the  .American  people  in  industry  and  civilization  is  due 
to  the  rugged  nature  of  the  territory  in  which  the  first  colonies  of  the  republic 
were  planted.  The  speculative  philosopher  can  see  in  the  i)eculiarities  of 
that  territory  the  germs  even  of  .American  independence  and  the  free  institu- 
tions which  the  people  set  up  here  after  independence  had  been  secured ;  for, 
on  a  comparison  of  the  different  races  and  countries  of  history,  it  is  found, 
diat,  in  general,  the  mountains  and  hills  have  always  been  the  seat  of  the 
greatest  human  liberty  and  progress,  whereas  the  plains  have  been  the  basis 


!  • 


l»i|M^ 


30a 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


and  New 
England. 


of  whatever  indolence  and  slavery  the  world  has  seen.  A  real  connection  caif 
be  traced  between  the  free  and  aggressive  spirit  of  the  early  colonists  of  the 
North  and  the  character  of  the  region  they  inhabited.  lUit  the  hills  were  of 
more  immediate  value  in  the  intluence  they  exerted  ui)on  material  progress. 
They  filled  the  States  they  permeated  with  an  unparalleled  luxuriance  of 
water-power,  which  was  of  incalculable  value  in  enabling  the  i)eoj)le  to  manu- 
liicture.  and  to  build  mills  and  fLictories  and  shops  of  all  kinds,  and  thus  make 
for  themselves  those  implements  and  goods  which  are  to  every  great  nation 
an  important  source  of  its  culture  and  power. 

.\t  New-Vork  City,  and  along  the  flat  seacoast  of  the  country,  windmills. 
were  employed  by  the  early  inhabitants  to  grind  their  grain,  and  saw  tiieir 
„    ,      .,,       lumber ;  and  those  (luaint  relics  of  a  bvgone  age  are  still  in  use 

Early  mills  '  '  .no 

in  New  York  among  the  people  on  the  New-England  coast  and  the  outlying 
islands  of  that  region.  They  have  no  waterfiills,  because  the 
country  is  too  flat.  In  the  interior  there  has  been  from  the 
beginning,  in  all  the  arable  States  except  Illinois,  an  almost  inexhaustible 
supply  of  water-power  ;  and  all  the  heavy  machinery  of  the  interior  was  pro- 
Water-  iK'llcd  by  it  for  two  hundred  years.     This  water-power  has  been 

power  in  eagerly  taken  up,  and  it  has  given  rise  to  a  myriad  of  flourishing 
^^*'  cities  and  villages  in  different  parts  of  the  country.  It  has  been 
improved  by  the  building  of  costly  dams  to  regulate  the  flow  of  water  so  that 
it  might  not  run  to  waste,  and  the  construction  of  great  storage  reservoirs  to 
hoard  the  accumulations  of  the  wet  seasons.  A  few  streams  like  the  Merrimack, 
the  Quinebaug,  the  Willimantic,  the  (lenesee,  and  the  Owasco,  have  become 
the  seat  of  extraordinary  aggregations  of  capital  and  labor.  Yet  so  abundant 
is  the  republic's  endowment  of  this  cheap  and  serviceable  power,  that  probably 
not  one-half  of  that  which  is  available  in  the  country  is  yet  harnessed  for  the 
service  of  man.     It  is  only  in  the  East  that  it  is  well  taken  up. 

Up  to  within  forty  years,  all  the  wheels  used  in  the  United  States  for  utiliz- 
ing the  power  of  mill-streams  were  of  wootl.  They  were  huge,  heavy,  clumsy- 
Wood  structures,  twenty,  thirty,  and  forty  feet  in  diameter,  —  picturcs(]ue 
wheels.  enough  when  taken  together  with  the  red  mills  by  the  side  of 
which  they  hung,  and  the  sparkling  waterfalls  which  they  took  their  power 
from,  but  still  liable  to  get  out  of  order,  to  be  choked  '  th  ice  in  the  winter, 
anil  to  waste  almost  as  much  power  as  they  saved.  They  were  of  four  classes. 
—  the  undershot,  the  overshot,  the  breast-wheel,  and  the  susjjended  or  tide 
wheel.  The  former  were  very  little  used,  because  they  utilized  only  from 
twenty-five  to  thirty-three  per  cent  of  the  force  of  the  stream.  They  were  hung 
near  the  fall ;  and  the  water,  issuing  from  the  bottom  of  the  dam  with  great 
velocity  through  a  floodgate,  acted  against  the  floats,  or  paddles,  of  the  bi.i,' 
wheel.  They  were  a  very  crude  type  of  motive-power.  The  breast-wheel  was 
the  undershot,  placed  in  actual  contact  with  the  flill.  so  that  about  one-quartor 
of  the  circumference  was  acted  ui)on  directly  by  the  water  of  the  fall.     The 


01'    TIIK    rNITKD    STATES. 


303 


:tion  <au 
Its  of  the 
i  were  of 

progress, 
riance    of 

to  manu- 
hus  make 
eat  nation 

,  windmills- 

i  saw  their 

still  in  use 

le  outlying 

lecause    the 

1  from    the 

lexhavistible 

lor  was  pro- 

cr  has  been 

,f  flourishing 
It  has  l)eei> 

vater  so  that 

reservoirs  to 

I  Merrimack, 

lave  become 
so  abundant 
hat  probably 
cssed  for  the 

Ics  for  utiliz- 
l^cavy,  clumsy 
.  picturesque 
the  side  of 
their  power 
|in  the  winter, 
four  classes. 
Inded  or  tide 
Id    only  fr"ii> 
(ley  were  hung 
im  with  great 
les,  of  the  big 
last-wheel  was 
It  one-quarter 

Ihe  fall.     'I'li^' 


water  acted  upon  this  class  of  wheels  l)oth  by  gravity  and  momentum.  About 
sixty-five  per  cent  of  the  power  of  the  water  was  saved  in  a  wiieel  from  sixteerj 
to  twenty-five  feet  in  diameter.  'I'he  suspended  wheel  is  hung  in  the  current 
of  tiie  stream,  and  is  simply  an  undershot,  intended  to  take  advantage  of  the 
flow  of  the  tide  back  antl  forth.  The  overshot  was  the  most  powerful  of  the 
four  classes  of  wooden  wheels.  This  type  is  still  largely  used.  'l"he  wneei  is 
supplied  with  buckets  on  the  circumference  instead  of  paddles,  and  receives 
its  water  through  a  i)ipe  or  raceway  from  above.  It  may  be  used  with  any  size 
of  fall  from  ten  to  fifty  feet  high  ;  and  it  is  said  that  one  is  in  use  in  the  Isle  of 
Man  which  has  the  enormous  diameter  of  seventy-two  feet  and  a  half,  and  a 
breadtii  of  six.  The  disadvantage  of  the  wheel  is,  that  it  is  always  heavily 
loaded  with  water,  which  causes  it  to  bear  heavily  upon  its  axle.  It  is  also 
a  slow-moving  wheel,  and  this  makes  it  necessary  to  multiply  gearing  in  iV.c 
mill  in  order  to  impart  speed  to  the  machinery.  , 

No  s])ecial  ingenuity  was  required  to  make  these  old  wooden  wheels.     Any 
carpenter  conld  buikl  them.     Very  few  patents  were  issued  in  regard  to  them. 

About  forty  years  ago  there  came  a  demand  for  an  improved  water-whceL 
In  densely-i)opulated  regions,  where  mill-streams  were  crowded  with  factories, 
it  became  important  to  make  every  gallon  of  water  which  passed  over  a  dam 
do  its  share  of  work,  and  do  as  much  work  as  possible.  Attention  was  turned 
to  a  wheel  invented  in  France  by  Benoit  Fourneyron  in  i<'->34,  who  received 
six  thousand  francs  from  the  Society  for  the  Encouragement  of  the  Arts  at 
Paris  as  a  reward  for  his  valuable  device.  This  was  the  original  turbine-wheel,, 
or,  if  not  absolutely  the  first  and  the  parent  of  its  class,  the  first  original 
which  was  ever  in  practical  use.  It  was  a  horizontal  wheel  placed  turbine- 
at  the  bottom  of  the  fall,  and  supplied  with  water  from  a  perpendicular  pipe. 
The  water  descended  upon  a  solid  circular  plate,  which  was  stationary ;  the- 
ui)per  surface  of  it  being  grooved  from  the  centre  to  the  circumference,  the 
grooves  not  being  straight,  like  the  spokes  of  a  wagon-wheel,  but  curved,  like- 
a  sickle ;  so  that  the  water,  as  it  reached  the  rim  of  the  circular  plate,  shot  out 
of  the  grooves  at  a  tangent  in  twenty  or  more  spouts  all  round  the  wheel. 
The  buckets  or  floats  of  the  wheel  were  outside  the  circular  disk,  and  received 
the  spouting  water  with  great  violence,  and  were  thus  forced  to  revolve  rapidly 
around  the  disk,  the  water  flowing  outward  into  the  river-bed  from  the  buckets.. 
The  floats,  being  attached  to  an  annular  disk,  turned  the  perpendicular  shaft, 
and  transmitted  the  power  to  the  mill  above.  Attention  was  turned  to  the 
new  idea  in  the  United  States  about  1843.  Public  discussion  took  place  ;  and 
in  1844  J^Ir-  U.  A.  Boyden  of  Boston  invented  a  turbine  which 
was  an  improvement  upon  Fourneyron's,  and  which,  with  later 
improvements  of  its  own,  has  come  into  extensive  use  in  this  country.  The- 
lust  one  in  practical  use  was  put  into  a  cotton-mill  in  Lowell.  It  saved 
seventy-eight  per  cent  of  the  power  of  the  water.  Boyden  has  made  others. 
since  which  have  saved  eighty-two  per  cent.      From   1843   to  the  present. 


Boyden. 


304 


IX  I)  us  TNI  A  I.    I/IS  7  OK  V 


turbine  is 
determined. 


invention  has  been  active,  and  more  than  a  thousand  patents  have  been  issued 
at  Washint^'ton   for  new  forms  of  wheels,  and   new  attachments   to  them.     A 

variety  of  excxxvhngly  effective  wheels 
have  been  pnxhiced,  and  the  iron  tur- 
bine has  now  ahnost  comijletcly  super- 
seded the  great  wooden  wheel  of  our 
forefathers.  About  twenty-five  large  am  1 
flourishing  factories  of  them  have  grown 
up  in  New  ICngland,  New  \'ork,  Teuu- 
sylvania,  Maryland,  and  tiie  AN'est. 

The  power  of  the  turbine  is  derived 
from  the  weight  of  the  column  of  water 
How  the         'lowing  into  the  wheel,  and 
power  of  the   the    Speed    of  the  current. 
If  <S.()oo  i)ounds  of  water 
flow  through  it  in  a  second, 
and  the  height  of  the  fall  is  fifteen  feet, 
the  power  expended  is  i  20,000  i)ounds 
a  second.     If  the  wheel  transmits  eighty 
per  cent  of  this  to  the   machinery  of 
the  mill,  it  is  an  efficient  wheel. 
nui.iNiiwiiEiii..  After    a    few   years    of   experiment 

with  the  Hoyden  turbine,  it  was  found 
that  a  smaller  percentage  of  the  power  of  the  water  was  saved  when  the  gate 
of  the  wheel  was  opened  only  half  way,  because  of  the  eddies  and  commo- 
tion of  the  water  in  the  wheel  itself;  and  some  Dayton  (O.)  manufacturers 
undertook  to  effect  an  improvement  upon  the  style  of  wheel,  by  which  the 
Dayton  Water  sliould  flow  through  solid,  and  should  escape  more  readily, 

wheel.  (^i^^j^  leaving  less  dead  weight  of  water  for  the  wheel  to  carry.    They 

brought  out  the  inv.-ard-flow  wheel,  and  gave  a  new  turn  to  invention.  The 
Swain  turbine,  inward-flow,  was  afterwards  brought  out  at  Chelmsford,  Mass., 
which,  with  the  gate  wide  open,  would  save  eighty-four  per  cent  of  the  energy 
of  the  fall,  eigh;y-three  per  cent  with  a  three-ciuarters  gate,  seventy-seven 
per  cent  with  a  half  gate,  and  si.xty-three  per  cent  with  a  quarter  gate.  T.  il. 
Risdon  of  Mount  Holly,  N.J.,  however,  has  since  then  constructed  an  out- 
ward-flow wheel  which  saves  eighty-eight  per  cent  with  a  full  i,'ate. 

Risdon.  a      :       b       I  f^ 

and  seventy-five  per  cent  with  a  half  gate.  Another  form  of  wheel 
has  been  invented,  called  the  parallel-flow,  in  which  the  water  goes  straight 
through  the  turbine,  emerging  at  the  bottom.  It  has  not  yet  obtained  the 
favor  which  has  been  accorded  to  the  others.  Steady  progress  is  being 
made  by  all  inventors  as  the  science  of  the  flow  of  water  is  better  under- 
stood, and  the  wheels  are  now  rai)idly  approaching  a  stage  when  almost  the 
entire  energy  of  falls  will  be  utilized. 


OF    T//F    UNITED    STATES. 


305 


issued 
m.     A 

wheels 
on  lur 
}  super- 

of  our 

x"  j^rowii 
k,  IVim- 

.'St. 

i  tkrivc'tl 
,  of  water 
heel,  ami 
;  cvirrenl. 
of  wakr 
a  secoml, 
ifteen  feel, 
00  pounds 
mits  eighty 
chinery  of 

vhcel. 
experiment 

was  foiunl 
n  the  gate 
[id  conmio- 
.nufacturers 
which  the 
[ore  readily, 
■arry.    'I'l^^)' 
iition.     'lli'^ 
,ford,  Mass., 
the  energy 
:vcnty-sevcn 

;ate.     'I'-  l^' 
:lcd  an  oui- 

a  fnll  g^l^'- 
,rm  of  whe^'l 
roes  straight 

ibtaincd  ll^' 

;ss   is  ht;i'\^ 

letter  nntler- 

almost  the 


Turbines  are  now  made  in  a  great  variety  of  si/cs  and  patterns.  Since 
the  introduction  of  tiie  Holly  system  of  water-works  into  cities,  which  dis- 
tributes water  to  the  dwellings,  stores,  and  factories  of  a  place,  variety  of 
under  a  pressure  of  from  sixty  to  two  hundred  pounds,  small  tufbines. 
jiatterns  of  turbines  have  been  made  to  be  attached  to  the  Holly  water-pipes, 
and  ilrive  lathes  and  other  light  machinery.  'They  are  made  as  small  as 
three  inches  in  diameter.  Turbines  six  inches  in  diameter,  and  occupying  no 
more  space  in  the  room  than  an  ordinary  gas-meter,  are  made  to  run  printing- 
presses  for  daily  newspapers.  From  this  size  they  are  manufactured  all  the 
way  up  to  six  and  seven  feet  in  diameter.  Several  eighty-four-inch  wheels  are 
now  in  use,  one  of  them  being  under  a  ninety-foot  fall,  and  transmitting  six- 
iiundred-horse  power  to  the  machinery  of  the  mill.     The  turbine 

.         -  .-  ,  ,       Their  merit. 

has  the  great  merit  of  economy  of  space,  uniform  and  steady 
action,  great  velocity,  —  thus  obviating  the  use  of  the  old-time  ai)pliances  put 
upon  the  seilatc,  leisurely-moving  overshot  wheels  to  increase  the  speed  in 
the  mill,  —  and  absolute  protection  from  frost,  as  they  are  always  submerged 
under  the  water.  Latterly  tiie  wheels  have  been  supplied  with  a  regulator, 
whi(  h  opens  and  closes  the  gate  automatically,  so  as  to  meet  the  recpiirements 
of  the  mill.  Any  one  who  stands  in  the  engine-room  of  a  great  factory 
<lriven  by  steam-power  will  notice  from  the  motion  of  the  engine  whenever 
any  heavy  piece  of  machinery  in  the  mill  above  is  put  into  o|)eration,  or  the 
reverse.  The  engine  labors  under  the  new  strain,  or  sudilenly  (piickens  when 
the  strain  is  removed.  The  governor,  sensitive  to  the  slightest  change  of 
strain. on  the  engine,  opens  or  closes  the  steam-pipe  instantly,  and  maintains 
a  regular  and  uniform  motion,  'i'he  regulator  of  the  turbine  is  the  same  in 
piinciple  :  it  is  the  governor  of  the  water-power. 

The  progress  of  the  United  States  and  Canada  in  invention  in  this  depart- 
ment of  eftbrt  was  well  shown  at  the  World's  Fair  of  i<S76,  wiiere  Exhibition  of 
a  splendid  show  of  turbines  was  made  by  American  and  C'ana-   turbines  at 


dian  makers.     These  wheels  are  now  being  sought  for  by  manu- 


Centennlal. 


facluvers  abroad. 


LOCK.S. 


In  the  days  of  the  earlier  simplicity  of  the  republic  the  latch  was  an  ample 
fiistcning  for  all  the  ordinary  purposes  of  life.  A  grand  ])ul)!ic  morality  and 
generous  good  feeling  between   man  and    man   ])revailed    at  that    ,       ... 

°  f^  '  In  primitive 

time,  which  is  fascinating  now  to  look  l)ack  upon,  and  which   it    period  locks 
is  e(iually  fascinating  to  find  the  traces  of  to-day  in  the  rural  and    ^^''f  "°^ 

,  '^  ^  needed. 

isDiuLed  communities  of  different  parts  of  the  country.     The  door 
was  seldom  barred,  and  then  only  at  night.     The  treasures  of  the  household 
were  kept  in  unprotected  drawers  and  closets.     People  rested  secure  in  the 
enjoyment  of  the  privacy  of  their  homes  and  the  possession  of  their  articles 
of  value,  not  so  much  by  reason  of  bars  and  bolts  as  by  reason  of  the  virtue 


W 


ii^m 


<i 


H  if'  ifi'i 


^<im 


ii\ 


fsJM 


306 


/A7J  fS  TKIA  I.    HIS  TON  Y 


and  sc-If-rostraint  to  which  people  were  so  rif,'i(lly  hrcd  in  tliose  days,  and  to 
the  al)sen(i'  of  a  vi(  ions  (lass  in  tiie  coniiminity.  W'itli  iinini^^ration,  the 
increase  of  wealth,  and  llie  disai)pearan(:e  ul  native  Americans  in  the  ranks 
of  iioiisehohl  servants,  thi-re  came  a  (hfferent  state  of  thinj,'s  ;  and  people 
foimd  themselves  umlrr  the  iu'(  e>.sity  of  securing  their  houses  carefully  against 


nUKC.I.AR-PHOOF    I.O'.'I-:. 


the  intrusion  of  luiauthori/cd  persons,  and  their  valuables  within  the  house- 
hold aL;ainsl  even  their  own  domestics.  The  chanL;e  hr.s  heen  ver\-  j^rcal.  A 
hundred  years  ago  the  bolt  on  the  outer  door,  and  the  1()(  k  upon  the  mu' 
box  of  private  papers  and  valuables  in  the  house  or  upon  the  strong  1hi\  ai 
the  store,  were  almost  the  only  barriers  erected  against  jilunder  and  curinMlv. 
Number  of  lo-day.  in  the  large  cities,  the  whole  building  is  placed  under  1"<  k 
locks  used  and  key,  even  to  the  i)antrv  ;  and,  instead  of  the  two  locks  ol  tlu' 
nowa  ays.  q\([c\\  time,  a  city  residence,  v.ith  its  furniture,  will  now  be  iiticil 
with  from  one  to  three  hundred,  and  a  pulilic  building  with  two  or  ihice 
thousand. 


or  THE  rxiTF.D  states. 


307 


the  lidiise- 

|v  j;rr;U.      \ 

nn   tlK'   "iif 

|(1  curioMtv. 
neks  cf  lli^' 

|,w  be  riu^'<i 

.^,  or  Uiroe 


The  earlier  lex  ks  of  tlic  roiintry  were  of  tlic  simplest  form  of  construo 
tioii.  'I'Ik'V  loiisi'^ti.'d  siiii|)ly  ot"  a  lioli  (ipcratcd  by  a  spring  within  the  Ux  k, 
anil  by  a  \viiij,ail  key  inserted  liirou^^h  a  keyhole,  which,  being  turned,  moved 
the  bolt  bac  kward  and  forward.  IiUri<  acy  was  given  to  the  lock  simply  by 
fashioning  tlu'  wing  of  the  ki'V  into  some  curious  shape,  and  then  making  the 
lock  so  that  only  a  key  of  iliat  particular  pattern  would  turn  around  within  it. 
•Stiuu'  of  tlu  heavy  locks  put  upon  safes  and  strong-boxes  in  the  early  part 
(il  the  present  century  were  so  made  as  to  >.hoot  six  or  eight  bolts  at  once; 
but  they  were  all  of  the  simple  plan  above  described,  and  could  be  easily 
pic-ked  with  a  bit  of  (  rooked  wi.o  in  five  minutes.  'I'hey  were  formidable 
chielly  in  a|)pearan(e. 


In  r]n,t,Mand,  where  the  greater  accumulation  of  wealth  compelled  people 
to  pay  more  attention  to  lock-making,  an  idea  was  brought  out  by  Mr.  lln'^ron 
in  177.S.  which  added  greatly  to  the  security  of  locks,  and  which,  in  Barron's 
fact,  lies  at  the  foundation  of  all  our  modern  devices  for  fastening  invention. 
th"  doors  of  safes  and  treasure-magazines.  Darron  employed  two  tumblers,  or 
l;U(hcs,  which  fell  down  into  the  bolt  and  caught  it.  and  which  had  to  be 
lifted  before  the  bolt  could  be  moved.     In   1788  Joseph  Bramah  of  England 


M 


'Ml 

I; 


fflM 


i 


308 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


I  ?'■« 


V 


Bramah. 


Newall. 


invented  a  lock  with  several  sliders  and  two  barrels,  the  inner  one  shooting 
the  bolt.  Bramah  declared  that  it  was  hot  within  the  range  of 
art  to  i)ick  iiis  lock,  and  the  contrivance  did  defy  the  burglars 
and  locksmiths  for  over  half  a  century. 

Many  years  after  the  war  of  181 2  attention  began  to  be  paid  to  lock- 
making  in  this  country.  The  tuml)ler  was  adopted,  and  many  minor  improve- 
ments effected.  How  to  make  a  lock  which  nobody  could  pick  was  a  problem 
that  well  suited  the  genius  of  the  Yankee,  and  ap])lications  for  patents  for  one 
device  and  another  began  to  pour  into  the  city  of  V\ashington.  The  first  real  stir 
was  created  in  1841  by  Dr.  Andrews  of  Perth  Amboy,  N.J.,  who 
drews's  brought  out  a  permutation-lock,  in  which  a  number  of  rings  were 

improve-         attached  to  the  key,  and  suscei)tible  of  an  endless  variety  of  com- 
ment. . 

binations.     When  the  bolt  is  turned,  the  lock  cannot  be  moved 

except  with  exactly  the  same  combinations  on  the  key.  The  lock  had  tumblers 
and  a  detector,  —  a  device  which  prevented  the  tumblers  from  freeing  the  bolt 
if  lifted  too  high.  This  invention  excited  great  admiration  ;  but  it  was  picked 
by  Newall  of  New  York,  who,  in  turn,  brought  out  one  of  his  own 
in  1843,  with  two  sets  of  tumblers,  thus  increasing  the  complicnlion. 
It  wa-  thought  that  the  acme  of  perfection  had  been  reached,  and  Newall 
<:onfi(i'ntly  offered  five  hundred  dollars  to  any  one  who  would  pick  it.  His 
contrivance  succumbed,  however,  to  Mr.  Pettitt  and  to  William  Hall  of  lioston. 
who  picked  it  by  the  smoke-process,  —  a  device  of  the  burglars.  .\  smoky  flame 
was  blown  into  the  keyhole,  leaving  a  fine  deposit  of  lamp-black  on  llie 
tumblers.  The  key  being  introduced  removed  the  lamp-black  from  the  parts 
it  touched.  By  means  of  a  reflector  a  strong  light  was  thrown  into  the  lock, 
and  the  key-marks  revealed,  aiid  the  proper  shape  of  the  false  key  thu:'  indi- 
cated. Newall's  lock  was  then  impro\ed  by  devices  for  keeping  the  mechanism 
concealed  from  view.  H.  C.  Jones  of  Newark  us  •(!  concentric 
rings  and  a  curta.'n  for  this  purpose,  and  Pyes  used  eccentric  rings 
and  a  curtain.  A.  C.  Hobbs,  an  expert  American  locksmith,  a(lo])ted  the 
improved  device,  calling  it  the  Parantoptic,  and  got  a  gold  necLil 
for  it  at  London  in  1851.  The  American  lock-makers  made  :i 
distinguished  sensation  at  that  World's  Fair.  Hobbs  declared  that  he  coulil 
pick  all  the  locks  in  lOngland  in  a  few  minutes,  including  the  famous  liramali. 
„  ,.,.  ,  His  challensre  was  accepted,  and   lie  was  given  a  ( "hr.bb  lock,  ;iii 

Hobbs  s  '^  '  ^ 

experiments    old  patent,  and  the  original  lock  which  first  used  a  detector,  to 
inpickmg        experiment   ipon.     A  convict  lock-maker  ho'i  once  been  offered 

locks.  '  '  1   ,       1    -  -1     1 

his  liberty  and  a  hundred  pounds  to  pick  'this  lock,  and  had  failed 
after  three  months  of  trial.  Hobbs  opened  it  in  a  few  minutes.  The  fairness 
of  the  experiment  being  called  in  question,  he  renewed  the  attempt  in  a  ]Miv;ite 
house  in  the  presence  of  a  mmiber  of  gentlemen,  and  succeeded  in  twenty-live 
minutes.  He  thei.  went  at  the  Bramah.  The  manufacturer  of  it  had  for  years 
exhibited  a  lock,  with  an  offer  of  two  hundred  guineas  to  any  one  who  should 


Jones. 


/^. 


joting 
gc  of 
.irglars 

)  lock- 

ipn)ve- 

iroblem 

for  one 

real  stir 

.].,  who 

igs  wore 

of  com- 

:  movetl 

mm\)lers 

the  bolt 

:is  picked 

f  his  own 

,  plication. 

d  Newall 

c  it.     His 

of  Boston. 

noky  flame 

:k  on  the 
the  parts 
the  lock, 
thu-  iiiili- 

[nechanism 
concentric 
ntric  rin-;s 
lopted  the 
rold    nedal 
L-s  made  :i 
It  he  ct)uld 
us  I'.ramah. 
Ibb  lock.  ;ni 
detector,  to 
leon  offered 
[\  had  fail'-''^ 
;he  fairne>-' 
[in  a  pvivale 
twenty-five 

,ad  for  y^^^'-^ 
who  shoiikl 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


309 


pick  it.  The  Bramah  troubled  him ;  but,  after  working  at  it  from  July  24  to 
Aug.  23,  he  succeeded  in  unlocking  it  at  last.  Hobbs  then  offered  the  same 
reward  to  whoever  should  pick  tlie  Parantoptic.  Several  of  the  best  of  the 
lOnglish  locksmiths  accepted,  and  worked  on  the  lock  for  thirty  days,  and  failed. 
The  American  invention  won  a  conceded  supremacy,  and  the  furore  over  it 
was  immense.  The  Bank  of  luigland  procuretl  one,  antl  the  pattern  came 
into  general  use  in  banks  and  stores  in  the  United  States. 

Even  the  Parantopti':,  however,  gave  way  to  American  ingenuity  in  1855, 
Linus  Yale,  jun.,  who  had  picked  a  very  successful  lock  invented  by  his  father, 
attacked  the  Parantoptic,  and  won  a  victory  by  the  impression 
process.  He  had  declared  for  several  years,  that  as  long  as  the 
key  is  of  a  winged  form,  and  rubs  an  impression  on  tumblers,  it  can  be  picked ; 
and  this  event  proved  it.  To  obviate  this  weakness  of  locks,  he  had  invented 
in  185 1  one  of  his  own  contrivance,  which  he  called  "the  magic  lock."  It  is 
believed  that  tliis  one  has  ne^'er  yet  been  picked.  The  key  and  its  bits,  though 
apparently  of  one  ))icce,  are  separable.  On  the  key  being  introduced  to  the 
lock,  the  bits  are  taken  off  by  a  pin.  The  key  being  turned  puts  in  motion  a 
set  of  wheels,  which  carry  off  the  bits  to  a  remote  part  of  the  lock,  out  of  the 
reach  of  picking-tools,  where  they  operate  upon  the  tumblers ;  afterwards 
returning  to  the  handle  of  <he  key,  and  joining  it  again. 

These  brilliant  devices  —  with  others  on  the  Hall  rotary  combination  prin- 
ciple, which  dispense  wiih  a  key,  and  open  the  lock  by  turning  a  knob  one 
way,  and  then  the  other,  certain  distances,  according  to  a  set  of  Hairs  inven- 
numbers  one  has  in  mind  —  have  mad"  safes  and  banks  almost  *'°"- 
absolutely  secure  against  robbery.  The  burglars  are  for  a  time  at  their  wits' 
end.  The  larger  proportion  of  the  locks  made  for  ordinary  use  are  not,  how- 
ever, of  these  elaborate  patt  ;rns.  They  are  merely  strong,  serviceable,  hand- 
somely-made locks  of  the  tumbler  and  spring  patterns,  for  doors,  trunks,  chests, 
bureaus,  &c.,  operated  either  with  a  flat  or  a  winged  brass  key,  which  may  be 
carried  in  the  pocket.  The  parts  of  tiie  locks  are  made  by  machinery  upon 
the  American  system,  except  the  jvirts  which  are  cast. ;  and  these  latter  have 
already  won  a  reputation  for  their  accuracy  and  general  superiority.  The  lock 
liictories  of  the  country  are  situated  in  New  I'lngland,  New  Yrk,  and  the 
Middle  State;.,  principally  ;  they  cmi)loy  an  extremely  intelligent  class  of  men, 
and  form  a  ».  .ge  and  important  industry.  The  American  lock  in  its  various 
fe)nns  is  in  world-wide  use.  It  is  one  of  the  varieties  of  builders'  hardware  for 
which  there  is  just  at  this  \\\\\q,  in  foreign  countries  which  have  been  supplied 
with  hardware  from  England,  a  very  warm  admiration. 

PUMPS. 

The  pump  is  a  machine  which  has  attained  such  importance,  that  a  special 
annex  was  demoted  to  its  exhibition  at  the  AVoild's  Fair  of  1876  at  Philadel- 


,iikf>:. 


• 


_j: .^^^ 


3IO 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


''mt 


wm 


■R-t\. 


W 


lift' 


^ly 


I     V; 


phia.  It  is  a  very  ancient  maclvne  (dating  back  to  the  second  century 
Importance  before  (Hirist  at  least),  is  now  made  in  a  wide  variety  of  forms, 
of  industry.  ^^■^^\  \^  ^f  incalculable  utility.  It  was  not  in  very  general  use 
among  llie  colonists  of  America,  because  of  the  cost  of  pump  logs  or  tubes, 

fhrough  which  the  water  had  to  be  lifted  by 
the  piston  of  the  punip.  The  well  was  fur- 
Wood  nished  with  br.ckets,  operated  by 

pumps.  means  of  the  long  well-sweep,  or 

by  a  counterpoise  of  some  other  sort,  which 
made  it  easy  to  lift  the  brimming  bucket 
from  the  dejnhs  of  the  well,  \\ith  machinery 
for  boring  pump-logs,  and  with  the  impor- 
tation of  lead  pipe,  pumps  came  into  use. 
They  were  at  fwst,  and  indeed  until  witiiiii 
thirty  or  forty  years,  ahva)'s  of  wood,  the  \alves 
alone  being  of  iron  'and  leather.  About  forty 
years  ago  manufacturers  began  to  make  cast- 
iron  pumps,  and  these  have  \irtually  super- 
seded all  others  for  domestic  uses.  The 
wooden  pump  survives  only  on  farms  and  as 
^^  the  town-pump  on  village  greens.  Sweet  and 
--  tender  memories  cluster  around  the  well- 
sweep  and  the  old  wooden  pump,  and  the 
PUM,,,  gradual  disappearance  of  both  before  the  bus- 

ding   and   unsentimental    civilization   of  the 
present  times  causes  a  feeling  of  positive  regret. 

The  highest  type  of  pump  up  to  the  date   of  the  introduction  of  tlie 

machine  into  the  water-works   systems  of  cities  was   the   hre-engine.      ^\'o 

had  no  great  mines  in  this  country  whose  treasures  were  deluired 

Fire-engine.         .  ,      ^        i  •         i 

With  floods  of  water  as  m  the  silver  p.ountains  of  Peru,  and 
machines  of  great  power  to  keep  the  mines  dry  were  unnecessary ;  so  that 
for  a  long  period  the  fire-engine  was  the  peer  of  pumps,  and  a  very  old- 
fogy  sort  of  a  peer  it  was  too.  The  pump  was  mounted  upon  a  huge 
>vater-tight  wagon-box,  into  which  the  water  was  poured  by  the  bucket 
First  ma-  comjianies,  which  stood  in  line,  and  passed  the  buckets  along 
chines:  how  from  the  nearest  well.  "The  ])ump  was  operated  by  hand-le\eis, 
constructed.  ^^^^^^  ^j^^|^^  ^^  twenty  mcn  being  able  to  catch  hold  of  tiio 
levers.  The  old  machines  were  clumsy  and  absurd  devices.  After  tlio 
great  fire  in  New  York  in  1835  niore  attention  was  given  to  them,  and 
they  were  then  gready  improved.  They  were  fitted  with  surtion-pipes,  which, 
while  en  route  to  and  from  fires,  were  carried  in  the  position  in  which 
a  squirrel  carries  liis  tail,  and  which  at'terwards  were  made  to  be  detached. 
and  put  on  at  will.     The  brakes  were  lengthened,  and  large  brass  receivers 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


3" 


entury 
forms, 
•al  use 

tubes, 
\c(l  by 
^•as  I'ur- 
iled  by 
•eep,  or 
:,  which 

bucket 
ichinery 

impor- 
nlo  use. 
il  within 
he  valves 
lOUt  I'orty 
lake  easi- 
ly super- 
is.      'I'li^ 
ns  aud  as 
Sweet  and 
|lhe   wcU- 
and  die 
c  the  bns- 
111   of  the 

)n  of  the 
nie.  ^^'^' 
e  deUiged 
Peru,  and 
so  that 


were  put  upon  the  pumps.  Some  very  effective  types  of  fire-engines 
were  procUiced  by  this  means.  The  l)LSt  of  cast-iron  and  cast-steel  was 
])ut  into  the  workiuLj-parts  of  the  machine,  and  they  were  made  to  work 
smoothly,  and  to  endure  a  long  period  of  hard  usage.  The  machine  con- 
tained either  two  double-acting  or  four  single-acting  force-punii)s.  They 
were  mostly  made  in  the 
I'^astern  States  ;  and  the 
larger  part  of  the  thirty- 
five  hundred  fire-engines  in 
use  throughout  the  Tnitcd 
States  are  still  of  liiis  class 
of  hand-jjowcr  machines. 
Thcv  are  al)le  to  llu^ow 
an  inch-stteam  of  water 
seventy-five  feet  higli  ;  but 
it  is  very  exhausting  work 
lor  the  men  who  operate 
tlie  brakes.  Simultaneous- 
ly with  the  imi)rovemcnt  of 
the  hand  fire-engine,  atten- 
tion began  to  be  paid  to 
the  subject  of  steam  fire- 
engines.  One  of  the  IrUer 
clajs  j-.ad  been  made  in 
England  as  early  as  1S29; 
but  it  was  excessively  clum- 
sy ;  and,  after  a  few  were 
made,  they  attracted  no 
more  attention  for  twenty 
years.  But  in  the  United 
States  the  idea  was  taken  up 
and  1  dlized. 
built  .-L  steam 
in 


Mr.  Hodges 


Hodges. 


mUMll.K-ACTINr.   I'UMr,   SUM"  OK   i-ii;i 


fire-engine 

1 84 1  for  the  insurance  companies  of  Xew-Vork  City,  and  employed  it  to  good 
effect  on  several  occasions  of  fire.  Tt  was  too  heavy,  however,  for  rajiid  trans- 
portation from  one  part  of  the  city  to  another  in  emergencies.  Cincinnati  was 
tlic  first  city  to  make  the  steam  fire-engine  a  success.  A.  R.  Latta  Extent  of 
built  one  of  these  engines  for  the  city  in  1S53,  and  two  more  the  modern  im- 
vt-ar  following.  They  were  designed  to  be  locomotives,  and  go  by  P"'"'^^"'^"  ^• 
tlieir  own  steam,  but  were  dreadfiilly  heavy,  weighing  about  twelve  to. is  each. 
These  three  engines  were  successfully  used  as  part  of  tlie  fire-apparatus  of 
Cincinnati ;  but  the  attempt  to  propel  them  from  one  i)lace  to  another  with 


vm 


bi.: 


'r  t 


M 


I! 


^^11'*;* 


313 


INDUSTRIAL    II IS  TO  A' Y 


their  own  power  was  afterwards  abandoned.  In  1859  a  machine  was  built  in 
New  York,  weighing  only  five  thousand  pounds,  to  be  drav/n  by  hand.  That 
then  came  to  be  the  standard  weight  of  this  class  of  engines,  and  a  great 
many  patterns  of  them  have  since  then  been  invented  and  perfected.  Boston^ 
Philadelphia,  Chicago,  and  other  large  cities,  made  experiments  with  this  class 
of  fire-apparatus  ;  and  the  result  has  been  that  all  large  communities  have 
now  adopted  them  j^Tmanently,  and  discarded  their  old  hand-machines. 
New- York  City  has  thirty-five  of  the  new  class.     Those  at  present  in  use  are 


HYDKAULIC    HAM. 


!   ' 


drawn  by  two  horses  each,  and  will  throw  a  five-eighths  inch  jet  over  a  hun 
dred  feet  high,  sometimes  a  hundred  and  thirty  feet,  "'hey  are  supplit'd 
either  with  piston  pumps  or  rotary  pumps  ;  the  latter  being  a  new  idea  in  tliis 
class  of  machines,  introduced  about  fifty  years  ago,  and  within  the  last 
twenty  has  become  exceedingly  popular.  An  animated  controversy  has 
raged  between  the  rival  makers  of  steam  fire-engines  as  to  the  respective- 
merits  of  the  rotary  and  the  piston  principles.  A  continuous  flow,  however, 
is  maintained  with  both.     In  the  best  types  of  engines  now  made  steam  is 


A  sr( 
or  hi 
in  al 
CO  in  11 

Itiiilt 


a  bu" 

in  tlii^ 
I  the  la^t. 
:rsy  bas 
Pspectivi- 
Biowover, 
Isteam  is 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


313 


raised  in  five  minutes.  The  principal  factories  arc  those  of  the  Amoskcag 
Company,  Silsby  &  Company  of  Seneca  Falls,  N.\'.,  the  Paterson  Company 
of  Paterson,  N.J.,  and  E.  A.  Straw  of  Manchester,  N.H ;  but  there  are  half 
a  dozen  other  manufacturers. 

Within  the  last  forty  years  a  change  has  taken  place  with  regard  to  pumps 
in  domestic  use,  and  the  fire-engine  is  no  longer  the  peer  of  pumps.  Water- 
works have  been  extensively  introduced  to  cities  and  villages  ;  and 

^  °       '  Pumps  for 

this  has  led  to  a  double  result :  lirst  the  almost  total  abolition  of  supplying 
the  common  iron  pump  from  households  in  those  cities  and  vil-   ^'t'^s  with 
lages,  and  the  construction  of  a  new  class  of  massive  machines  of 
enormous  power  to  take  their  place,  by  forcing  the  water  through  pijjes  and 
mains,  under  pressure,  to  the  different  houses  and  buiklings  of  the  community. 


STUAM-I'UMP. 

A  threat  many  towns  have  been  able  to  build  reservoirs  on  the  adjacent  hills 
or  high  lands,  at  such  a  height  above  the  place  as  to  insure  a  heavy  pressure 
in  all  the  water-^oipes  of  the  place  by  the  operation  of  gravity.  But  not  all 
oommimities  are  so  happily  situated  ;  and,  in  order  to  secure  a  distribution  of 
tlv.'  water,  resort  is  had  to  powerful  forcing-engines.  These  machines  are 
huilt   so  massively  that  they  frequently  constitute    the  heaviest  machinery  in 


f  !tl 


:t. 


I  it'  I 


m 


;^Hl5.i.    i 


314 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


■   '< 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


315 


operation  in  a  city,  and  are  one  of  the  local  wonders  of  the  place.  They  are 
cither  piston  or  rotary  pumps.  The  rotary  puiups,  if  driven  by  water-power, 
are  direct  acting  ;  that  is,  the  shaft  of  the  turbine  rises  into  tlie  box  of  the 
rotary  pump,  and  forms  the  axle  of  the  pump,  or  else  gears  into  the  axle. 
The  turbine  moves  naturally  with  such  velocity,  that  no  special  gearing  is 
rc([uired  to  increase  the  speed  of  the  pumi).  If  steam  is  used,  or  if  a  piston- 
pump  is  employed  with  water-power,  the  machine-room  is  generally  supplied 
with  a  heavy  fly-wheel,  which  maintains  an  e<iuable  motion.  The  piston- 
pumps  are  of  cast-iron,  with  steel  pistons  and  iron  valves,  fitted  with  great 
nicety.  The  workmanship  upon  them  is  of  such  superior  order,  that  foreign 
engineers  have  given  it  hearty  commendation.  In  some  of  the  water-works 
built  on  the  Holly  principle  gangs  of  piston-pumps  are  used,  there  being 
eight  pumps  in  the  set.  The  eight  pistons  rise  one  after  the  other ;  and  a 
continuous  flow  of  the  water  is  thus  obtained,  and  the  pulsations  in  the  pipes 
of  the  city,  fre(iuently  heard,  are  obviated. 

Heavy  pumps  have  also  of  late  been  used  to  keep  the  gokl  anil  silver 
mines  of  the  Territories  free  of  water.  There  is  nothing  peculiar  in  their 
construction. 


HI 


I,  111 


3i6 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


ft:    i' 1.1,' 


CHAPTER   III. 


MANUFACTURES    OF   GOLD,    SILVER,   AND    OTHER    METALS. 


M 


w^ 


LM 


IN  the  republic  of  industry,  iron  is  the  president  of  metals ;   but  it  by  no 
means  fulfils  all  the  purposes  in  the  arts  for  which  a  metal  is  desirable.     It 
is  durable,  and  enormously  stronir :  but  it  is  corrosible  even  by 

Iron :  its  un-  '  /  o  j  j 

fitness  for       water,  and  is,  therefore,  unfit  for  dishes  and  utensils,  excejn  for 

many  pur-      coarsc  uses,  and  then  only  to  a  limited  extent.     It  is  not  a  hand- 
poses. 

some  metal,  being  utterly  without  rich  color  and  decorative  effect ; 

and  cannot,  therefore,  be  used  for  ornament  and  for  fine  statuary.  It  kicks 
delicacy  of  texture,  and  cannot  be  read'ly  and  elegantly  wrought ;  and  can  play 
no  part  in  the  manufacture  of  delicate  ware  for  the  gratification  of  luxurious 
tastes,  even  had  it  the  beauty  and  value  which  would  incline  one  to  devote  it 
to  such  purposes.  It  is  too  abundant  to  be  precious  ;  and  cannot,  therefore,  he 
used  as  a  medium  of  exchange.  To  supply  the  defects  of  iron  for  luxurious 
and  many  common  uses,  a  bounteous  Providence  has  stored  the  rocks  j^rodi- 
gally  with  a  variety  of  other  metals  of  great  beauty  and  value,  which  experience 
and  scientific  research  have  enabled  man  to  abstract  from  their  mineral  sur- 
roundings, and  apply  to  a  thousand  important  uses.  Gold,  silver,  and  copper 
—  all  noble  metals  —  were  the  first  of  them  which  were  utilized  by  man,  and, 
indeed,  the  first  which  were  utilized  at  all ;  and  so  true  is  this  last  remark,  that 
gold,  silver,  and  copper  were  not  only  the  primary  metals  employed  in  the 
arts  by  the  ancient  peoples  of  Europe  and  Asia,  but  were  the  first  which  the 
savages  of  America  also  took  from  the  rocks,  and  worked  up  into  tools  and 
ornaments.  The  reason  of  this  early  popularity  of  gold,  silver,  and  copper,  is 
doubtless  to  be  found  in  the  fact  that  they  were  beautiful  metals,  attractive  tt)  tlu' 
eye,  and  so  soft  as  to  be  easily  woikcd.  Iron,  zinc,  and  lead  were  disco vccd 
and  employed  next,  and,  after  iron,  platinum,  last  of  all.  Co])i)t'r 
was  the  great  resource  of  antiquity  for  all  objects  of  metallic  manu- 
facture. They  hardened  it  with  zinc  and  tin,  converting  it  into 
brass  and  bronze,  and  making  of  it  arms,  tools,  armor,  utensils,  and 
many  ornaments.  They  put  it  into  their  gold  and  silver  to  give  them  hardness 
and  durability,  and  used  a  great  deal  of  it  pure.     Silver  and  gold  gradually 


Extensive 
use  of  copper 
by  ancient 
nations. 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


3'7 


superseded  it  for  elegant  purposes,  however,  on  account  of  their  greater  splen- 
dor and  incorrosibility,  and  to  this  day  are  the  matchless  metals  for  table-ware, 
orna.nents,  and  decorations.     'I'hcy  are  charming  metals  to  work,  and  objects 
made  of  them  can  be  covered  with  a  profusion  of  luxuriant  sharp-cut  orna- 
ment which  is  absolutely  unattainable  in  any  other  mineral  substance.     'I'heir 
scarcity  renders  them  additionally  valuable,  and,  with    their  other  ([ualities, 
marks  them  out  as  the  true  metals  for  a  medium  of  exchange  in  trade.     Cop- 
per, however,  still  maintains  its  rank  next  to  iron  for  purposes  of  utility,  and 
next  to  gold  and  silver  for  beauty.     Tin,  zinc,  and  platinum  have  properties 
of  beauty  and  incorrosibility  such  as  iron  does  not  possess,  and  the  first  two 
were  greatly  valued  in  anticjuity  for  their  ability  to  make  beautiful  alloys  with 
i'opper.     They  are  still  extensively  employed  for  the  same  purposes,  and  also 
for  others  which  modern  invention  has   discovered  that  they  alone  are  good 
for.     A  variety  of  other  metals  have  been  found  in  the  earth,  —  lead,  antimony, 
alinninum,  iridium,  mercury,  nickel,  manganese,  &c.,  —  each  with  special  and 
valuable  qualities,  which  have  given  it  a  distinct  tvh'  to  play  in  the  arts,  which 
iron  nor  any  other  substance  can  perform  equally  well.     'l"he   culture   and 
convenience  of  mankind  have  been  promoted  immensely  by  the  discovery  of 
this  wide  range  of  diverse  metallic  substances.     Each  one  of  the  seven  princi- 
l)al  metals  has  done  its  distinct  share  in  lifting  man  from  barbarism  to  civiliza- 
tion.    Collectively  they  have  in  every  age  supplied  the  principal  motive  for 
exploration,  conquest,  and  colonization,  and  each  one  has  exerted  its  influence 
on  passing  events  ;  and  it   is  not  too  much  to  say,  that,  had  any  one  of  them 
been  lacking  from  the   resources  of  Nature,  the  whole  history  of  the  world 
would  have  been  totally  different  from  what  it  has  been.     With   reference  to 
the  I'nited  States,  it  may  be  said  that  Nature  has  blessed  our  territory  with 
ample  stores  of  all  the  principal  metals  except  tin,  and  with  a  large  supply  of 
many  of  the  rarer  kinds.     As  the  race  which   took  possession  of  the  country, 
anil  settled  and  developed  it,  was  an  educated  one,  and  full  of  the   s])irit  of 
modern  enterprise  and  industry,  it  was  natural  to  expect  a  development  of  the 
manufacture  of  the  metals  sooner  or  later  in  the  tountry.     The  expectation 
has  already  been  realized.     The  tacts  in  regard  to  iron  have  already  been  set 
forth  :  those  in  regard  to  gold,  silver,  copper,  and  the  rarer  kinds,  will  now  be 
related. 

COIXAGE. 

The  most  important  employment  of  gold  and  silver  is  as  a  medium  of 
exchange  in  trade.     This  was  not  the   primary  use.     Gold  and   ^j,,  , 
sihcr  first  subserved  only  the  vanity,  and  love  of  magnificence,   ment of  gold 
oil  the  part  of  kings  and  conspicuous   people,  and   the  popular 
taste  for  the  decoration  of  temples  and  statues.     Articles  made 
of  'he  two  metals  were,  indeed,  bartered  for  other  goods  ;  but  the  notion  of 
measuring  the  value  of  all  articles   by  a  weight  of  pure  gold  or  of  i)urc  silver 


and  silver  as 
money. 


I  I 


;*:;'■ 


3i8 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


was  invented  only  after  trade  had  been  carried  on  by  barter  for  centuries.  A 
common  metliiim  of  value  at  length  became  necessary,  and  nothing  answered 
the  i)iu|)ose  so  well  as  these  beautiful  and  luiiversally-admired  metals.  In  the 
days  of  chivalry  it  was  not  an  uncommon   practice  to  wear  heavy  chains  of 

gokl  or  silver  about  the  neck,  and 
pay  the  score  at  the  wayside  tavern 
by  breaking  off  a  link  or  two  of  the 
precious  metal.  Hut  a  more  accurate 
mode  of  payment  was  desirable,  ami 
the  more  popular  custom  of  striking 
coins  of  gold  and  silver  of  given 
,j.,.o^j.  weights  and  purity  to  pass  from  hand 

to  hand  in  trade  gradually  superseded 
all  others.  In  the  gold-mining  regions  of  the  United  States,  since  iS4(S, 
another  mode  of  employing  gold  as  a  medium  of  exchange  was  resorted  to 
more  or  less  before  local  facilities  for  coining  were  created,  and  banks  were 
established  to  issue  paper  money.  'I'his  was  to  carry  about  little  bags  of 
gold-dust,  and  pay  all  del)ts  and  scores  by  weighing  out  a  proper  amount  of 
the  metal.  The  method  is  still  in  use  in  remote  districts  to  a  limited  extent, 
and  is  the  same  in  princi])lc  as  payment  in  minted  coin ;  that  is  to  say,  by 
specific  weight  and  purity  of  metal. 

When  this  country  was  first  settled,  trade  was  carried  on  by  the  inhabitants 
after  the  i)rimitive  plan  of  barter.  Tobacco  was  an  almost  universal  medium 
of  exchange  in  Virginia  and  other  Southern  colonies ;  and  cattle, 
skins,  wheat,  and  other  produce,  were  used  in  the  Northern  colonics 
even  to  pay  taxes.  Gold  and  silver  were  extremely  rare.  What  little  there 
was  in  the  country  was  brought  at  first  from  England  and  Holland  by  tlie 
colonists,  or  received  from  those  two  countries  in  exchange  for  the  products 
of  their  labor.  It  was  too  valuable  to  circulate  much,  and  its  owners  generally 
preferred  to  hoard  it.  Houses  and  ships  were  built,  and  real  estate  bought,  by 
First  use  of  barter.  After  a  few  years,  a  supply  of  silver  coin  was  obtained  l)y 
silver.  trade  with.  Cuba  and  the   Spanish   settlements   in  the  other  West 

Indies.  This  was  an  illegal  trade,  because  England  antl  Spain  both  required 
their  respective  colonics  to  deal  only  with  the  mother-country ;  but  it  was 
winked  at  by  both  countries  on  account  of  its  obvious  advantages  to  both  the 
English  and  the  Spanish  colonies.  The  latter  obtained  fish,  flour,  and  oilier 
food  which  they  could  not  raise  themselves  ;  and  the  former  secured  silver  (  niu 
wherewith  to  pay  luigland  for  the  manufactures  they  were  forced  to  Iniv  ut 
her.  The  exports  of  produce  from  the  ]'2nglish  colonies  never  jiaid  for  the 
imports  of  manufactures,  and  the  balance  in  trade  had  to  be  paid  for  with 
coin.  The  colonies,  having  no  money  of  their  own,  were  flooded  with  foreign 
coins,  principally  silver,  but  partly  of  gold  also,  the  larger  part  of  the  currcnry 
being  Spanish.     English  shillings  and  sixpences,  and  the  Spanish  dollar  with 


Barter. 


OF    TlfF.    V.V/TED    STATES. 


319 


tviries.     A 
answered 
s.     In  ihe 
chains  of 
neck,  and 
ide  tavern 
two  of  the 
e  accurate 
lirable,  and 
of  strikint^ 
r   of   |:;iven 
i  from  liand 
superseded 
since   1S48, 
resorted  to 
banks  were 
tie  baf^s  of 
amount  of 
nitcd  extent, 
is  to  say,  by 

e  inhabitants 
rsal  mechuui 
;  and  cattle, 
hern  colonics 
t  litdc  there 
illand  by  the 
the  prodiu  ts 
|iers  generally 
e  bought,  by 
obtained  by 
,c  other  West 
|)0th  rcquiied 
;  but  it  was 
to  both  the 
ur,  and  oilier 
■cd  silver  ( "in 
:d  to  buy  ot 
|r  paid  foi'  t'"-^ 
paid  for  witli 
ll  with  foreign 
the  currency 
;h  dollar  with 


its  fractions,  weie  tlic  principal  money.  Ciold-picccs,  such  as  guineas,  doiib- 
loons,  joes,  pistoles,  \'c.,  were  also  in  circulation,  but  were  too  greatly  pi  ized 
for  conversion  into  jewel.y  to  play  a  very  important  part  in  trade.  'I'hc  Span- 
isii  dollar  became  the  accepted  unit  of  tlie  circulation. 

The  colonies  always  wanted  a  coinage  of  their  own,  and  some  rough 
pieces  were  struck  at  various  times.  Massachusetts  established  a  mint  for 
tlie  production  of  siher  shillings,  sixpences,  and  threepences,  pine-tree 
which  were  made  of  twoi>ence  to  the  siiilling  less  value  than  the  coinage. 
Knglish  coin,  so  as  to  insure  their  remaining  at  home.  'l"he  larger  coin  was 
the  famous  pine-tree  siiilling.  Virginia  and  the  Carolinas  also  coined  pennies. 
These  ventiu'cs  were  regarded  witii  great  disfavor  in  England  as  an  infringe- 
ment on  the  prerogatives  of  royalty,  and  they  became  siiortdived  experiments 
in  consecjuence. 

Notliing  more  was  done  about  a  mint  until  1782,  when  Robert  Morris  — 
the  best  financier  of  his  day,  and  who  hail  more  than  once  helped  Washington 
through  a  crisis  by  his  advances  of  hard  money  to  the  national  treasury — was 
asked  to  report  a  system  of  coinage,  Mr.  Morris  complied,  and  g  .  br  h 
his  report  formed  the  theme  of  debate  for  a  number  of  years,  mcntofmint 
The  foundation  of  the  currency  had  been  for  years  the  Spanish   ^^  P'niadei- 

^  ■'  '  phia. 

(lollar,  and  contracts  for  hard  money  were  always  payable  in  that 
coin.  In  order  to  determine  the  exact  value  of  the  coin,  so  that  no  injustice 
might  be  done  by  replacing  it  with  American  pieces,  careful  assays  were  made 
iiy  Hamilton,  and  37 1|  grains  of  pure  silver  were  fixed  ui)on  as  the  standard 
value  of  the  Spanish  dollar.  The  ecpiivalcnt  of  this  in  gold  was  fixed  at 
twenty-seven  grains.  Several  plans  of  coinage  were  suggested  ;  Jefferson's 
and  finally  one  ])roposed  by  Jeffersor  was  ado])ted,  and  enacted  system. 
April  2,  1792.  It  conlormed  to  the  decimal  notation,  and  included  a  golden 
eagle  of  270  grains  (fineness  9i6§),  a  half-eagle  of  gold,  a  (|uartcr-eagle,  and 
a  (lollar,  a  silver  dollar  of  416  grains  (fineness  892^),  a  half-dollar,  (juarter- 
(lollar,  dime,  and  half-dime,  and  a  copper  cent  of  264  grains.  A  mint  was 
established  at  Phila(leli)hia,  some  very  noble  devices  adopted  for  the  coins, 
and  the  striking  of  metal  money  began.  This  first,  g.^^ve  the  Americans  a 
money  of  their  own,  and  the  Spanish  and  other  foreign  pieces  gratlually 
disappeared  from  the  i)urses  and  money-boxes  of  the  peo[)le.  They  were 
mostly  sent  into  the  mint,  and  recoined.  It  took  some  time,  however,  to 
cfllct  the  change,  because  the  facilities  of  rapid  ai  d  safe  trans]iortation  of 
niDuey  from  one  point  of  the  country  to  another  had  not  yet  been  created  ; 
and,  the  circulation  of  foreign  coins  being  permitted,  merchants  and  bankers 
preteiTcd  to  let  matters  take  their  own  course  without  forcing  them. 

Two  varieties  of  the  coins  authorized  by  the  act  of  1792  were  worth  too 
much  to  circulate.  Owing  to  a  rise  in  t  .  value  of  copper,  it  was  found  that 
tlic  cent  had  been  made  too  heavy,  and  was  worth  more  than  the  hundredth 
part  of  the  dollar.     The  weight  was  accordingly  changed,  Jan.  14,  1793,10 


li 


, 


fill  ■, 


320 


/X/)l\S  INIAI.    mSTON  V 


VII<(,INI\   IIAI.I'I'UNNV. 


208  f,'rains.  A  year  or  two  later  it  was  rcducfd  to  168  grains,  and  remained 
Difficulty  at  that  standard  until  discontinued  in  1H57.  The  ^{old  dollar  and 
with  coino«e  its  niultiples  wcre  also  too  lu'avy.  l!y  an  error  in  the  calculation, 
**'  '^'''  twenty-seven  grains  were  erroneously  fixed  U|)<)n  as  the  ei|uivaleiit 

of  the  silver  dollar;  and  gold,  though  coined  to  a  limited  extent,  never  came 

into  use  under  the  law  of  1792.  The 
reason  was,  that  the  eagle,  while  worth 
more  than  ten  dollars  in  silver,  could 
only  lirculate  as  ten  dollars  ;  where- 
as for  expcjrtation  it  would  l)ring  its 
true  value  as  270  grains  of  bullion  of 
a  certain  purity.  'I'he  gold  coin,  ac- 
cordingly, was  all  sent  abroad  to  pay 
for  foreign  purchases  ;  and  the  only 
metal  currency  of  the  United  States  was  silver  and  copper  until  after  1S34. 

About  that  time  there  was  a  gold  furore  in  the  United  States,  caused  by 
the  discovery  of  that  precious  metal  in  (leorgia  and  in  the  mountains  of  the 
Creation  of  Caroliiias.  The  yield  of  gold  from  the  mines  which  were  ()|)enul 
gold-pieces,  ^y.^^  never  extravagantly  large  ;  but  it  was  sufficient  to  cause  the 
public  men  of  the  United  Slates  to  resolve  to  restore  gold  to  the  circulation 
of  the  country.  A  careful  study  of  the  relative  values  of  gold  and  silver  was 
made,  and  a  ratio  of  values  agreed  upon.  In  order,  however,  to  make  Ihe 
^i;old  dollar  cirt'ulate,  its  weight  was  not  only  reduced  to  the  proper  i)oint  to 
make  it  worth  exactly  the  same  as  the  silver  dollar,  but  it  was  brought  just  .1 
trille  below  it.  'i'he  law  of  June  2<S.  i<S34,  was  then  enacted,  creating  a  gold 
eagle  of  258  grains  (899. 225  fine,  changed  in  1837  to  900  fine)  and  a  hall 
and  a  quarter  eagle  of  relative  weight.  'I'he  gold  dollar  of  25.8  grains  was 
authorized  March  3,  1849.  The  mint  went  actively  to  work  coining  gold; 
and  a  few  years  later,  after  the  discovery  of  gold  in  Calift)rnia.  branch  estab- 
lishments at  San  Francisco.  New  Orleans,  and  ("arson  (.Jty.  were  opened  to 
aid  it  to  dispose  of  the  vast  (piantities  of  metal  which  were  brought  to  it  lor 
conversion  into  current  money.  The  law  of  1834  produced  an  unexpec  ted 
result.  In  lessening  the  weight  of  the  gold  coins,  Congress  had  aimed  only 
at  preventing  their  exportation.  lUit  now  the  silver  dollar,  being  worth  more 
Withdrawal  than  a  gold  dollar  as  bullion  or  for  ex])ortation,  was  rapidly  ex- 
of  silver.  ported  or  melted  up.  and.  in  an  exceedingly  short  time,  totally 
disappeared  from  the  circulation.  The  silver  dollar  was  reduced  to  4i:;i 
grains  (900  fine)  in  1837  ;  but  that  did  not  arrest  the  change  which  was  goiii;; 
on.  Silver  liegan  to  grow  extremely  scarce.  There  was  hardly  small  chaui^e 
enough  to  transact  the  business  of  the  people.  The  dollars  and  half-dollars 
were  at  four  per  cent  i)remium  for  export,  and  the  stock  in  the  country  was 
growing  beautifully  less  day  by  day.  The  peo])lc  could  not  go  back  to  barter 
for  the    purposes   of  trade ;    and,  in  order  to  sui:)i)ly  the  demand  for  siiiall 


O/'     -nil':    UNITED    STATES. 


.^'» 


iii:iiiK'(l 
liar  and 
Illation, 
iiivalcnl 
er  cixinc 
2.    The 
Ic  worth 
;r,  could 
;   whcro- 
l)riny  its 
iiillion  of 
(H)in,  ivf- 
d  lo  l)ay 
the  only 

1834- 
•auscd  I'V 
ins  of  the 

re    0])CMHll 

cause  tlu' 
(  ircnlalioii 
I  silver  \\>is 
,  make  the 
or  ])oinl  t*' 
light  just  :i 
;ing  a  P'^'' 
lanil  a  hall 

grains  was 
lining  gol'l; 

inch  cstab- 
opcncd  to 

Iht  to  ii  '"'■ 
vincxpciud 

aimed  mily 
worth  nwro 

ra\)idly  e\- 
Itimc,  K'lallv 
:cd   to  41-!! 
•h  was  goiii;^ 
,maU  cl\augc 
il  half-dollars 

country  was 
ick  to  barter 

nd  for  small 


change,  the  merchants  began  to  issue  a  sort  of  fra(  tional  paper  ( iirrenc  y, 
which  was  extensively  usid  in  large  ( ities.  In  order  to  affonl  llu'  people  tl»e 
needed  relief,  Congress  ena(  ted  a  law,  l''eb.  21,  1H55,  changing  the  weight  of 
the  iialf-(lollar  to  192  grains  (900  fine),  and  the  smaller  coins  relatively.  'I'hat 
gave  the  peo])le  a  subsidiary  coinage  for  small  business-transactions  ;  but  it 
linished  the  silver  era  of  American  money  at  a  blow.  .Ml  the  r)ld  silver  dis- 
appeart<l  like  a  flash  into  melting-pots  and  bnllion-ollices  ;  and  gold  be<ame 
tiie  standard  money,  with  silver  ft)r  small  change. 

.Ml  metal  money,  except  cop])er,  bronze,  and  ni(  kel  <  ents.  two-cent  and 
li\e-cent  pieces  (the  bron/e  and  nickel  pieces  authorized  in  1S02.  1S65,  and 
1 866).  went  out  of  circulation  in  the  United   Stales  shortiv  after   _„    ^  . 

'  -  Effect  of 

the  outbreak  of  the  war  of  1K61.     The  government,  and  banks   war  upon 
North  and  South,  issued  so  much  papiT  monev.  ih.it   its  value  fell    """'"""^ 

'  currency. 

lielow  that  of  coin,  and  ( oin  disaj)peare(l.      It  is  only  in  .•S7.S  that 

the  \alue  of  paper  has  approached  so  closely  to  that  of  coin,  that  < oin  is  again 

in  (in  Illation. 

Since  the  establishment  of  the  mint  ii  1792,  and  its  branches  in  later 
years,  the  following  values  of  money  have  been  struck  under  the  laws  of  the 
United  States  up  to  June  30,  1S77  :  — 


I  )()ul)lc-C.lglcs 

I'',aglcs 

Ilalf-caglcs. 

<Ju;utcr-(.'.inlcs     . 

'rhrcc-doll.tr-pieccs 

C'lold  (Ir)ll.ir.s 

Silver  dollars 

Tratlc  dollars 

Half-dollars 

Quarter-dollars    . 

Twenty-ccnt-picccs 

l)inics 

Ilalf-diincs  . 

Thrcc-cent-pieces 

Nickel  fivc-ccnt-picccs 

Nickel  thrcc-ccnt-picccs 

Bronze  twoccnt-pieces 

Copper  cents 

Half-cents   . 

Total  gold  . 
Total  silver . 
Total  minor  coins 

(irand  total  . 


fS09,5r>S,44O 
5(),707,2::o 
6(),.|i2,Si5 

26,7()i;,750 
1,300,032 

'9..I45-438 

.S,045.S3S 

24,5X1,350 

118,869,540 

3-1.774.' 2' 
27o,S5S 

if),  1 4 1,786 

4,906,946 

1,281,850 

5,773,090 

855,090 

912,020 

5.304.577 
39,926 

$983,159,695 

208,872,289 

12,884,703 

$1,204,916,687 


%\ 


While  the  government  exercises  the  sole  right  of  coining  the  precious 


322 


IND  us  TRIA  L    HIS  TORY 


■%i„ 


iij 


j7  h 


lit  i 


i^W 


i  : 


metals  for  the  purposes  of  a  medium  of  exchange,  and  of  regulating  the 
. ,.    .  fineness  of  the  pieces,  it  does  not  carry  on  the  process  of  minting 

Minting  not  '  ^  '^ 

carried  on       for  profit.     Cloining  was  formerly  a  source  of  enormous  gain  to 
for  making  a   royalty  in  Europe,  when  the  people  were  systematically  defrauded 

pront< 

by  the  issuj  of  pieces  worth  far  less  than  their  nominal  value,  in 
order  that  the  king  might  make  the  difference.  In  the  United  States  the 
mint  has  always  been  merely  a  factory  where  the  people  can  bring  their  gold 
and  silver  and  other  metal,  and,  by  paying  a  small  charge  for  the  expenses  of 
the  operation,  have  the  metal  converted  into  pieces  of  a  given  weight  and  fine- 
ness. The  stamp  of  the  government  is  merely  the  certificate  of  its  weight 
and  fineness.  Coining  has  never  been  carried  on  by  the  people,  except  under 
the  stress  of  a  great  necessity,  and  then  only  to  a  limited  extent.  During  the 
war  a  vpst  number  of  copper  tokens,  which  passed  current  as  a  cent,  were 
coined  for  busiiess-men  ;  and,  during  the  early  days  of  gold-mining  in  the 
West,  private  firms  established  private  mints  at  Denver,  Col.,  and  in  ^\a\  Fran- 
cisco. The  coins  they  struck  were  merely  tokens  ;  and,  though  they  were 
largely  twenty-dollar-pieces,  they  were  always  worth  more  than  their  face  as 
bullion.  The  miners  resorted  to  these  mints  merely  as  a  resource  for  having 
their  gold-dust  converted  into  convenient  form  for  shipment  to  the  States. 

l"he  process  of  coining  is  very  simple,  and  is  substantially  the  same, 
whether  the  pieces  struck  are  of  gold,  silver,  copper,  or  nickel,  (.old  and 
Processor  silver  are  brought  to  the  mint  in  many  different  forms,  —  in  the 
coining.  /"qj.,^^   ^j-  gojd-dust,  amalgamated  cakes   trom  the  retorts  of  the 

stamp-mills,  laminated  bars,  assayed  bars,  plate,  jewelry,  and  foreign  coin.  Tlie 
metal  is  sent  first  to  be  assaytc',  where  the  jiure  gold  and  silver  are  first 
extracted,  and  then  severally  alloyed  in  the  proportion  of  nine  per  cent  of 
pure  me'.al  to  one  of  alloy.  The  metal  comes  to  the  mint  proper  in  flat  bars. 
It  is  weighed,  tested  to  ascertain  its  fineness,  and  is  passed  over  to  the 
manufacturing  department.  The  bars  are  then  annealed,  and  rolled  at  a  red- 
heat  into  long,  thin  strips.  They  are  again  annealed,  and  drawn  out  betwcL-ii 
steel  plates  of  the  hardest  sveel  to  the  i^roper  thickness  for  coining.  Imjiu 
the  strips  thus  obtained  a  machine  punches  out  round  planks,  or  i)lanchets,. 
of  the  proper  size  for  coining.  The  punch  cuts  out  a  hundred  and  sixty  a 
minute.  The  blanks  are  collectetl,  and  the  perforated  strip  sent  back  to  be 
melted  and  re-rolled.  The  blanks  are  then  cleaned,  and  a  few  pieces  from  each 
lot  weighed  in  delicate  balances  to  ascertain  if  they  are  of  the  proper  standaid. 
In  old  times,  when  coins  were  struck  l)y  hand  on  an  anvil,  pieces  differed 
materially  in  weight ;  and  the  merchant  balanced  each  one  on  his  finger,  and 
estimated  its  value,  before  he  took  it.  Tiie  use  of  machinery  has  obviated  the 
ancient  v.'ide  differences  in  weight ;  yet  it  is  impossible  to  prevent  a  shadi.  dI 
variation,  and  tlie  mint  does  not  attemj^t  to  give  each  piece  a  mathemati(  ally 
exact  value.  What  is  called  a  ''working  tolerance"  of  weight  is  allowed.  This 
legal  deviation  is  as  follows  :  -  - 


ill 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES.* 


323 


:ing  the 

minting 
gain  to 

efraudcd 

value,  in 

tates  the 

heir  gold 

)enscs  ol 
and  fme- 

its  weight 

ept  under 

)uring  the 

cent,  were 

ing  in  the 

'■\^.\^  Fran- 
they  were 

iciv  face  as 
for  having 

States. 

r  the    same. 
Gold  and 

ms,  — inthe 

torts  of   the 
coin.     'I'he 

^^cr  are    first 
per  cent  ot 
in  flat  bars, 
lovor   to   the 
(1  at  a  red- 
out between 

|ning.     1''"-'"^ 
or  planchets,. 
and  sixty  a 
|t  back  to  be 
jcs  from  each 
[per  standard, 
.cces  diff^-red 
lis  flnger.  aivl 
obviated  tlu' 
U  a  sha<U  of 
lathematically 

[lowed.     I'li'^ 


TIIE    PIECE. 


Double-eagle 

I'lilglc    . 

Half-eagle    . 
(^)uarter-eagle 
I'hree-dollar  coin 
Dollar. 
Silver  dollar 
Trade  -loUar 
Half-dollar  . 
(Jiiarter-dollar 
Twenty  cents 
1  )imc    . 


ITS   WEIGHT 

WORKING  TOI.KRANCU 

IN   GRAINS. 

1;:  GKAINS. 

S'6 

i 

258 

i 

129 

i 

64.5 

\ 

77-4 

\ 

ZS-" 

\ 

412.5 

>* 

420 

I* 

192.9 

4 

96.45 

•i 

77.16 

■i 

38.5X 

li 

Pieces  which  fall  below  the  standard  by  more  than  the  above  variation  are 
called  "condemned  lights,"  and  are  sent  back  for  re-melting.  The  "heavies" 
are  reduced  to  the  ]iroper  point  by  filing.  The  others  are  called  "standards." 
When  those  of  the  right  weight  are  sorted  out,  they  are  milled  in  a  machine 
which  raises  the  edge  so  as  to  protect  the  device  of  the  completed  coin  from 
wear.  The  blanks  are  then  cleaned,  polished  by  agitation,  and  sent  to  the 
coining-press.  The  press  is  a  simple  but  very  massiv*.  machine.  When 
d;)iil)le-eagles  are  coined,  it  is  made  capable  of  administering  to  the  golden 
blanks  a  grim  thrust  of  seventy-five  tons.  The  blanks  are  j)ut  into  a  tid^e, 
and  slip  down  one  by  one  upon  the  bed  of  the  press.  They  rest  upon  a  die 
mntaining  the  device  of  one  side  of  the  coin,  while  a  die  containu.j  the  other 
comes  down  upon  them.  The  impression  of  both  sides,  and  the  flutin  j  of  the 
edge  to  save  it  from  filing,  are  given  all  at  once. 
Steel  fingers  pick  tip  the  stamped  coin,  and  re- 
move it.  The  ordinary  speed  of  coinage  is  from 
sixty  to  eighty  per  minute.  A  pair  of  dies  lasts 
ab'jiit  two  weeks. 

The  operations  of  the  mint  are  not  confined 
entirely  to  the  coining  of  .-Xmerican 
money.     A  great  many  commeino-   Ir^Kn^n^^ 
rative  and  other  medals  ordered  by  solely  con- 
("ongress   are   struck  from   time   to   ^"='1  t°<=°i°- 

ing  money. 

lime,  and  there  has  been  some  work 

tor  foreign  governments  performed.     At  Phila- 

(leli)hia  12,000,000  nickel  pieces  were  struck  in    1876  for  Venezuela.     The 

establishment  at  Philadelphia  is  the  principal  one  in  the  country,  and  has  a 

<a|)acity  of  about  25,000  pieces  nn  hour.     The  branch  at  New  Orleans  has 


FIRST   UNITED-STATES   DOLLAR. 


-'n.l'::   '■' 


I  ■  I 


i 


i  !■ 


324 


INDUSTRfAF.    HISTORY 


been  idle  for  several  years,  owing  to  the  war  antl  the  falling-off  in  coinage 
during  the  era  of  paper  money.  It  was  UHcfully  employed  ih  ])revioiis  times 
in  converting  the  Mexican  dollars  to  onr  own  coinage.  The  I'acific-coast 
mints  have  nm  princi])ally  upon  trade  dollars  for  export  to  China,  Jaj)an, 
and  India,  that  coin  having  been  authorized  in  I'ebruary,  1873,  simply  for 
cxjwrt  purposes.  The  piece  is  not  for  circulation  in  the  United  States, 
and  was  made  heavy  in  order  that  it  should  certainly  go  abroad.  It  has 
been  very  successful  in  taking  the  i)lace  of  the  Spanish  and  Mexican  dollars 
in  Asiatic   ':oimtries.     The   new  labors  imposed  upon   the  mints  by  the   law 


rilll.Al)Kl,rHIA   MINT. 


of  1878,  remonetizing  silver,  will  tax  all  the  establishments  in  the  United 
States  heavily,  and  compel  the  one  at  New  Orleans  to  be  re-opened,  and  a  new- 
one  to  l)e  built. 

It  has  already  been  stated,  on  the  basis  of  a  report  by  Dr.  Lindenian, 
Total  coin-  director  of  the  mint,  that  the  total  coinage  of  the  United  States  up 
^^^-  to  June  30,  1877,  was  $1,204,916,987.     How  much  of  this  coin 

age  remains  in  existence,  and  how  much  of  what  remains  in  existence  is  still 
in  the  United  States,  available  for  circulation,  is  not  certainly  known.  If  the 
(low  of  specie  into  the  country  and  out  of  it,  for  the  purposes  of  trade,  were 


:oinage 
s  times 
ic-coast 
Japan, 
iply  for 
States, 
It  has 
n  dollars 
the  law 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


325 


to  be  alone  regarded,  it  would  appear  that  there  was  none  of  it  scarcely  left  in 
the  land  of  its  origin.  The  movement  of  specie  since  1820  has  been  as 
follows :  — 


From  1820  to  1830 
"  1830  to  1840 
"  1840  to  1S50 
"  1850  to  i860 
"  i860  to  1870 
"      1870  to  1877 

Total      . 


$69,143,780 

107,469,296 

•"^6,835,992 

7 '.'87,934 
188,450,442 
162,561,195 


$685,648,639 


#71.538,456 
56,839,893 
65,010,921 
49>;,iii,8i3 
659,865,683 
534,360,182 


$1,882,726,948 


This  would  seem  to  show  that  the  whole  coinage  of  the  United  States  had 
been  substantially  exported  ;  but  fortunately  a  large 
part  of  the  export,  perhaps  $500,000,-  Extent  of  ex- 
000,  was  in  bullion,  and  consequendy  po"  of  coins, 
the  drain  upon  the  coinage  was  lessened  by  that 
amount.  Those  who  have  studied  Uie  sul^j^ct 
closely  believe  that  about  $300,000,000  of  the 
gold  and  silver  of  the  United  States  has  escaped 
the  melting-pot,  and  is  still  extant,  and  held  in  the 
country,  and  therefore  available  for  circulation. 
Tlie  rest  is  believed  to  have  been  recoined  in 
Europe,  or  consumed  in  the  arts. 


THE   WASHINGTON    HALF-UOLlJ\Ri 


r4  •  "^ 


m 


m 


X'i,  'I 


11 


Ithe  United 
I,  and  a  new 

Lindeman. 
kl  Stales  up 
if  this  ("iii- 
Itence  is  slill 

Iwn.     If  1^1^' 
trade,  were 


JEWELRY. 

The  most  ancient  use  01'  gold  and  silver  was  probably  for  personal  adorn- 
iiunt.     The  rarity  and  beauty  of  the  tw  )  metals  caused  them  to  be  prized  for 
this  purpose  from  the  very  beginning.     At  first  the  kings  raonopo-   ^^^j 
li/cd  gold  and  silver  to  them-^c'.cs  for  table  ware,  jewels,  and  the   gold  and  sii- 
uilding  of  their  arms  and  palaces  ;  but  the  rich  discoveries  in  Africa  ^^''  ^""^  °^"*' 

"  '  '  ment. 

an<l  Spain  caused  them  to  come  into  more  popular  use,  and 
weaKhv  people  employed  them  for  all  the  purposes  named,  and  also  for  money. 
Tlie  ( )rientals  were  passionately  fond  of  decoration.  They  loved  rich  color,; 
and  gold  and  silver  ornaments  in  profusion ;  and  doubdess  John  was  in  ecstasy 
over  tlie  sight,  wh;m,  looking  up  from  his  rocky  Patmos,  he  beheld  the  New 
jtTusalem  with  its  jasper  walls,  its  streets  of  gold,  and  gates  of  shadowy  pearl. 
<  "lor  and  ornament  were  becoming  to  those  dusky-hued  people;  and  they 
could  wear  a  luxuriance  of  both  which  the  cooler  taste  of  the  North  would 


■■•  f  :1 


326 


/ATD  CrS  7'KIA  L    HIS  TON  Y 


not  approve,  and  which,  in  the  United  States  of  to-day,  would  be  regarded  as 
highly  objectionable.  The  manufacture  of  jewelry  was,  therefore,  one  of  the 
earliest  arts.  The  Egyptians  and  Phoenicians  became  celebrated  in  it.  The 
treasure  of  the  kings  consisted  of  gold  and  silver  dishes  and  jewelry,  with 
arms  made  of  the  baser  metals ;  and  these  things  constituted  the  most  highly 
prized  gifts.  Rebekah  was  wooed  with  ear-rings  and  bracelets  of  gold  ;  Isaac 
probably  not  having  heard  the  line  from  the  old  poem,  "  Win  men  with  thy 
sword-arm,  and  maids  with  thy  tongue,"  or  at  any  rate  trusting  (and  success- 
fully too)  to  the  influence  of  splendid  jewelry  to  create  a  favorable  first  im- 
pression. Juno,  when  she  wanted  to  beg  a  favor  of  Jove,  began  by  putting  on 
a  dazzling  array  of  golden  tassels  and  jewels.  Jewelry  was  greatly  valued  even 
among  the  more  spirituelle  peoples  of  the  north  of  Europe  ;  but  its  use,  which 
was  ascribed  chiefly  to  the  gods  and  to  kings,  was,  until  modern  times,  more 
limited.  In  the  days  of  early  superstition  it  was  imagined  that  the  jewels  of 
the  gods  were  fashioned  in  the  bowels  of  the  earth  by  the  dwarfs ;  and 
Oehlenschlager  wrote  a  pretty  poem  entitled  "The  Dwarfs,"  in  which  he 
described  their  marvellous  manufacture  :  — 

"  He  crept  on  his  belly  as  supple  as  eel 
The  tracks  in  the  hard  granite  through, 
Till  he  came  where  the  d waifs  stood  hammering  steel 
By  the  light  of  a  furnace  blue. 

I  trow  'twas  a  goodly  sight  to  see, — 

The  dwarfs,  with  their  aprons  on, 
A  hammering  and  smelting  so  busily 

Pure  gold  from  the  rough  brown  stone. 

Rock-crystals  from  sand  and  hard  flint  they  made, 

Which,  tinged  with  the  rosebud's  dye, 
They  cast  into  rubies  and  carbuncles  red. 

And  hid  them  in  cracks  hard  by. 

They  took  them  fresh  violets,  all  dripping  with  dew. 

Dwarf  women  had  plucked  them  the  morn. 
And  stained  with  their  juice  the  clear  sapphires  blue 

King  Dan  in  his  crown  since  hath  worn. 

Then  for  emeralds  they  searched  out  the  brightest  green 

Which  the  young  spring  meadow  wears. 
And  dropped  round  jjcarls,  without  flaw  or  stain, 

From  widows'  and  maidens'  tears. 

Then  they  took  them  the  skin  of  a  large  wild  boar, — 

The  largest  I'lat  they  could  find; 
And  the  bellow    they  blew  till  the  furnace  'gan  roar, 

And  the  fire  fi.imcd  on  high  for  tlie  wind. 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


327 


arded  as 
le  of  the 

it.    The 
;lry,  with 
»st  highly 
Id ;  Isaac 
,  with  thy 
I  success- 
;  first  im- 
)utting  on 
ilued  even 
use,  which 
mes,  more 

jewels  of 
/arfs  ;   and 

which    he 


They  took  them  pure  gold  from  their  secret  store,  — 

The  piece  'twas  but  small  in  size  ; 
But,  ere  't  had  been  long  in  the  furnace  roar, 

'Twas  a  jewel  beyond  all  prize. 

A  broad  red  ring  all  of  wroughten  gold, 

As  a  snake  with  its  tail  in  its  head; 
And  a  garland  of  gems  did  the  rim  infold, 

Together  with  rare  art  laid. 

'Twas  solid  and  heavy,  and  wrought  with  care ; 

Thrice  it  passed  through  the  white  flame's  glow: 
A  ring  to  produce,  fit  for  Odin  to  wear, 

No  labor  they  spared,  I  trow." 

In  the  United  States  the  use  of  jewelry  was  at  first  discouraged,  partly 
because  of  the  [  overty  of  the  original  colonists,  but,  in  the  North,  more  on 
account  of  the  ascendency  of  Puritan  and  ascetic  ideas.     Most  of 
the  colonists  in  New  York,  Virginia,  and  the  other  middle  and  ry^fn°united 
southern  provinces,  brought  with  them  a  few  articles  of  ornamental   states  was 
work  in  gold  and  silver ;  but  they  bought  little  or  none  when  they   f°'''"='''y  ^'»- 
got  here  until  after  the  Revolutionary  war.     Only  a  few  families 
tliought  fit  to  make  purchases  of  this  description.     The  gold  beads  and  the 
few  other  ornaments  in  the  family  were  handed  down  from  one  generation 
of  women  to  another  as  precious  heirlooms.     With  the  rise  of  prosperity  after 
the  Revolution  a  moderate  amount  of  luxury  began  to  prevail,  and  ascetic 
ideas  to  lose  their  influence.     A  demand  for  jewelry  sprang  up.     Guine?  ■  and 
doubloons  and  Spanish  dollars  began  to  be  converted  by  the  gold-   opposed  to 
smiths  of  the  times  into  rings,  seals,  watch-chains,  and  pins.    Public   republican 
sentiment  was   still  opposed  to  much  ostentation.       Republican   ^^^^  "^'*^' 
simplicity  of  dress  and  manner  was  preferred.     Still  the  taste  for  ornament 
rapidly  grew,  and  somewhere  about  i  790  the  trade  in  jewelry  became  so  laige 
as  to  tempt  a  native  workman  to  begin  the  manufacture  of  it  in  this  country. 
Kpaphras  Hinsdale  of  Newark,  N.J.,  is  believed  to  have  been  the  first  regular 
manufacturer  of  American  jewelry.     He  was  a  mechanic  of  great  ingenuity ; 
and  somewhere  from   1790  to   1795    he  devoted  himself   to  the   pjrst  manu- 
production  of  the  brooches,  seals,  and  other  siinple  gold  and  silver  facturer  of 
ornaments,  worn  at  that  day.     Hinsdale  died  about  1810  ;  but  one  J^'^^'"'*'- 
of  his  men,  by  the  name  of  Taylor,  followed  him  in  the  business,  and  j)ul 
fresh  vigor  and  capital  into  it.     Both  of  these  men  used  gold  sixteen  carats 
fine,  and  their  work  was  all  solid.     Every  piece  was  made  by  hand  by  ham- 
mering, filing,  welding,  and  soldering. 

About  1800  the  manufacture  of  jewelry  was  begun  in  New  England,  the 
very  seat  of  the  ancient  abhorrence  of  ornament,  by  two  or  three  firms  at  Provi- 


iJi 


I 


328 


INDUSTRIAL    HI  STORY 


facture  at 
Providence. 


Filled  work. 


(lence,  R.l.  The  fact  illustrates  the  great  revolution  which  had  taken  place 
Early  manu-  ''^  ^'^^'  world  of  ideas  since  the  days  of  "The  Mayflower"  and 
Miles  Standish,  Providence  immediately  be  ,ame  the  chief  centre 
of  the  industry  in  this  country.  By  1810  its  firms  were  employing 
a  hundred  men  in  the  business,  and  producing  jewelry  to  the  yearly  value  of  a 
hundred  thousand  dolhrs. 

In  181 2  George  F.  Downing  was  making  watch-seals  at  Newark,  N.J. 
He  carried  on  the  business  for  many  years.  In  1821  he  removed  to  the  grow- 
ing city  of  New  York,  and  diversified  his  manufacture  greatly.  The  only  other 
concern  in  New- York  City  at  that  time  is  believed  to  have  been  that  of  La 
(iuerre,  a  Frenchman  who  had  a  jewelry-shop  in  which  he  employed  French 
workmen.  La  Guerre  had  started  about  18 12.  The  work  of  these  two  makers 
was  of  solid  gold  and  silver,  and  all  produced  by  hand. 

Yankee  ingenuity  had  devised  a  thoroughly  different  mode  of  manufacture, 
however,  and  New  lOngland  was  filling  the  country  with  a  less  expensive  kind 
of  jewelry.  Almost  from  the  very  first  the  Providence  makers 
employed  machinery,  and  began  to  produce  what  is  called  filled 
work.  The  ornament  was  stamped  by  a  die  from  a  ribbon  of  gold  or  silver, 
the  gold  being  about  eighteen  c;  rats  fine  ;  that  is  to  say,  containing  eighteen 
pennyweights  of  pure  gold  to  six  pennyweights  of  alloy.  The  softness  antl 
tenacity  of  the  metals  permiMed  them  to  be  stamped  into  the  most  elaborate 
forms.  The  hollow  jewel  was  then  filled  with  pewter  or  lead,  and  fitted  with 
a  back  of  gold  of  inferior  (quality.  Ornaments  in  a  thousand  patterns  were 
thus  produced,  which  were  to  all  appearance  of  solid  gold,  but  which  could  be 
made  and  sold  for  a  small  fraction  of  the  expense  of  solid  gold  jewels.  In 
the  manufacture  of  this  work  a  great  deal  of  gold  plate  was  used,  made  by 
putting  a  thin  sheet  of  gold  upon  one  of  copper,  and  rolling  them  out  in 
the  rolling-mill,  the  two  sheets  being  first  united  by  fiising.  Filled  jewelry 
found  a  wide  market  from  the  very  first.  The  universal  Yankee  peddler  sold 
Rapid  in-  immense  quantities  cf  it,  and  the  manufacture  of  it  increasetl 
year  by  year.  Other  cities  begin  the  business;  but  so  rajtidly 
did  the  demand  increase,  that  from  1830  to  1837  it  was  beyond 
the  power  of  American  factories  to  respond  to  it.  The  discovery  of  gold  and 
silver  in  California  and  in  the  West  gave  a  new  impulse  to  jewelry  manufacture, 
especially  of  the  more  solid  kinds.  Factories  of  it  started  up  everywhere.  In 
i860  there  were  463  establishments  making  jewelry  in  the  Unit^id  States, 
employing  5,947  workmen,  and  struggling  to  keep  pace  with  the  growth  of 
population  and  luxury,  —  a  task  which  they  found  to  be  one  of  considerable 
difiiculty. 

The  war  of  1861,  which  impoverished  the  South,  and  led  to  a  decrease  in 
the  amount  of  jewelry  worn  in  that  part  of  the  republic,  gave  an  enormous 
stimulus  to  it  in  the  North.  Speculation  was  rife  in  every  part  of  that  section. 
The  issues  of  paper  money  stimulated  business.     Everybody  was  making  and 


crease  of 
business. 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


329 


place 
"  and 
centre 

ploying 
ic  of  a 

k,  N.J. 
c  grow- 
ly  other 
,t  of  La 
French 
)  makers 

ufacture, 

iive  kind 

I  makers 

led  filled 
or  silver, 
eighteen 

tness  anil 
elaborate 
itted  with 

erns  were 
could  be 
wels.     In 
made  by 
m  out  in 
1  jewelry 
ddler  sold 
increased 

0  rapidly 
s  beyond 
gold  and 
nufacture, 

here.     I" 

:d  States, 

rowth  ot 

ns'.derable 

icrease  in 

1  enormous 
jat  section, 
laking  an<l 


spending  money,  and  all  classes  of  the  people  indulged  in  expenditures  for 
objects  of  luxury  antl  ornament  to  an  extent  never  befcjre  known.     The  rich 
bought  diamonds  set  in  solid  gold,  solid  gold  and  silver  bracelets, 
rings  with  emeralds  and  other  precious  stones,  gold  pins  and  but-   ,"^1,8*™° 
tons,  and  all  the  varieties  of  ornaments  wh-ch  the  jeweller's  art  has   during  the 
produced;  while  the  poor  bought  pins,  .-ar-rings,  bracelets,  finger-   ^fff' 
rings,  and  necklaces  of  the  cheaiier  st'  les  of  filled  work.     From 
1S60  to  1870  the  factories  increased  from  J63  to  681  in  number,  and  the  yearly 
production  from  $10,415,000  in  value  to  $22,104,000.     In  1870,  10,091  people 
were  employed  in  the  business.     The  growth  of  those  ten  years  of  inflation 
and  speculation  has  not  been  maintained,  however.     The  panic  of  Effect  of 
1873  struck  a  heavy  blow  at  jewelry-making.     It  was  one  of  the   panicofi873. 
first  industries  to  suffer,  and  production  has  fallen  off  materially  :  a  revival  is 
only  beginning  to  take  place.     The  manufacture  of  solid  work  has  suffered  the 
least  from  the  period  of  retrenchment  and  economy,  because  the  rich,  who  are 
the  buyers  of  the  work,  were  the  least  affected  by  the  times.     The  chief  centres 
of  the  jewelry-trade  now  are  Providence,  R.I.,  which  has  about  seventy-five 
establishments ;    Philadelphia,  with  fifty-five  factories ;    New  York,  with   two 
hundred ;    Bristol   County,   Mass.,  with   thirty-five ;    and   Springfield,   Mass., 
Boston,    Cincinnati,   San    Francisco,    and    Newark,    N.J.       The    filled   work 
is  mostly  made  in  New  England  and  New  Jersey.     The  principal  New- York 
factories,  such  as  Tiffany  &  Company,  produce   nothing  except  solid  jewelry 
matle  by  hand,  each  piece  being  unique,  and  seldom  copied. 

A  great  many  alloys  of  gok'  are  used  in  the  making  of  ornaments.  Silver 
is  used  pure,  being  alloyed  only  to  give  it  hardness.  Gold  is  fiised  with  copper 
to  trive  it  a  red  color,  and  with  silver  to  give  it  a  silverv  lustre.    .,, 

°  '  o  ,  AUoys  of 

It  is  seldom  used  purer  than  twenty-two    carats,  nor  inferior  to   gold  used  in 
fourteen  carats,  because  it  would  tarnish  and  stain  below  that  purity,   "^a^^'is 

jewelry. 

It  is  given  either  a  polished,  dead,  or  frosted  surface,  and  is  often 
elaborately  ornamented  by  soldering  gold  wire  upon  it  to  form  a  pattern,  or  by 
chasing  with  a  tool.  In  large  factories  a  corps  of  designers  is  kept  steadily 
employed  in  producing  new  patterns  in  pins,  bracelets,  rings,  &c.,  ideas  being 
borrowed  from  every  source,  ancient  and  modern.  Chinese,  Japanese,  and 
anti(]ue  types  are  now  the  rage.  New-York*,  ity  makers  are  borrowing  liberally 
from  the  patterns  in  the  Cesnola  collection  of  antiquities  at  the  Metropolitan 
Museum.  In  the  hand-labor  shops  it  often  takes  two  and  three  weeks  to  make 
^  single  piece  of  jewelry,  and  sc*^  it  with  stones :  in  the  machine-shops 
thousands  of  pieces  are  completed  in  a  single  day. 

I'latinum  is  now  used  to  some  extent  by  the  goldsmiths  of  the  United 
States  for  the  more  expensive  kinds  of  ornaments.  The  metal  very  much 
resembles   silver,   and   is   readily  worked.     It   has   the   desirable 

,....,.,,  ,  .  ,  .,       Platinum. 

quality  of  resisting  chemical  action,  and  cioes  not  tarnish  as  easily 

•IS  silver.     It  is  the  best  material,  therefore,   for  such   costly  ornaments  as 

plumes  set  with  diamonds,  to  be  worn  in  the  hair. 


mm 


330 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


Gilding. 


Tortoise-shell  and  jet  jewelry  is  also  largely  made.  These  varieties  are 
Tortoise-  not  only  cheaper  than  the  others,  but  they  are  also  very  pretty, 
•hell.  m^(]  enable  thoui  ■•"  js  to  gratify  their  love  of  decoration  who  are 

debarred  from  buying  gold  and  silver  anil  precious  stones. 

The  diamonds  and  other  gems  which  are  set  in  the  more  costly  articles 
of  jewelry  are   nearly  all  imported.     The  rocks  of  the  United 

Diamonds.  '  ■'  ,         ,  .  1  r  ^     1 

States   supply  only   the   agate,   garnet,   opal,   and   a   few  of  the 
cheaper  varieties  of  gems. 

GOLD    AND    SIL'.ER    LEAF. 

A  large  amount  of  gol.l,  ar.d  some  silver,  is  consumed  annually,  in  the  form 
of  gold  and  silver  leaf,  in  the  decoration  of  the  covers  of  books,  in  the  gilding 
of  picture-frames,  furniture,  &c.,  and  by  dentists.  The  quan  ty 
is  almost,  if  not  quite  as  large  as  that  employe^  either  in  coinao'e 
or  in  jewelry ;  and  it  is  an  actual  consun  ption,  l)ccause  it  does  not  pay  to 
attempt  to  save  the  leaf  after  the  articles  'o  which  it  is  applied  are  worn  out, 
any  more  than  it  pays  to  collect  the  w  3rn-out  ends  of  lead-pencils,  or  the 
stumps  of  cigars.  It  must  be  said,  however,  that  the  use  of  the  metal  in  tiic 
leaf  replaces,  to  a  certain  extent,  the  employment  of  solid  metal.  The  lavisl. 
use  of  gold  and  silver  leaf  took  its  rise  in  modern  times  in  Italy  and  France. 
The  passion  for  it  in  France  outran  all  bounds,  either  of  good  taste,  or  i)ru- 
dence  in  expenditure.  The  rise  of  luxury  in  England  creating  a  similar  rage 
for  gilding,  the  drain  upon  the  world's  supply  of  gokl  became  very  large.  In 
the  time  of  James  I.  the  loss  became  so  serious,  that  a  special  act  was  passed, 
restricting  the  use  of  gold-leaf,  and  permitting  it  to  be  employed  only  for 
specified  objects,  the  decoration  of  military  trap])ings  being  the  principal  one. 
After  the  discovery  of  gold  and  silver  in  America  there  was  no  need  of 
further  economy,  —  at  Last  not  on  account  of  any  supposed  danger  of  using 
up  the  world's  supply  of  the  metals,  —  and  gilding  and  silvering  rapidly  be- 
came univer  al.  In  this  country  the  taste  for  that  ityle  of  decoration  has  lat- 
terly outgrown  the  ability  of  people  to  afford  it  to  ihe  extent  which  <s  desired  ; 
and  a  number  of  cheap  bronze  and  other  imitation  gold  and  silvc.  leaves 
and  powders  have  been  invented  for  the  lettering  of  large  signs,  the  ilhuiiini- 
tion  of  paper-hangings,  &c.,  so  as  to  pat  gilding  and  silvering  within  tlie 
reach  of  the  masses  for  common  purposes.  Genuine  gold  and  silver  hole' 
thc'r  own,  however,  for  the  better  ::ort  of  decoration,  'iheir  use  increases 
>ear  by  year.  Latterly  the  use  of  .silver-leaf  has  been  almost  supcseded  in 
the  arts  by  the  process  of  silvering  called  electro-platiig,  which  is  elsewhere 
described  ;  but  r  small  amount  is  stiH  consumed. 

Gold-beating  -s  one  of  the  most  anc'ent  of  arts.  The  process  is  vcr)' 
simple,  and  differs  from  the  practice  of  the  olden  time  principally  in  the  use 
of  the  rolling-mill  for  part  of  the  work.     Instead  of  hammering  out  tin.'  '.cat 


M 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


331 


ieties  are 
ry  pretty, 
1  who  arc 

ly  articles 
he  United 
ew  of  the 


in  the  form 
the  gilding 
lie  quan  ty 
r  in  coinage 
not  pay  to 
e  worn  out, 
icils,  or  the 
metal  in  tiic 
The  lavisV. 
and  France, 
taste,  or  pni- 
similar  rage 
TV  large.     In 
was  passed, 
lyed  only  for 
irincipal  one. 
no  need  of 
|nger  of  using 
rapidly  be- 
xtion  has  lat- 
[h  is  desired ; 
silvc.  leaves 
the  illuuiinv 
lig  within  die 
Id  silver  liold 
luse  increases 
supcseded  in 
is  elsewhere 


l-ocess   i-;  ^'^0' 
illy  in  the  use 
out  the 


leat 


directly  from  the  ingot,  the  ingot  is  now  rolled  until  it  is  reduced  to  the  thick- 
ness of  a,iff  part  of  an  inch  before  it  goes   under  the   hammer,   ooid-beatine 
An  ounce  of  gold  will  make  a  strip  ten  feet  long  and  an  inch  and   an  ancient 
half  wide  when  rolled  to  the  thickness  of  ji^  pan  of  an  inch.   '"" 
For  beating,  the  delicate  strij)  is  cut  up  into  pieces  an  inch  sqrare.     Each 
piece  is  laid  ui)on  a  leaf  of  fine  vellum   four  inches  square,  and  a  hundred 
and  fifty  of  these  leaves  piled  up  one  above   the  other,   with    a  few   extra 
pieces  of  vellum  at  each  end.     This  i)ile  is  called  a  "  kutch."     It  is  put  into 
a  parchment  case,  so  that  the  four  sides  are  protected  ;  and  a  workman  rains 
iil)on  it  a  shower  of  blows  from  a  sixteen-pound  hammer,  turning  the  pack 
over  end  for  end  occasionally,  bending  it  between  the  hands  so  as  to  make 
the  gold  leaves  spread  readily,  and   interchanging  the  different  parts  of  the 
paek.     The  hammer  has  a  convex  face.     In  about  twenty  minutes  the  little 
s(iuares  are  spread  to  the  full  size  of  the  vellum.     They  are  then  taken  out,  cut 
into  quarters,  and  again  packed  and  beaten.     They  arc  once  again  taken  out, 
([uartered,  and  beaten  until  the  original   inch-square  pieces  have  been  beaten 
out  to   192  times  their  original   size,   and    the  thickness  reduced   to   about 
TTroVoiT  P^i't  of  an  inch.     They  are  often  beaten  again.     The  ordinary  com- 
mercial gold-leaf  is  usually  beaten  out  to  y  on'orrtT  P^rt  of  an  inch  ;  but  the 
French  have  reduced  it  to   jgo'giyij  part  of  an  inch,  spreading  out  an  ounce 
of  gold  to  cover  a  surfiice  of  160  square  feet.     Imitation  gold-leaf  is  made 
hy  gilding  brass,  and  rolling  and  beating  it  out  in  the  usual  way.     Silver-leaf, 
which  is  very  beautiful,  cannot  be  reduced  to  quite  the  thinness  of  gold,  but 
is  hammered  out  to  xtrffuijiy  P^rt  of  an  inch ;  which  is  thin  enougli  for  this  less 
cusUy  metal. 

Various  attempts  have  been  made  to  substitute  a  machine  for   Attempts  to 
hammering  gold  and  silver   leaf  in    place  of  the    hand-process.   ^"i^Tm'de 
New  England  brought  out  several  de\ices  for  the   purpose,  and   of  manu- 
exhibited    them    at   the   world's   fairs.      They  have  not  proved   '^cture. 
popular,  and  have  virtually  been  abandoned. 

Ciold-leaf  is  put  up  for  the  market  in  litde  books  of  smooth  paper,  contain- 
ii.i.-  twenty-five  leaves  each,  which  are  kept  from  sticking  to  the   HowgoW- 
paper  bv  preparing  the  latter  with  chalk  or  red  ochre.     The  books   leaf  is  put  up 

'  •    '       '  '^  for  market. 

arc  sold  in  packages  of  a  dozen. 


.SILVER    TAIil.L-WAUE. 

There  was  very  little  silver- ware  to  be  seen  upon  the  tables  of  the  early 
colonists  of  the  United  States.     Such  a  luxury  was  beyond  the  means  of  all 
except  a  very  few,  and  was,  besides,  inappropriate  to  the  eru  of  log-   colonists 
cal)ins  and  leather  garments.     A  few  families  in  New  York,  i>fary-    had  but  uttie 
liuid.  and  Virginia,   had   silver  plate;    but  they  were  chiefly  ihe   ^' ^^■'•^ ^'■"• 
families  of  rich  planter^,,  old  Dutch  patroons,  and  royalist  governors.     A  large 


^ 


i 


33* 


FND  US  TKIA  /.    INS  TON  V 


m\ 


\\}n. 


part  of  the  population  wen-  unable  to  all'ord  even  china,  which  was  expen- 
sive then  ;  and  pewter  plates  and  dishes  were  often  the  sole  furniture  of  the 
table  in  country  houses.  A  yreat  deal  of  even  the  small  amount  of  plate 
hoarded  by  old  families  disappeared  after  1792.  It  was  sent  to  the  mint,  and 
coined. 

After  the  peace  of  1815  there  came  an  era  of  prosperity  and  speculation, 
during  which  there  sprang  up  a  demand  for  objects  of  luxury  and  value.  C'on- 
importa-  siderable  importations  of  silver  plate  took  place  in  conseciuence. 
tions  after  The  plate  was  generally  solid,  and  always  costly.  Snuff-boxes  and 
*  ''■  candlesticks  and  other  objects  were   sometimes   imported,  whi(  h 

were  made  of  the  baser  metals,  and  covered  with  gold  or  silver  leaf  by  mechani- 
cal processes ;  but  usually  the  ware  was  solid  and  substantial,  and  worth  its 
Expensive-      whole  weight  as  bullion.      The  expense    of  solid  plate  made  its 

of  solid  purchase  by  the  majority  of  the  people  very  limited  ;  and,  indect', 
the  austere  itleas  of  the  days  of  colonization  were  still  sufficiently 
universal  to  make  public  sentiment  unfavorable  to  the  use  of  much  silver  ujjon 
the  table.  Martin  Van  lUiren  was  defeated  for  re-election  as  President  of  the 
United  States  in  part  because  he  aiUled  to  the  use  of  silver  table-ware  the  other 


ness 
plate 


SI'UO.NS,   &C.,    IN    CASK. 


'M 


aristocratic  extravagance  of  golden  teaspoons.  The  spirit  of  the  times  was  not 
partial  to  ostentation  of  that  sort ;  and  though  silver  was  admired,  yet  not  0110 
family  in  a  thousand  placed  an  article  made  of  it  upon  their  tables  (except. 
perhaps,  a  candlestick)  from  one  end  of  the  year  to  the  other.  Illock-tin  was 
Use  of  block-  "^^^^  ^^  some  extent,  and  after  1840  britannia-ware  came  into  favor ; 
tin  and  bri-  but  the  masses  clung  to  pewter  and  blue  crockery.  Silver  was  so 
tannia-ware.  )-jigj^]y  yalued  as  coin,  that  it  seemed  a  sinful  waste  of  monev  to 
put  it  into  a  dish  for  the  table.     The  esteem  in  which  silver  was  hekl  at  that 


Ol-     Till',     ex  HE  I)    UTATES 


333 


ii 


4  cxpen- 
0  of  thf 
of  platL- 
nint,  anil 

:culalion, 
e.     Con- 
set  ivicncc. 
)OXCs  and 
.•d,  \vhi(  h 
mcchani- 
wortli  its 
made  its 
d,  indcc('. 
sufficiently 
lilvcr  ui)on 
LMit  of  the 
L'  the  other 


lies  was  not 
jt\  not  one 
[ics  (except. 
Ilock-tin  was 
into  favor : 
lilver  was  so 
jf  moncv  to 
held  at  that 


334 


/Nn  VS  TN I A  I.    IffS  TON  Y 


'i\A 


II 


w 


day,  and  the  economical  ideas  whi(  Ii  prevailed,  are  illustrated  by  the  incident 
of  a  New-Mn^'land  whaling  captain  giving  his  daughter  a  \vedding-df)wry  of  her 
own  weight  in  silver  dollars,  which  was  regarded  at  the  time  as  an  act  of  un- 
exampled niiiniricence  ;  though  in  these  days,  if  a  prosperous  father  gave  his 
daughter  no  more  than  that  at  her  wedding,  he  would  he  regarded  as  a  cur- 
nuidgeon  very  much  in  need  of  the  prayers  of  the  faithful. 


MERlDliN   CUTI.KKY   CDMI'ANV,   MliUIUKN,  CONN. 


;■•■(, 


. 


The  origin  of  the  manufacture  of  silver-ware  in  the  I'nited  States  is  (piiti, 
within  the  memory  of  old  silversmiths  who  are  still  in  the  business  :  it  ^XaK^-^ 
„.  .     ,         from' the  year  1S42.      J'rior  to  that  year,  there  were  no  regular 

Origin  of  /  -t  J  o 

manufacture  factories  of  plate  in  the  country.  The  few  silversmiths  wiio  had 
of  silver-  opened  shoi)s  in  the  commercial  and  other  cities  for  the  repair  nl 
watches  and  imported  i)late  made  cups,  snuff-boxes,  \vat(  h  rliaiii>, 
and  other  small  articles,  in  a  desultory  way  ;  but  there  was  no  regular  maun 
facture.  The  few  expert  workmen  of  those  days  had  little  capital  of  tluir 
own.  They  had  only  their  tools  and  their  skill ;  and  the  usual  thing  for  tluni 
to  do  was  to  go  to  the  jeweller  and  silver-merchants,  and  obtain  from  iIkih 
orders  to  make  special  pieces  of  plate.  'J'he  merchant  supplied  the  ingcil.  ni 
sheet  of  silver,  and  the  workman  hammered  it  out,  and  wrought  it  into  tlu' 
object  desired,  bringing  back  to  the  merchant  the  finished  work  and  the  sur|ilii> 
scraps  of  metal,  both  of  which  were  carefully  weighed  to  see  that  the  workman 
had  not  abstracted  a  part  of  the  raw  material.  In  i(S42  a  number  of  tlie 
silversmiths  of  New-York  City  and  other  places  got  together  to  consult  alxmt 
the  interests  of  their  trade.  Mr.  Clay  was  agitating  at  that  time 
for  a  i)rotective  tariff,  and  the  silversmiths  regarded  the  hour  as 
auspicious  for  an  effort  to  obtain  some  recognition  of  their  art  from  the  .U'i\- 


star 

da 

wit 

solii 

'ieiii 

trav 

for 

virti 

steal 

appt' 

tariff 

estal 

a  W; 


'\  ii 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES, 


J35 


nriiU'nt 
y  ol  lur 
t  of  un- 
^avc  his 
s  a  cur- 


es is  qiuli 
il  daU'^ 
no  ro;j;vil'»v 
IS  who  had 
K'  u-i'air  "'' 
U(h-ihain>. 
ular  luaiiii' 
tal  of  Uh'11- 
ng  for  thcni 
from  thciii 
AC  ini;ol.  IT 
it  into  ilu' 
(Uhc  suri'lii^ 
he  workman 
nibcr  of  th^' 
(insult  about 
U  that  linH' 
the  hour  a^ 
rom  the  ;^"\- 


iriimfiU  of  the  country.  A  dclofjation  wns  acror(hnKly  sent  to  Washington  to 
SCO  Mr.  Clay.  Mr.  ("lay  asked  the  men  what  the  prosperity  of  their  business 
re(|uire(l,  and  |)roinisctl  to  do  what  he  ctxild  for  them.  It  was  a  very  easy 
matter  to  obtain  recognition  in  the  hill  which  was  being  drawn  up,  silver-ware 
hemg  so  exclusively  an  article  of  luxury  ;  and  accordingly,  when  the  act  passed 
iu  August  of  that  year,  a  duty  of  thirty  ])er  cent  was  levied  by  it  upon  all 
importations  of  gold  and  silver  wares,  whether  solid  or  plated.  This  protec- 
tidu  is  said  by  old  silversmiths  to  have  given  the  industry  in  this  country  its 
fnM  decided  impetus.  Nearly  all  the  shops  enlarged  their  business  imiuedi- 
ately  after  the  law  was  passed. 

About  this  time  the  art  of  electro  plating  came  into  use  ;  and  this  gave  a 
still  more  remarkable  impulse  to  the  industry  .n  tiie  I'nited  States   by  cheapen- 
ing the  cost  of  silver  table-ware,   and   vastly  extending  its   sale.    Eiectro-pint- 
Marly  in  the  century  it  had  l)een  discovered  that  copper  or  gold    '"s^- 
held  in  solution  might  bi'  made  to  settle  ui)on  the  faces  of  objects  suspended 
in  the  solution,  and  to  form  ii|)on  them  a  thick  film,  by  passing  a  current  of 
elertricity  through  the  bath  to  the  object  to  be   gildi-d   or  coppered.     It  was- 
found  that  the  film  of  metal,  once  formeil,  might  be  taken  off,  and  used  ai  a 
iiiDuld   to  produce   an  exact   copy  of  the   original  object  upon  which   il   had 
heeii  deposited.     It  was  then  found  that  metallic  objects  might  be  gilded  by 
this   process,   and   made   to  appear  like   solid   gokl.     The    invention  was  at 
first  regarded  as  a  ciuiosity.     It  was  not  until  about  1S40  that  its   Regarded  as 
value  for  the  gilding  and  silvering  of  articles  of  common   use  was   «  cufos'ty- 
realized.     Numerous  experiments  were  then  made  with  the  invention  both  in 
the  United  States  and    Murope.     Professor  Silliman  suggested  that   prussiate 
of  potash  would  hold  silver  in  solution  without  oxidizing   the  baser  metals. 
This  was  a  step  in  advance.     Subset  piently  it  was  found  that  the  solution  of 
cyanide  of  potassium  would  do  the  work  better,  and  silver-plating  then  became 
prat  tieable  and  popular.     The  idea  was  taken  up  by  New-I^ngland  manufac- 
turers, and  several  very  important  factories  of  plated  ware  and  cutlery  were 
started  to  manufacture  for  the  American  market.     It  was  found  that  the  most 
elaborate  dinner  and  tea  sets  could  be  produced   by  the  new  process,  coated 
with  the  purest  silver  to  any  thickness,  for  about  one-fourth  the  expense  of 
solid  ware  ;   and  Yankee  push   and  enterprise   soon  foimd  a  way  to  create  a 
demand  for  it  in  every  part  of  the  country.     The  public   taste  had  begun  to 
<  rave  elegant  table-sets,  and  the  low  cost  of  the  new  class  of  goods  secured 
fur  them  a  ready  recognition  and  great  favor.     Iron   forks   and  knives  were 
virtually  banished  from  the  tables  of  all  people  of  taste,  and  from  hotels  and 
steamboats ;  and  plated  ware  and  dinner  and  tea  sets  made  tiieir   dumber  oi 
iipp'-'^^fance  everywhere.     The  industry,  being  protected  by  a  liberal   manufac- 
tariff.  has  grown  up  rapidly,  and  is  now  firmly  established  :   260 
Lstahlishments  are  employed  in  it,  giving  work  to  5,200  hands,  and  producing 
a  yearly  value  of  $12,000,000  worth  of  ware. 


vim 


L^'  i.'!    -li 


336 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


The  earlier  silversmiths  of  the  United  States  made  their  dinner  and  tea 
sets,  punch-bowis,  goblets,  i\;c.,  by  hammering  the  various  dishes 
from  flat  sheets  of  solid  metal,  shai)ing  them  upon  iron  forms 
called  "stakes."  The  i)rocess  of  building  up  all  round  and  oval 
dishes  is  still  the  same  in  principle,  only  that  the  hammer  is  no 
longer  used,  and  the  iron  stake  is  throw  a  aside  for  a  block  of  wood.  Su[)- 
pose  the  dish  be  a  sugar-bowl,     A  perfectly  round  disk  is  cut  from  a  flat  sheet 


How  earlier 
silversmiths 
made  their 
wares. 


CAKK-nASKF.T. 


of  solid  silver,  weighed,  and  turned  over  to  a  workman,  to  whom  it  is  charged 
on  the  books.  'I'he  workman  has  a  block,  made  in  pieces  like  a  hat-blo(  k, 
Modern  SO  that,  if  a  Certain  key  be  removed,  it  will  fall  apart.     The  block 

process  jg  j^^  together  and  keyed,  and  put  into  a  lathe  touching  the  llat 

disk  of  silver.  The  block  and  ihe  silver  disk  arc  then  made  to  revolve  at  great 
speed.  A  smooth  steel  tool  is  pressed  against  the  disk;  and  the  mallcaMo 
metal  is  made  to  bend  down  upon  the  block  little  by  litUe,  and  grailually  en- 
close it,  forming  the  body  of  a  perfectly  symm(;trical  and  smooth  sugar-bowl. 
without  joint  or  flaw.  The  top  and  bottom  arc  j-iroperly  trimmed  with  a  sharp 
tool,  and  tlie  bow  1  taken  from  the  lathe.     It  would  be  impossible  now  to  get 


and  tea 
us  dishes 
-on  forms 
and  oval 
iiicr  is  no 
od.  Sup- 
Hat  sheet 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 

the  wooden  l)loclc  out  of  tlie  silver  howl,  were  it  not  that  the  block  is  made 
in    pieces.     The  workman  loosens  the  key  which  binds  the  block   together, 
and  shakes   the   pieces    out   of  liie  narrow  mouth  of  the  sugar-bowl.     The 
bottom  of  the  sugar-bowl  is  shaped  upon  an  ai)propriate  block  by  the  same 
process,  which    is   called   ''  spinning   up."     The    handles   are  cast,   and  the 
different  parts  fastened  together  by  soldering  under  a  blow-pipe.     This  is  in 
principle  the  manner  in  whicli  all  round  and  oval  (hshes,  presentation-pieces, 
goblets,  &c.,  are   made    iVom   scjlid   silver.     For  convenience  the   bodies   are 
sometimes  made  in  several  parts,  so  a^.   to   permit  the   insertion  at   different 
places  of  a  flat  striji  of  decorated  metal  which  has  l)een  rolled  in  a  machine, 
and    they  are    then   subsecjuently  assembled  l)y  the   silversmiths  proper,  and 
united  by  soldering.     The    soldering  is  so   perfectly  done,  that  the   finished 
article  is  in  fact  one  piece  of  soliil  work. — as  much  so  as  though  it  had  been 
cast.     All    scrajis  are  carefully  collected   and  weighed,  and    credited    to    the 
workman  to  v.hom  they  were  jrc'-iously  charged.     Large  objects  like  punch- 
bowls, and  all  others  of  irregular  shape,  are  hammered  out  by  hand  from  flat 
sluets  of  metal,  and   put  together  by  soldering.      Pro- 
jc(  ting  ornaments,  like  monograms,  flov/ers,  handles,  &c,, 
are  freciuently  cast  solid,  and  put  upon  the  piece  in  the 
usual  way  ;  but  by  flir  the  greater  part  of  the  decoration 
is  (lone  by  chasing  and  engraving.     The  pattern  is  drawn 
in  black  and  white  upon  sheets  of  paper.     The  workman 
goes  all  over  the  inside  of  the   gohlet,  teapot,  or  other 
l)ioce,  whatever  it  may  be,  with  a  delicate  hammer,  and 
beats  down    the    metal,    so  as  to  raise  the  large  leaves, 
tlnwcrs,  scrolls,   i^ic,   of  the   pattern,   into   relief  on   the 
outhide  of  the  piece.     The  dish  is  then  filled  with  melted 
pitch  and  rosin,  which  is  allowetl  to  solidify  and  form  a 
backing,   in  order   that  it  may  not  lose   its   symmetrical 
shape  in  the  subse(|uent  processes.     The  workman  next 
goes  carefiilly  over  the  whole  of  the  surface  outside  which 
is  to  be  decorated,  and  fashions  it  by  indenting  and  beating  down  the  metal 
with  little  chisels  and  a  hammer,  so  as   to   leave   a  clear,  sharp-cut    pattern 
raJMil  in  high  relief  upon  the  beaten-down  background.     The  pitch  is  then 
rcmo\cd  by  melting  ;  and  the  dish  goes  on  to  be  smoothed,  burnished,  frosted, 
satin -finished,  or  gilded,  as  the  case  may  be.  for  the  store.     The  ornamenta- 
tion of  tlat  surfaces   is  sometimes  done  by  etching.     Spoons  and  forks  are 
iviade  by  rolling  in  a  machine,  the  i)attern  of  the  fork  or  spoon  being  engraved 
on  tlic  surface  of  the  rollers.     The   edges  of  surplus  m','tal  arc  removed  b)' 
<  lipping  and  filing,  and  the  article  receives  its  final  shape  under  a  die.     The 
handk's  of  nut-picks  and  knives,  when  hollow,  are  stamped  in  a  die,  in  halves, 
iind  united  by  soldering.     In  the  solid-silver  shop;:  great  care  is  exercised  to 
prt'wiit   waste   of  metal.     The   v.aste    in    polishing,    clipping,  filing,   &c.,  is 


I'Ki'rr.u-nox. 


■A\ 


■mm 


um 


m^. 


lyi' 


ill 


enormous,  amounting  in  Tiffany's  from  four  hundred  to  six  hur.'^red  ounces 
a  week  in  the  process  of  polishing  with  leather  and  cotton  alone.  All  the 
refuse  of  the  shops,  the  grease,  the  dirt  of  the  floor,  the  water  in  which  the 
silver  is  washed,  &c.,  is  carefully  saved,  and  sent  to  the  furnace  for  the  ex- 
traction of  the  metal.  With  all  the  precautions  that  intelligence  can  suggest, 
it  is  still  found  that  five  per  cent  of  the  metal  weighed  out  to  the  workmen 
is  never  recovered. 


VEGETAni.K-DISH. 


In  the  factories  of  plated  ware  a  large  part  of  the  work  is  done  by  stamps. 

dies,  and  presses  ;  and  more  of  the  ware  is  cast  than  in  the  solid-silver  shops. 

The  metal  forming  the  basis  of  the  pieces  is  usually  Cierman  sihcr 

Stamping.  ....  i       •       \     i     •  •  i  •  i  i 

(an  alloy  of  nickel,  copper,  and  zuic),  brittania,  white-metal,  and 
aluminum.  Brass  and  copper  are  sometimes  used  for  very  cheap  work,  'i'hc 
Use  of  brass  Original  method  of  plating  the  ware  with  silver  was  to  dissolve  the 
and  copper,  metal  in  nitric  acid,  and  precipitate  it  as  a  cyanide  by  <  yaiiide 
of  potassium.  The  precipitate,  being  washed,  was  dissolved  in  a  solution  of 
Process  of  Cyanide  of  potassium.  The  object  to  be  silvered  was  then  (on- 
piating.  nected  with  the  negative  pole  of  a  powerful  battery,  dipped  in  nitric 

acid,  and  then  suspended  in  the  solution  of  silver.  After  a  few  moments  it 
was  taken  out  and  well  brushed,  and  then  replaced  in  the  solution.  The  siher 
begins  to  make  its  a])pearance  on  the  surface  ) "  the  object,  and  in  a  few  hours 
has  covered  every  part  of  it  with  a  uniform  dead-white  coating  of  pure  metal. 
The  process  may  lie  stopped  when  the  plating  has  reached  the  thickiies--  of 
tissue-paper,  or  it  may  be  continued  until  the  piece  is  double  or  triple  jilated. 
The  stronger  the  current  of  electricity,  the  harder  will  be  the  plating.  ^\  hen 
taken  from  the  solution,  the  piece  is  washed,  and  then  burnished  and  ^llli^he(l 
in  the  ordinary  manner.  Latterly,  plating  is  carried  on  by  a  variation  oi  this 
process.  The  silver  is  not  dissolved  antl  held  in  suspension,  but  is  put  into  the 
bath  of  cyanide  of  potassium  in  the  form  of  a  plate  attached  to  the  positive 


il 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


339 


\  -ife'f 


ounces 
Ml  the 
ich  the 
the  ex- 
suggest, 
orkmen 


by  stamps. 
,i\vcr  shops- 
rman  siUov 
mctah  and 
A-ork.     'rii^^ 
[dissolve  the 
1)Y  cyanide 
solution  of 
then  con- 
,-)Ch1  in  nitric 
moments  it 
The  silver 
a  few  hours 
l|wre  melal. 
Ithickness  of 
|riple  plated, 
r.     When 
land  rini>hed 
ition  of  this 
put  into  \he 
the  po>itive 


pole  of  the  battery.  The  electrical  current  decomposes  the  silver,  and  the  dish 
attached  to  the  negative  pole  then  becomes  covered  with  the  dissolved  metal 
as  before. 

I";iectro-gilding  is  not  extensively  practised  in  the  manufacture  of  table- 
ware, being  resorted  to  more  commonly  in  the  production  of  cheap  jewelry, 
.i  is  astonishing  how  far  a  small  (piantity  of  gold  may  be  made  to   Eiectro- 
go  in  hiding  the  cheap  material;;  of  which  cheap  ornaments  —  pencil-   e'lding. 
cases,  thimbles,  &c.  —  are  made.     The  "magnificent"  gold  ear-rings  and  other 
things  offered  as  prizes  in  the  lotteries  are  frequently  manufactured,  at  a  cost  of 
not  much  more  than  ten  dollars 
a  bushel,  from  copi)er  or  some 
such  material,  and  gilded  at  an 
expense  of  about  fifteen  cents  a 
piece.      Heavy  gold    plating   is, 
however,  sometimes   done   upon 
cheaj)  watch-cases,  and  also  upon 
solid-silver  ware.     The   inside  of 
salt-cellars,    soup-tureens,    '^ou])- 
ladles,  spoons,  (S'c,  is  frequendy 
gilded  ;  and.  in  the  case  of  some 
very  splendid  sets  of  table-ware, 
the  whole  surface  of  the  spoons 
is  tluckly  coated  with  the  precious 
metal.     The   use    of   solid -gold 
table-ware    is    at   present  limited 
ill  this  country  to  bells  and  salt- 
cellars.    Its  cost  bears  the  same 
relation  to  silver  as  that  of  silver 
does   to    pewter.      But    the    rich 
color  of  pure  gold  is  very  much 

adiuiicd,  and  gilding  is  therefore  demanded  to  a  certain  extent.     The  process 
is  substantially  the  same  as  the  original  method  of  plating  with  silver. 

Within  the  last  ten  years  the  United  States  have  made  a  great  advance  in 
the  beauty  and  originality  of  styles  of  silver-ware.  Some  factories  make  a  hun- 
dred patterns  of  tea-sets.  The  Ciorham  Company  makes  nearly  improve- 
thiee  hundred  varieties  of  spoons.  Tiie  New- York-City  factories  mentsofiast 
produce  designs  which  are  not  surpassed  anywhere  in  Europe.  ="  y**''^- 
lliis  result  is,  in  part,  due  to  the  education  of  competent  designers  by  the 
Cooper  Institute  and  other  schools  of  design  in  the  country.  It  is  also  attribu- 
lalilc,  in  part,  to  the  constant  purchase  of  books  of  patterns  in  China,  Japan, 
and  all  other  parts  of  the  world  where  decoration  is  made  an  art,  and  to  the 
dilii^^ent  study  of  the  treasures  of  antiquity  which  have  been  exhumed  by  the 
fit  holars  of  the  Old  World.  The  growth  of  wealth  and  taste  in  the  United 
Stales  has  also  proved  a  great  stimulus. 


FRUIT-DISU. 


^<l-'i« 


li' 


r'lJtl  ! 


•'<.;  ii 


;l  ^^1 


i  ''*i 


340 


/JVn  C^S  TRIA  L    JUS  TOR  Y 


The  taste  for  solid  silver  is  increasing.  There  already  begins  to  be  visil)lc 
in  the  centres  of  wealth  and  flishion  a  little  of  that  pride  in  the  family  plate, 
Cultivation  ^'"''  emulation  with  others,  which  leil  the  Romans  to  vie  with  otliers 
of  taste  for  in  the  massiveness  of  their  silver  dishes.  Before  the  civil  war, 
solid  silver,  ^l•,^.,.^,  ^y^Te  in  Rome  150  silver  dishes  that  weighed  over  100  pounds 
each ;  and   Pliny  tells  of  one  of  500  pounds,  with  eight  plates  of  250  pounds 

each.  The  K(j- 
mans  were  gross  in 
their  tastes ;  and 
the  more  intel- 
lectual American 
does  not  incline 
in  the  direction  of 
ponderous  dishes 
which  would  crush 
the  table  under 
their  weight ;  but 
he  loves  orna- 
ment, and  the  ri- 

(      .vv-nisii.  .        , 

valry  here  is  tor 
the  most  profusely  and  richly  decorated  ware.  The  most  splendid  set  ever 
made  in  the  United  States  was  that  ordered  by  Mr.  Mackey,  one  of  the  owners 
of  the  Bonanza  silver-mines,  in  1S77,  which  comprised  several  hundred  pieces 
of  elaborately  made  solid-silver  ware,  including  an  enormous  punch-bowl  and 
a  huge  candelabrum.  'J'he  set  kept 
several  hundred  workmen  busy  for 
months  in  its  manufacture.  Some  of 
the  spoons  and  dishes  were  heavily 
gilded.  The  whole  cost  exceeded 
;^ioo,ooo.  Private  dinner-parties 
have  been  given  in  New-Vork  City 
within  the  last  five  years  by  princely 
merchants,  in  which  $75,000  worth 
of  silver  and  valuable  china  and 
crystal  ware  were  used  to  spreatl 
the  table,  and  increase  the  magnifi- 
cence of  the  occasion  ;  but  the 
Mackey  silver  is  the  first  grand  set 
of   great    price    ever    made    in    the 

United  States.      Part  of  it  goes  to  furnish  the  owner's  private  residence  in 
California,  and  th?  rest  of  it  to  his  houses  in  Paris  and  London. 

Within  the  last  few  years  a  special  variety  of  silver-ware  has  been  created 
to  answer  the  demand  for  prizes  for  rifle-matches,  yacht-'-aces,  trotting  and 


or    rHK    UNITED    STATES. 


341 


visible 
'  plutc, 
.  utliers 
,il  war, 
pounds 
pounds 
l-ic    Ro- 
gross  in 
!S  ;    and 

intcl- 
mcrican 

incline 
>ction  of 
s    dishes 
uld  crush 
e     under 
ght ;   itul 
>s     orua- 
id  the  ri- 
:rc    is    tor 
i  set  ever 
:he  owners 
red  pieces 
i_lu)wl  and 


[sidence  m 

len  created 
lotting  ;i'^d 


ball  contests.  &c.  The  pieces  are  often  in  the  form  of  goblets  and  vases, 
following  the  ancient  idea  of  a  royal  gift,  which  was  generally  a 
valuable  cup.  Whether  adajjted  for  drinking  or  the  holding  of 
masses  of  flowers,  or  whether  statuescjue  and  purely  ornamental,  they  are 
fashioned  very  much  on  the  princij)le  of  a  trophy.  They  exhibit  the  symbols 
of  yachting,  hunting,  and  athletic  sports,  and  assemble  into  one  piece  every 
thing  which  is  characteristic  of  the  contest  for  which  they  arc  the  victor's 
rewaril.     American  silversmiths  display  great  ingenuity  in  this  style  of  work. 

C01'I'I,K    AM)    liK.VSS    UTICNSILS. 

Copper  was  the  first  metal  wrought  into  arms  and  im])lemcnts  in  the  terri- 
tory which  is  now  the  United  States,  if  the  testimony  of  the  relics  of  the  days 
of  the  Indian  occupation,  and  of  the  records  of  the  Catholic  Early  use  of 
missionaries,  does  not  deceive  us.  'i"he  red  metal  which  underlies  copper. 
(he  Slate  of  Michigan  in  such  priceless  de|)osits  early  caught  the  eye  of  the 
savage  .varriors  who  threaded  the  forests  of  the  North  in  the  jKirsuit  of  game 
and  built  their  camp-fires  on  every  hill.  'l"he  stone-hammers  of  this  early 
nice  of  men  had  been  employed  upon  the  metal  ;  and  the  Jesuit  fathers,  who 
niarclied  witli  the  cross  of  their  religion  in  advance  of  the  soldiers  who  bore 
the  lilies  of  I'rance,  found  great  ([uantities  of  it  woru  as  ornaments  and  shaped 
into  tools  and  weajsons  by  the  red  heathen  whose  con\ers!on  to  ('hristianity 
they  sought.  Mad  the  white  man,  who  succeeded  to  the  occu])ancy  of  the  soil, 
also  inherited  the  ci\ilization  of  the  red  man,  it  is  ])robal)le  that  he,  too,  would 
have  expended  his  art  first  upon  tl.e  working  of  red  copper,  before  attempting 
til  utilize  the  less  attractive  and  more  refractory  metal  which  now  claims  his 
more  diliLrunt  attention  ;  but  the  white  man  brought  to  America  the  science  and 
arts  of  an  older  and  higher  civilization,  and  copper  claimed  his  attention  less 
at  the  outset  than  the  denser  metal.  That  has  not.  however,  prevented  copper 
from  assuming  the  important  rank  in  the  arts  of  the  country  to  which  its 
<l'ialities  entitle  it.  Its  manufiicture  is  one  of  the  great  industries  of  the  United 
States. 

Copper  was  first  worked  in  the  United  States  by  the  white  man,  not  under 
the  Catholic  cross  of  France  in  the  North-West,  but  under  the  austerer  ausnlrfs 
of  Protestantism  in  New  Knij;land.     The  first  mines  were  opened    ,.,    , . 

'^  '  Working  of 

Ml  Connecticut ;  and  the  State  employed  its  convicts  for  a  period  copper-mines 
of  sixtv  vears,  ending  about  t8-jo,  in  getting  out  the  metal  in  the  '"  Connecti- 
town  of  .Simsbury.  The  ingots  of  metal  were  sold  to  the  mint 
and  to  the  smiths ;  but  at  first  by  far  the  larger  part  was  exported  to  Europe  to 
be  manufactured.  After  181 2,  when  a  duty  of  thirty-five  ])er  cent  was  levied 
upon  manufactures  of  copper,  there  was  less  of  the  metal  exported,  and 
more  of  it  made  up  into  jilate  and  utensils  for  use  on  this  side  of  the  water. 
The  industry  developed  the   fastest  in   the   Flastern  and   Middle  States.     Ir 


m  11 


342 


IND  US  TRIA  I.    H/S  TOR  Y 


m\ 


m 


<%■ 


%.  I 


1870  there  were  391  ccpper  and  brass  factories  in  operation,  employing 
Develop-  5>'^°"  liands,  and  imxiiuing  a  valirj  of  $15,000,000  in  fniislied 
ment  of  goods  annually ;    there   being   of  these    factories   twenty-nine    in 

industry.  Connecticut,  forty-four  in  Massachusetts,  eighty-five  in  New  York, 
eighty-one  in  Pennsylvania,  and  twenty-one  in  New  Jersey.  Ansonia  and 
Waterbury,  Conn.,  became  the  principal  centres  of  the  manufacture. 

Pure  copper  is  one  of  the  softest  of  the  metals,  and  is  easily  roiled  into 

I)lates  for  use.     It  is  in  the  Ibnn  of  plates  principally  that  it  is  employed  in  the* 

arts.     Its  most  imijorlant  use  is  in  the  sheathing  of  the  bottom 

Importance  '  ° 

of  copper  as  of  wooden  ships  to  protect  them  from  accumulations  of  barnacles 
sheathing        ^^j^^j  shell-fish  and  the  ravages  of  the  bores.     'l"he   navigators  of 

for  ships.  •  1      1     •       1  • 

the  early  centuries  had  great  trouble  with  their  ships  on  account  of 
the  fouling  of  the  bottoms.  It  was  finally  suggested  that  the  protection  of  the 
part  of  the  ship  below  the  load-line  with  sheetdead  would  prevent  incrustations, 
and  that  material  was  used  for  a  while.  In  1761  "  Ti.e  Alarm,"  a  frigate  in 
the  royal  navy,  was  sheeted  with  copper,  which  was  found  to  answer  the 
purpose  very  much  better.  After  a  series  of  years,  it  was  found  that  pure 
copper,  while  protecting  the  shij),  was  itself  rapidly  eaten  away  by  the  chi'mical 
action  of  salt  water,  which  made  its  renewal  necessary.  This  was  expensive, 
and  shipping-men  cast  about  lor  some  impro\ement  ot  the  process  of  sheath- 
ing. A  curious  experiment  was  tried  in  resjionse  to  a  suggestion  by  Sir  Hum- 
phry Davy.  This  was  to  place  strips  of  iron  under  the  sheets  of  copper,  which 
would  be  corroded  by  the  galvan'c  action  rather  than  the  copi)er.  'Hie  inven- 
tion worked  beautifully  :  the  copper  was  preserved,  and  money  sa\ed.  But, 
c|uite  unexpectedly,  it  was  then  found  that  the  copper,  no  longer  dissoK  Jul;  in 
the  sea,  became  covered  with  barnacles  as  badly  as  the  wooden  bottoms  had 
been  before.  So  the  ship-builders  went  back  to  pure  co])per.  After  a  while, 
however,  an  alloy  of  copper  was  invented  by  mixing  with  it  forty  per  cent  of 
zinc,  which  answered  the  purposes  of  sheathing  admirably.  This  alloy  was  a 
J,  ,       si)ecies  of  brass.     It  was  called  "  yellow  metal."  and  still  retains 

Process  of  '  ■' 

making  thc  name,  and  is  now  universally  used  for  the  coppering  of  wooden 

vessels.  The  metal  is  very  soft,  and  is  rolled  cold.  It  is  worked 
down  very  gradually  and  carefully  from  the  ingot,  being  annealed 
after  each  rolling,  and  cleared  of  oxide  by  pickling  in  a  bath  of  diluted 
sulphuric  acid.  Owing  to  the  high  price  of  labor  in  this  country,  slieatliin^ 
has  been  more  expensively  made  in  the  United  States  than  abroad  uiiiil 
within  a  very  ^i^w  years.  Of  late  the  ])rice  has  been  so  reduced,  that  die 
former  large  importations  of  it  have  gready  fallen  off,  and  the  sheathing 
used  by  American  ship-builders  is  virtually  all  American-made.  The  bultj 
and  nails  by  which  copper  sheathing  is  fastened  to  thc  ship  are  cast  solid. 

Sheet-copper  is  a  very  popular  material  for  boilers  and  cooking-utensils  in 
domestic  use.  The  metal  resists  the  action  of  the  fire  better  than  tin  ;iiiu 
sheet-iron  :    it   is,  therefore,   applied   to    the   construction   of  many  forms  of 


sheet- 
copper 


tlu 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


343 


lUil, 
t)lviii.^  ill 
oms  bad 
a  while, 
■  cent  of 
:)>■  was  a 
11  retains 
wooden 
,s  worked 
annealed 
f  diluted 
heatlii'i,;; 
tad   niitil 
that  iIh- 
Kheathini; 
The  l)')lt.-> 
lid. 
Itensils  in 
tin  and 
forms  t'f 


manufixcturing  apparatus  whieh  come  into  contact  with  fire ;  such  as  retorts 
and  pipes,  vacuum-pans,  condensers,  and  boilers  in  distilleries,  use  of  cop- 
sugar  refineries,  and  other  factories,  'I'he  smaller  utensils  are  per  for  cook- 
formed  from  the  sheet-metal  by  hammcrir;,^  and  l)y  the  process  '"e-utensi  s. 
of  spinning  up,  described  under  the  head  of  "  Silver  Table-ware,"  The  copper 
becomes  very  dense  and  brittle  in  the  smithing  process,  and  has  to  be  annealed 
constantly  as  the  work  goes  on.  In  boiler-making  the  plates  are  either  united 
l)y  lapped  joints,  soldering,  or  riveting,  and  sometimes  by  more  than  one  of 
these  methods. 

Copper   is  more  extensi\ely  used  in   the   form  of  brass  than   in   its   pure 
state.      By  admixture  with  a  certain  proportion  of  zinc  it  gains  beauty  and 
(lurabilitv,  and  is  generallv  preferred  in  that  form.     The  best  i)ro-    Tu»r,fn^r. 
portion  of  the  metals  is  two  of  cojjper   to    one    of  zinc,  which   per  in  mak- 
niakes  what  is  called  eight-ounce  brass;  that  is,  eight  ounces  of  '"b brass, 
zinc  to  sixteen  of  copper  in  the  pound.     Sixt  jen-omice  brass,  the  two  metals 
bemg  eciual,  is  a  beautiful  golden  alloy,  called  "  prince's  metal."     Other  com- 
binations are  made  to  produce  pinchbeck,  INfanheim  gold,  and  other  alloys 
suitable  for  cheap  jewelry,  ani  ware  for  gikhng  and  silvering.      Brass  is  as 
agreeable  a  metal  to  work  as  i)m-e  silver.     In  thin  plates  it  can  be 
stamped  and  embossed  in  any  form.     It  spins  up  beautifully  in  a 
lathe.     It  can  be  drawn  out  into  delicate  wire ;  and  is  so  malleable,  that  it  can 
he  lieaten  out  almost  like  gold-leaf  itself  for  the  purposes  of  cheap  gilding. 
The  metal  is  susceptible  of  a  high  polish.     It  does  not  rust  by   Advantages 
e\pos\n-e,  and  has  a  great  deal  of  the  beauty  of  gold.     It  is  the    of  brass. 
unixersal  material  of  which  chandeliers  and   gas-fixtures   are    made ;    being 
susceptible  of  rich  coloring,  bronzing,  and  silvering  by  chemical   Things  made 
processes,    and   of  shaping   into    the   most    elaborate    forms    l)y   °f  brass. 
stanii»ing  and  embossing.     Brass  was  at  one  time  the  exclusive  material  out  of 
\vhi(  h  the  works  of  clocks  were  made.     .Steel  works  are  now  beginning  to  l)e 


Sheet-brass. 


used  to  a  verv  large  extent  ;  but  brass  holds  its  own  for  all  cheap  (docks,  and 
indeed  is  popular  in  every  grade  of  time-piec;e  up  to  the  great  m  ichines  ])ut 
in  the  towers  of  our  city  halls  and  churches.  Its  beauty,  and  freedom  from 
nist.  insure  its  popularity.  ISrass  is  also  extensively  consumed  in  the  manu- 
fa(  ture  of  pins.  It  is  dra\.-n  out  into  wire.  It  is  clipped  by  machinery 
into  ])ieces  of  the  ridit  lentith,  which  arc  ijointed,  headetl,  and. 

'  ?!  f^      >  I  Ping 

a!''--;   being  tinned  by  agitation  and  boiling  in  a  solution  of  tin. 

are  stuck  into  papers  for  the  market,  all  by  machines  especially  invented  for 

the  purpose.    'J'he  machine  for  putting  them  up  in  pajiers  is  an  American  idea, 


mmm 


rWW'.-^. 


,u . 

li*.-    ■', 

O    >i< 

r"p'  1 

'■   '        ■• 

ItH'M     .' 

'i 

»f  ';}.*. 

■r, 

if  1  ' 

1$ 

ife'iil 

::•-;? 

i  '*?iiil  if 


Hi 


344 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


and  saves  thousands  of  dollars  of  expense  annually.  A  great  deal  of  brass  is 
also  consumed  in  the  manufacture  of  hullons.  Our  forefathers  were  fond  of 
brass  buttons,  and  wore  them  regularly  u])on  the  ubicjuitous  blue  dressroat. 
Brass  IJrass  buttons  are  still  a  regular  part  of  the  uniform  of  the  aruiy 

buttons.  and  navy  of  the  Ignited  States,     'liieyare  struck  from  sheets  of 

Hat  nietal,  and  stamped  with  the  national  co.it  of  arms,  and  with  proper  letter, 
ing,  to  show  that  they  are  for  govermnent  use.  Hacks  and  eyes  of  cheaper 
metal  aro  Mien  fastened  on  by  soldc  fr.  '''■  or'  imental  v/ork  of  machiu'jry 
and  miifuvy  e<iuipnients,  he  peg..  ';■,-;  ^vi  i.:h  pictures  are  hung,  andirons, 
pens,  candlesticks,  and  a  lumdred  )bji.  ■-.>  ,\:  v!  'v  use,  are  made  of  this  beauti- 
ful and  serviceable  alloy. 


lislliNllKODK    I'liN'-MANUFACTOKY,   CAMDEN,    N.J. 


BKONZI-:    WAKl^    AND    .S'J'ATUARY. 

Bronze  is  the  most  beautiful  of  tlic  alloys  of  copper.  It  has  been  in  ii-c 
from  antiquity.  Much  of  what  was  called  brass  among  the  ancients  was  in 
Ancient  use  reality  bronze.  It  was  supposed  that  the  ancients  had  learned  tlu' 
of  bronze.  .jj-j-  (,f  hardening  pure  co]:)per  so  as  to  make  the  metal  serviccalilc 
for  a>es  and  daggers  :  it  is  now  believed  that  this  hardened  co])])cr  was 
only  bronze  also.  The  art  of  hardening  copper  is  said  to  be  lost :  tlic  hut 
is,  chemical  analysis  had  resurrected  the  art.  The  copper  battle-axes  found 
by  Dr.  Schliemann  at  Troy  have  been  drilled,  and   the    drillings   analyzed. 


-jr-- 


en  in  u-c 
nls  w:!-^  '" 
earned  tin' 
crvic^'^il'''-' 
oppcr  \v;i^ 
the  fait 


>\c> 


louiiii 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


345 


analv/fil- 


Dedu.ling  the  sand,  the  Inllowinj,'  was  the  result  in  the  i.ase  of  the  three 
weap  '  .  tested:  (i)  copper  ./5.S,  and  tin  t,'S,  \  (2)  topper  906,  and  tin  8; 
(, )  <  I  '  pc'-  923,  and  lin  ,4.  'I'liis  sliyht  addi»'on  of  tin  made  the  metal  a  soft 
bronze  which,  bein^  compacted  l)y  good  s'.aidiing,  proihiced  a  weapon  with 
a  hai'l  edge.  It  is  prol)able  that  the  anc'ents  did  not  clearly  understand  that 
zinc  ud  tin  were  distinct  metals;  for  they  used  the  terms  "Ijrass"  and 
"l;ronze"  interchani',  ah!) .  The  brazen  axes  which  slew  Agamemnon,  gave 
rise  to  so  many  glowing  epics  and  dramas  among  the  (Irecian  poets,  and 
gave  Shakspeare  his  suggestion  for  his  tragedy  of  "  Hamlet,"  were  properly 
true  bronze.  'Die  statue  in  the  harbor  at  Rhodes,  under  whose  legs  passec.l 
for  years  the  incoming  and  outgoing  boats  of  that  busy  island  shipping-pc;*-; 
was  also  of  bronze. 

Dronze  has  always  been  devoted  to  great  uses.  First  it  was  the  met.'  of 
war;  then,  when  iron  began  to  be  wrought  into  blades  and  armor,  1  ■,oi  /i 
became  the  fovorite  material  for  heroic  statues.  It  was  costly,  but  impo.iant 
it  was  beautiful,  and  more  enduring  than  marble  ;  and  the  sculptor  uses  of 
found  great  satisfaction,  when  his  conception  had  been  embodied 
in  his  cruml)ling  clay  model,  in  seeing  it  rei)roduced  immediately  and  easily 
in  this  noble  metal,  instead  of  being  obliged  to  await  the  slow  process  of 
cutting  the  statue  from  marble,  and  to  run  all  the  attendant  risks.  After  the 
invention  of  gunpowder,  bronze  again  became  a  favorite  metal  in  war. 
Nap(;leon  cm])loyed  it  in  the  cannon  with  which  he  subdued  the  whole  of 
Europe.  Its  strength  was  only  about  half  that  (jf  wrought  iron  ;  but  its 
beauty  pleased  the  cultivated  French,  who  loved  to  ]a\isli  u])on  every  thing 
\vhi(  li  belongctl  to  them --their  guns,  as  well  as  upon  their  dress,  their  build- 
ings, and  all  articles  of  construction  —  their  national  fondness  for  color  and 
for  decoration,  and  the  resourt-es  of  a  lively  imagination.  Tiie  metal  resisted 
wear  extremely  well,  and  bronze  guns  were  the  rage.  The  Europeans  also 
em|)loyed  bronze  for  commemorative  monuments,  arches,  and  statues.  The 
Ja|i;uiese  and  Chinese  have  used  l)roaze  IVom  very  distant  centuries;  but  their 
fondness  for  it  had  little  to  do  with  its  use  in  Europe. 

The  first  experiments  in  modern  times  to  ascertain  the  mingling  propor- 
tions (if  copper  and  tin  were  in  1770  at  Turin.  There  the  proportion  of 
twelve  or  fourteen  parts  of  tin  to  one  hundred  of  copper  was  fixed  upon  as 
the  best.  The  French  made  many  experiments  a  few  years  later,  composition 
They  decided  upon  eleven  parts  of  tin  as  the  maximum,  and  eight  °'  bronze. 
as  the  minimum,  to  one  hundred  parts  of  copper.  The  French  learned  to 
mix  in  a  small  percentage  of  lead  and  zinc  also.  At  present,  one  to  ten  is 
the  standard  jjroportion.  Alanufltcturers  var\'  from  this  standard  freely,  how- 
ever, to  produce  special  effects.  For  a  hard  bronze,  they  mix  the  metals  in 
the  proportion  of  seven  to  one.  For  machinery  bearings  and  medals,  eight 
to  one  is  the  rule  ;  for  statues,  four  to  one  ;  for  flexible  tenacious  bolts  and 
nails,  twenty  to  one  ;  and  for  speculum  metal,  two  to  one.     In  whatever  pro- 


^' 


"m 


I 

I 


I 


W-i- 


\m 


1 1 


•'H 


m, 


u  i:; 


^,1f  !J ' 


5L. 


346 


/A'D  US  TRIA  L    HIS  TOR  Y 


Durability. 


'.1F» 


portion  the  compound  is  made,  bronze  is  the  most  durable  of  metals,  except 
gold  and  platiiuun.  It  actpiircs  a  fine  rich  color  by  exposure,  which  is 
called  "patina;"  but  it  docs  not  rust.  Exposed  to  the  weather, 
it  lasts  forever.  It  has  the  peculiar  property  of  l)ecoming  mal- 
leable by  tempering  ;  antl  it  can  be  given  a  black,  red,  brown,  green,  or  silvery 
patina  by  oxidation  or  sulphuri/ation. 

Up  to  the  present  decade  the  use  of  l)rc)nze  in  the  United  States  has  been 
confined  to  the  manufacture  of  bells,  cannon,  and  statuary.  Within  tiie  last 
twenty  years  the  country  has  crossed  the  threshold  of  a  gciu-ral  manufacture 
of  the  metal.  The  last  two  decades  will  always  be  taken  as  the  real  beginning 
of  the  production  of  general  bronze-ware  in  the  United  States.  Hitherto 
bronze  has  been,  as  of  oM,  the  heroic  iiu,'t;il.  It  ha^.  l)een  sacred  to  arms 
and  statuary,  bells  being  the  only  form  in  which  it  was  utilized  for  any  do- 
mestic pur[)oses.  Now  it  comes  more  proi^inentjy  into  po|)ularity  in  the 
domestic  arts.  It  retains  its  rank  as  the  unapproachable  material  for  great 
statues  ;  but  it  is  losing  ground  for  use  in  cannon,  in  which  form  it  has  been 
extremely  popular  in  the  last  two  wars  ;  and  it  is  now  being  made  up  iiUo 
a  thousand  objects  lor  the  decoration  and  glorification  of  homes  and  ( ilies. 
Since  the  war  of  1861  the  government  has  distributed  to  the  different  cities 
and  villages  of  the  country  a  large  number  of  bronze  cannon  to  be  melted 
uj)  into  statues,  in  honor  of  the  victories  and  heroes  of  the  war,  to  grace 
public  scpiares  and  parks  ;  and  factories  for  manufacturing  bronze  objects  for 
common  use  have  started  up  all  over  the  industrial  portions  of  the  land. 
In  the  Revolutionary  war  the  peaceful  old  statue  of  King  George,  in  New- 
York  City,  was  tumbled  down,  :md  converted  to  warlike  uses  by  being  melted 
up  into  good  republican  bullets.  At  the  present  time  a  change  is  going  on 
which  might  be  comi)ared  to  the  o\'erthrow  of  the  brazen  arms  and  st:iiiie 
of  Mars,  and  the  melting  uj)  the  warlike  material  into  objects  of  beauty  . nd 
peaceful  luxury. 

The  bronze-manufacturers  of  the  United  States,  previous  to  1861,  were  lew. 
and  far  between.  The  establishments  of  the  Messrs.  Ames  at  Chicopee,  Mass., 
and  of  the  Meneelys  at  Troy,  N.Y.,  were  the  principal  ones  in  the  country  ;  ami 
there  were  only  a  few  others  sprinkled  about  here  and  there  in  tlie  Ivist- 
ern  States.  These  factories  made  bells  in  times  of  jjcace,  and  cast  caniKjn  in 
times  of  war.  The  so-called  brass  guns  used  in  the  Mexican  war,  in  the 
,      strutjgle  (jf  iS6i-6!5,  and  in  the  army  on  the  i)lains  in  liuhtiiii,' 

Increase  of  '^'^  ^  j  \  ^-^         • 

bronze-  Indians,  were  made  of  bronze.     They  were  cast  solid,  and  bored, 

manufac-         ^^j^j  \\{:x{i  nearly  as  strong  as  iron.     They  were    known  as   .\.ii»;- 

tones.  . 

Icons  in  the  armv,  to  distinguish  tlicm  from  iron  and  steel  nuns. 
The  expense  of  bronze  limited  its  manufacture  to  these  two  articles  and  to  the 
occasional  statues  which  public  gratitude  or  jirivate  liberality  caused  to  be  set 
up  in  some  opulent  city.  The  beauty  of  bronze  caused  it,  however,  to  he 
prized  in  the  arts.     For  many  years  manufocturers  tried  to  discover  a  method 


tl  M 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


347 


except 
u(  h  is 
ealher, 
ig  mal- 
silvcry 

IS  V)ocn 
Ihc  Uist 
ufui'turo 
.•ginning 
llitiicvU) 
to  arms 

any  do- 

y  in  tho 

for  great 

has  been 

115)  into 
lul  ( ilics. 
cnt  cities 
)e  mehed 
,  to  gnu'O 
)l)jects  lor 

the  Uvivl. 
,  in  Ne\v- 
iig  melted 

iroinn  un 
md  stauie 
)L'auly  .hmI 

were  tew. 

bee,  Mass.. 

Intry  ;  and 
tlie  Ivi.-'l- 
cannon  ni 

lar,  in    the 

im  i'lghtini; 

uid  billed, 

as   Nap'!- 

Istcel  guns, 
and  tc.  die 


to   l)e 


>et 


|:ver,  to  be 
a  mcilii'd 


for  bronzing  other  substances,  so  that  the  growing  refinement  of  the  i)\d)lic 
taste  might  be  gratified   by  the   purchase   of  objects  \vhi(  h   should   have  the 
appearance  of  bronze  without  its  cost.     Various  washes,  powders,  and  alloys 
were  brought  out  one  after  the  other.     A  compound  of  tin.  regulus  of  anti- 
mony, and  lead,  was  once  employed  as  an  imitation  bronze.     'I'he  manufac  turers 
of  fountains,  vases  for  the  decoration  of  grounds,  doorstep-statuary,  and  other 
metal-work,  gave  that  alloy  np  for  zinc   <overed  with   copper  by  the   electric 
process.     They  then  discovered  the  solution  of  chloride  of  platinum,  which 
vill  give  almost  any  color  to  copper,  brass,  iron,  or  new  bronze.     Cheap  sub- 
stitutes for  bronze,  and  powders  and  washes,  are  still  largely  used  :  they  can 
be  seen  in  chandeliers,  cheap  statuary,  and  coarse  decorative  metal-work.     Hut 
there  has  been  a  decided   increase   in   the   employment  of  real   bronze   since 
],Soi.      No  one  wants  an  imitation,  if  he  can  afford  the  real  thing. 
Americans,  i)arti(ularlv,  liave  a  hatred  for  shams,  whether  it  be  in    j^t'^'  „..„ 
tin'  jjrofessions  of  tneir  public  men,  or  in  so  simple  a  matter  as  the   use  of  real 
busts  of  Washington   which   adorn   their  mantle-pieces.     Besides     gg°"'^^  ^'""^^ 
this,  there  ha,-,  been  a  growth  of  the  sense  of  color  in  this  country. 
A  ri<  h  dark  wall-paper  is  wanted  now  where  a  whitewashed   wall  answered 
before.      The  old-time  white  plaster-of- Paris  statuette  no  longer  pleases;  but  it 
must  be   colored  to  resemble 
bronze,    or    must    be    of    that 
opulent     metal     itself.       The 
change  in  taste  and  the  growth 
of    prosperity    have    prepared 
the    way    f(jr   a    sale    of    real 
hnui/.e  objects.     'I'he  re>ult  is 
already  seen  in  the  factories. 
Concerns  which  formerly  pro- 
duced house-hardware  of  iron, 
suiii  as  locks,  hinges,  latches, 
metal    ornaments,    ^:c.,    have 
changed  over  to  bronze.     All 
hantlsome  houses  are  now  fur- 
nished, to  a  large  extent,  with 
bronze  metal-work  and  fasten- 
ings, as  far  as  the  doors  and 
wniddws   are    concerned,    the 
I'^lu-colored     bronzes     being 
Iiieferrcd     for     the     purpose. 
I'uMic    buildings    and    stores 

lia\c  also  ado]:)tcd  this  style  of  work.  The  whole  world  is  astonished  and 
deliuhted  wiUi  the  beauty  of  American  bronze  hardware,  vvhich  displays  great 
taste,  and  originality  of  pattern.      The   manufacturers  of  clocks,   inkstands, 


LAST   MOMENTS    lUilllNU   Till;   StLNES. 


m\ 


rivr  ; 


iiJii! 

'  .tliiil 


n 


\ih:m 


348 


/A  />  ^  '^^  7'A  /A  I.    ins  TOR  I " 


<ij,'ar-lK)l(k'rs,  thermometers,  and  V'ankec  iintions  in  general,  arc  also  now 
flooding  tin-  ( oiintry  with,  and  sending  abroad  to  a  certain  extent,  handsome 
wares  of  this  popular  material.  Kor  tliis  class  of  objects  the  darker  bron/es 
arc  used  ;  many  of  the  clieai)er  pieces,  however,  being  simply  of  iron,  but 
japanned  to  resemble  bron/.e.  Purely  ornamental  bron/e  work,  siu  h  as 
statues,  vases,  pols,  trays,  iSic,  are  not  yet  made  in  .America.  We  are 
behind  tlie  it^l  of  the  world  in  that  respect.  Yankee  genius  loves  to  pro- 
duce the  useful,  giving  it  a  beautiful  form  ;  but  there  is  not  yet  a  distinctive 
development  of  that  independent  passion  for  the  purely  beautiful  whi(  h  leads 
a  people  t(j  go  largely  into  the  maiuifa<ture  of  exclusively  ornamental  objet  ts. 
'That  will  come  in  time  ;  in  fact,  is  already  coming  :  but  the  jjrogress  in  bron/.es 
is  not  yet  sufficient  to  be  dwell  upon.  Hronze  busts  of  eminent  men,  and 
statues  tor  parks  and  public  places,  are,  however,  now  very  commonly  made. 
'I'here  is  a  genuine  passion  tor  bron/e  for  that  department  of  art.  The 
richness,  dignity,  and  strength  of  the  alloy  are  asserting  themselves,  and 
the  manulacturers  are  reaping  a  ri(  h  harvest  therefrom. 

.\merican  development  in  bronze-work  will  doubtless  come  during  the  next 
twenty  years  more  largely  from  studying  the  ideas  of  the  Japanese  than  from 
,  ,      ,  analyzing  those  of  llie    iOuropeans.     The    laijanese   have  (luiellv 

Advantage  3       ^  »  J    \  1  . 

of  studying     spent  an  immense  amoiuit  of  thought,  experiment,  and   |):ilieiit 
Japanese         manual  labor,  itijon  ornamental  bronze-work  since  the  sixth  (  enliiiv. 

productions.  ' 

and  have  attained  an  excellence  in  the  art  enjoyed  by  no  otlu  r 
nation,  although  they  have  made  the  least  bustle  about  it  of  any  nation.  Then 
alloys  are  very  numerous  and  very  rich.  They  call  them  by  the  color  \vhi<  h 
predominates  in  them  when  they  are  finished.  Their  "green  cop])er"  is  < mii 
jjosed  of  copper  and  lead,  or  copper,  tin,  and  lead.  "  Ulack  copper"  is  prodm  t  d 
by  uniting  the  three  metals  dillerently.  The  "  purple  copper  "  is  copper  and 
lead  again.  One  beautiful  alloy  is  made  of  four  i)arts  of  cop'er,  and  six  of 
silver;  and  the  famous  and  peculiar  dark-blue  .Shakudo  is  maiL-  by  adding 
to  copper  iVoni  two  to  fne  per  cent  of  gold.  The  metal  can  be  made  of  any 
hue  and  richness.  American  workmen  are  now  studying  Japanese  designs : 
when  they  come  to  study  the  raw  material,  good  results  may  be  ex])ectetl  to 
follow. 

The  i)rincipal  factories  of  bronze  statues  in  the  United  States  now  are  that 
of  Robert  Wood  iS:  Company,  Philadelphia,  and  that  of  the  Ames  Company 
at  Chicopee,  Mass.  The  statues  made  at  these  shops  are  either  of  life  oi' 
Principal  hcfoic  size.  There  are  no  colossal  works  by  them  yet.  The 
bronze-man-  United  States  have  no  colossal  statues.  One  is  proposed  of  a  light- 
u  acturers,.  Jiq^,^;^.  jj-^  Ncw-York  harbor,  to  be  presented  by  the  French,  and  to 
be   called  "  Liberty   enlightening  the  World."      It  will    be  two  hundred   a 


ml 


twenty-five  feet  high  with  its  pedestal,  if  ever  erected,  and  will  cost  oni' 
million  francs;  but  it  will  not  be  sent  here  until  the  United  States  build  a 
pedestal  for  it  to  stand  on.  and  at  present  nothing  is  being  <lone  about  it. 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


34'J 


so  now 

iidsonic 
l)ri)n/cs 
on,  Imt 
such  as 
We   nre 

to  i>ro- 
stinctivc 
K  1\  Iciuls 

objtM  ts. 
1  bron/.is 
lien,  ami 
\ly  mailf. 
rt.  TIk- 
Ivcs,  ami 

I  the  noxl 
ilian  iVoin 

.(.•  (ii\ictly 

id    |);iliciU 
h  I  t-'ntury, 

y  no  iillli'l' 

111.     'I'Ihiv 
|i)l(ir  \vhi<h 

"    i^   ( Dill- 

|)n)(lurt«l 
i)l>l)er  ami 
nd  six  t)l 
liv  addin.L; 
dc  of  any 
designs : 
pectcd  ti) 

\\s  are  that 
Company 
of  lite  or 
I  yet.       rii^' 
'ofali.gl^t- 
Lh.  and  I" 
Indred  and 
cost   oil'" 
k'S  buil>l  :i 
iut  it. 


i.imcmv-hi;!.!.. 


HF.I.LS. 

The  stor/  of  the  bell  should  always  be  written  by  a  poet :  indeed,  the  bell 
has  been  a  favorite  theme  with  the  poets  of  all  aj,'es  and  countries  since  its 
invention  and  iiUrodu(  tion  to  the  towers  of  castles,  churches,  anil  Poetic  hi». 
jfreat  buildings.  No  sound  speaks  to  men  with  sue  h  "  a  various  tory  of  beii». 
Ianf,'uagc  "  as  the  clang  of  a  great  bell.  It  always  announces  something.  ( )n»  e 
ihe  bells  of  a  tower  were  rung  to  scatter  the  storms,  it  being  believed  that  the 
holy  sound  would  have  a  subjugating  effec  t  upon  the 
elements  ;  but  that  custom  has  parsed  away,  and 
now  the  bell  speaks  only  to  tell  something  important 
to  liie  people  living  within  the  sound  of  its  voice. 
It  signalizes  the  sweetest  and  most  tender  incidents 
in  life.  It  attends  us  to  the  grave.  It  alarms  a  com- 
munity to  meet  a  danger.  There  is  always  some- 
thing of  melancholy  in  the  voice  of  a  great  bell,  e\eii 
on  the  most  joyful  occasit)ns,  and  the  sound  is  always 
full  of  symjiathy.  A  great  bell  without  that  trace  ol 
melancholy  is  worthless.  In  Murojie  it  has  always 
Ik'iii  the  custom  to  inscribe  upon  the  bell  a  legend 
of  some  sort;  and,  from  among  the  many  in  Latin, 

the  following  may  be  taken  to  show  witii   how  many  voices  the   same  iron 
tongue  can  speak  to  the  people  of  a  town  :  — 

"  l''iMu  la  plan.nii ;  fu]j;iiia  fran^jd  ;  sal)l)alii  pan^o; 
I'lxiilo  Ic'iitiis;  (lissipi)  vcntds  ;  \rM\\  muiilos." 

In  other  words,  — 

"  I  nioiun  tlic  (Icatlis  ;  T  break  tlic  liplitnings  ;  T  mark  the  salibaths  ; 
I  arouse  the  sluw  ;  I  scatter  tlie  wiiuls ;  I  appease  tlie  cruel." 

And  this  :  — 

"  I.audo  I)cum  vcruin  ;  jjlehem  voco  ;  congrego  clerum; 
Defunctos  ploro  ;  i)estcm  fugu  ;  festuni  (jue  hoiiorr)." 

That  is  to  say,  — 

"  I  jiraise  tlie  true  Ckk       T  call  tlie  people  ;  I  convoke  the  clergy; 
I  mourn  the  deatl ;   I  tiiLihten  the  pla,!;ue  ;   I  iionor  the  feast." 

Schiller,  Tennyson,  Edgar  A.  i'oe,  and  nearly  all  the  great  national  poets, 
have  given  us  a  song  of  the  bell.  "  The  Hells  of  Shandon  "  shows  how  uni- 
versal is  tlie  love  of  this  powerful  mover  of  the  sentiments  and  feelings. 

i  iic  early  bells  of  the  United  States  were  all  imported  from  h'aigland,  whence 
;il<ine,  lor  a  long  period,  were  to  be  obtained  the  supplies  of  tin  which  enter 
mil)  their  composition.     Not  many  were  wanted  :    yet  the  early   Early  beiis 
Settlers  of  America  were  a  very  religious  people,  and  the  white   imported. 
sjjin's  of  their  churches  dotted  the  dark  brown  and  green  of  every  landsca])e  ; 


1 1 


•aS- 


Til 


S»3      - 


ill 


I     ■)':;) 


iim 


m 


i*i 


#ii...j. 


,'ili 


35° 


/Ar£>  US  TRIA  L    HIS  TOR  V 


and  it  was  desired  to  liang  a  l)ell  in  as  many  of  the  spires  -"s  possible.  So  there 
was  something;  of  a  demand  for  bells,  and  the  ships  from  England  brought  all 
that  were  ordered.  Occasionally  one  was  hung  in  a  state-house  also.  Among 
this  class  was  the  fixmous  bell  imported  in  1752  for  Independence  Hall  at 
rhiladelphia ;  which,  being  cracked  on  trial  by  a  too  energetic  stroke  of  tlu- 
clapper,  was  recast  under  the  direction  of  Mr.  Isaac  Morris  of  Philadelphia. 
The  new  bell  was  inscribed  from  Lev.  xxv.  10,  "  Proclaim  liberty  throughout 
the  land  unto  all  the  inhabitants  thereof;  "  also,  "  Py  order  of  the  Assembly 
of  the  Province  of  Penn.  for  the  State  House  in  Phil.  ;"  and,  "  Pass  &  Stow, 
Phil.,  MDCC'LII."  After  the  tariff  of  1842,  which  gave  those  who  chose  to 
take  up  bell-founding  as  a  regular  Inisiness  the  protection  of  a  duty  of  thirty- 
five  per  ent,  a  number  of  small  factories  were  started,  some  of  which  after- 
wards attained  celebrity ;  among  them  being  that  of  the  Meneely  lirothers  at 
Tioy.  N.Y.,  the  one  at  Boston,  and  that  of  the  Bevin  Brothers  Manufacturing 
Com])any  of  East  Hampton,  Conn. 

'I  he  l)clls  '•hich  have  been  made  in  the  United  States  have  been,  so  fir.  of 

moderate  size,  with  few  exceptions.  'I'he 
conditions  of  society  here  have  not  bcHU 
Bells  made  favorable  to  the  production  of 
in  United  monstcr  tocsins  as  in  some 
other  countries.  Royalty  and 
priestcraft  have  resorted  to  colossal  Ijclls  in 
all  ages  to  impress  the  common  people  \\iili 
the  power  of  their  rulers ;  and  Europe  is 
filled  with  monster  castings  of  this  descri]> 
tion,  the  fifty-seven-ton  affair  at  Moscow 
b"ing  the  largest ;  while  imperial  China  and 
Ja'\an,  with  kindred  ain,.;,  have  hung  tre- 
mendous fifteen-foot  beik  in  nearly  all  liie 
great  cities  of  their  re.;:'ectiv';  emijires.  In 
the  United  States,  where  the  d>:moc.aiic 
sp'rit  prevails,  where  pomp  and  circum- 
stance are  not  employed  to  strengthen  the  authority  o*"  Church  and  State,  and 
all  things  are  gauged  by  a  common  rule  of  beauty  and  utility,  liclls  have  foinid 
their  use,  and  have  only  been  made  large  enough  to  subserve  the  war.ts  and 
])leasures  of  the  people.  The  largest  bell  ever  made  in  the  country  was  ( ast 
at  Boston  for  the  City  Hall  at  New  York.  It  weighed  twenty-three  thousand 
pounds,  was  eight  feet  across  at  the  mouth,  six  feet  hi|;;  ^  and  -ix 
inches  anil  a  half  thick  »here  the  clapper  struck  it,  A  few  It  air 
and  five  ton  bells  have  also  been  cast  ;  but  tlie  majority  of  those  made  averai;c 
a  thousand  pounds'  weight  Oiily  for  churches  and  city  halls,  and  four  huiidn  d 
pounds'  weight  for  factc'-ies. 

The  tone  of  a  Ijell  is  entirely  witliin  the  control  of  the  manufacturer,     bs 


JArANESi:   UHLI.. 


Size  of  belli' 


•\:  '^ 


()/'■    THE    UXITEn    STATES 


351 


"nr.  of 
The 
been 
on  of 
sonic 
:y    and 
)ells  in 
le  with 
rope  i-^ 
cscrip- 
loscow 
\\\  and 
!-■  irc- 
ill  the 
^.     In 
oc.-ar.c 
in  mn- 
tc.  and 
uund 
r.ts  and 
as  cast 
on-and 
and  -'A 
c\v  four 
avrvai:'' 
Mndri-d 


softness  and  sweetness  can  be  \aried  by  using  different  proportions  of  copper 
and  tin,  and  putting  in  a  little  lead  or  silver.    Its  pitch  is  varied  by   ^^^^^  ^^ 
the  size  and  diameter,      h'or  instance,  tlie  bells  ringing  the  first,    beii,  how 
third,  fifth,  and  eighth  of  the  scale  are  cast  relative,  with  dianie-     ^  ermine 
ters  of  thirty,  twenty-four,  twenty,  and  fifteen,  and  weights  of  eighty,  forty-one, 
twenty-four,  and  ten.    The  ease  of  graduating  the  tone  has  led  to  the  adoption 
of  chimes  of  bells  ;  and  (  hurches  in  all  the  large  cities  of  the  country,  and  in 
some  of  the  smaller  ones,  hav  :  within  the  last  twenty  years  purchased  them, 


CHUKCll-UELL. 

and  the  communities  have  been  nii.'d  with  the  music  of  "  sweet  chimes  of 
magic  bells."  The  most  ancient  c  hinie  in  the  country  is  that  in  a  iiicturesque 
ruin  in  the  southern  part  of  C'alifiM-nia.  It  is  a  relic  of  the  Spanish  occupation. 
'I'lic  Jesuit  missionaries  from  Mexico  btiilt  a  number  of  massive  mission-houses 
i"  ihat  part  of  the  country,  and  hung  in  them  bells  brought  from  Europe.  One 
(it  diese  structures,  being  erected  in  a  region  occasionally  shaken  by  earth- 
quakes, was  made  with  a  dome  ten  feet  thick,  in  order  that  it  might  resist  any 
pii^sible  shock  ;  and  the  bells  were  hung  in  the  arches  of  a  low  buttressed  wall, 


352 


IND  US  TRIA  L    JUS  TOR  Y 


separate  from  tlie  main  Imikling.  In  irony  at  the  calculations  of  man,  an  earth- 
quako  crushed  the  massive  central  building,  and  has  left  the  bells  hanging  in 
their  arched  colonnade  to  the  present  day.  The  most  interesting  chime  in  the 
coimtry  is  that  at  Cornell  University,  in  Ithaca,  N.V.  'I'liere  are  ten  bells, 
the  largest  weighing  4,889  pounds,  and  the  smallest  230.  They  represent  the 
notes  of  i),  (i,  A,  II,  L',  I),  K,  V,  V  sharp,  and  (i.  The  largest  of  these  bells 
bears  various  legemls,  as  follows  :  '*  The  gift  of  Mary,  wife  of  Andrew  I ).  Whitu, 
First  President  of  Cornell  University,  1869;'"  '•  (llory  to  (iod  in  the  highest, 
and  on  eartli  peace,  good  will  toward  men  ;  "  "  To  tell  of  Thy  loving-kindness 
early  in  the  morning,  and  of  Thy  trutli  in  the  night-season."  Also  the  follow- 
ing, written  for  tlie  purpose  by  James  Russell  Lowell:  — 

"  J  call,  as  lly  the  irrcvocahle  lidurs. 

Futile  as  air,  or  strciiisj;  as  fate,  to  make 
\'oiir  lives  of  sand  or  granite  :  .-uvful  powers, 
Even  as  men  choose,  they  cither  L,nvc  or  take." 

Upon  the  nine  other  bells  are  couplets  from  Tennyson's  "In  Mcmoriam," 
beginning  with  the  smallest,  as  follows  :  — 

'  R'tU'j.  out  the  old,  ring  in  the  new ; 
Ring  out  the  false,  ring  in  the  tri"^. 

Ring  out  I  Ik-  grief  that  sa])s  tlie  mind  ; 
King  in  redress  to  all  mankind. 

Ring  out  a  slowlv-dying  cause, 

And  ancient  forms  of  jiarlv  strife  ; 

Ring  in  th.e  nf)l)lcr  motles  of  life. 
With  sweeter  manners,  purer  laws. 

Ring  out  false  pride  in  jilacc  and  blood; 
Ring  in  the  common  love  of  good. 

Ring  out  the  slander  and  the  spite  ; 
Ring  ill  the  love  of  truth  and  right. 

Ring  out  the  narrowing  lust  of  gold  ; 
Ring  out  the  tiiousand  wars  oC  old. 

Ring  out  old  sha])cs  of  foul  disease  ; 
Ring  in  the  thousand  years  of  peace. 

Ring  in  the  valiant  man  and  free, 

'1"1h  larger  heart,  the  kindlier  hand; 

Ring  out  the  fiarkncss  of  the  land  ; 
Ring  in  the  Christ  that  is  to  be." 


OF    77/ K    UN /TED    STATES. 


35.5 


On  this  last  bell  is  also  the  inscriiition,  "  This  chime  the  gift  of  Miss  Jennie 
McGraw  to  the  Cornell  Univcrsitv,  i86S." 


1:?^ 


■'ii'* 


i 


*■»'»' 


r-W 


CHIMK   OK   liKI.l.S. 


American  manufacturers   are  no*   very  confident  of  the  value  of  silver  in 
hells,  and  they  generally  prefer  clear  mixtures  of  copper  and  tin.     'I'he  pro- 
portion is.  for  musical  bells,  six  of  copper  to  one  of  tin  :    horse-    silver  in 
hells.  coppL'r  four,  tin  one  ;  and  large  bells,  three  to  one.     Cattle-    ''^"^• 
bells  are  made   of  iron  and  copper.     They  are  not  inlended  to  do  any  thing 
except  make  a  noise.     Steel  bells  have  been  experimented  with    Composition 
some  in  England  ;  but  they  arc  harsh  in  sound,  and  not  ))opular.    °^  ''^"^• 
.^  few  fire-alarm  bells  have   been   used   in   the    United   States,  consisting  of  a 
hea\y  bar  of  steel,  coiled  spirally,  and  mounted  upon  a  sounding-    Fire-alarm 
board.     They  have  been  abolished,  however,  by  the  new  system    ''^"^• 
of  lire-alarm,  which  provides,  not  for  ringing  a  great  tocsin  to  agitate  the  town, 
but  tor  ringing  a  gong  in  every  engine-house   by  means  of  \\vi  telegraph,  and 
thus  giving  the  alarm  only  to  those  who  need  to  know  about  the  existence  of  a 
fire.      Table-bells  are  now  made  of  silver,  gold,  and  Cerman  silver.     Those  in 
tile  lorni  of  a  liiUe  gong,  mounted  upon  a  little  slender  rod,  which,  in  turn,  is 
supported  upon  a  small  pedestal,  are  the  most  popular.     T3ronze   Bronze 
gongs  are  made  of  all  sizes,  from  the  terrific  monsters  shai)ed  like   eongs. 
a  warrior's  shield,  which  the  waiters  bang  at  the  railroad  eating-houses,  to  the 
tiny  bell-like  bronzes  in  alarm-clocks  and  office-annunciators.     The  casting  of 
hells  is  so  simple  a  process,  that  it  need  not  be  described.     The  gong  —  that 


354 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


bell-manu 
factories. 


is,  the  gong  of  the  Chinese  sort  —  is  made  by  forging  under  a  heavy  hammer. 
M     K      ,      There   are    now  about   tiiirty-five    estabhshments   in   the   United 

Numoer  oi  ^ 

States  engaged  in  the  prothiction  of  bells  :  a  portion  of  their 
product  is  sold  abroad.  The  imports  of  bells  have  stopped. 
It  is  not  probable  that  great  bells  will  ever  form  a  special  feature  of 
American  life.  The  tendency  of  things  is  not  in  that  direction,  (ireat  bells 
Future  of  are  only  valuable  to  alarm  a  town  and  the  inhabitants  of  the  sur- 
beiis  in  U.S.  rouuding  country.  In  the  days  of  the  hand  fire-engine,  it  was 
im])ortant  that  every  able-bodied  man,  in  a  city  where  there  was  any  special 
Value  of  accumulation  of  wealth,  should  be  warned  whenever  any  of  the 
great  bells,  buildings  of  the  place  caught  fire,  so  that  he  might  lend  his  efforts 
to  stay  the  conllagration.  Steam  fire-engines,  public  water-works,  and  thr 
telegraph  alarm-bell,  have  superseded  the  need  both  of  a  call  to  the  population 
of  the  place  and  the  use  of  great  bells.  During  the  late  war,  heavy  bells 
were  useful  to  call  in  the  people  of  the  rural  towns  to  hear  the  news  of  some 
great  victory  or  great  defeat ;  but  cannon-firing  answered  very  well  in  the 
absence  of  bells  then,  and  probably  will  in  the  future. 


LEAD-MANUFACTURES. 

Lead,  though  the  humblest  of  the  metals,  has  played  its  part  royally  in  the 
drama  of  human  life.  When  gunpowder  was  in\ented,  lead  was  the  one 
material  of  which  missiles  could  be  made.  Its  existence  dictated  the  form  of 
weapons,  and  changed  the  art  of  war ;  and  not  only  that,  but  it  ilecided  the 
fate  of  all  rude  nations,  and  changed  the  history  of  the  world.  When 
chemistry  brought  its  resources  to  bear  upon  the  metal,  lead  became  useful  to 
man  in  beautifying  his  dwellings  with  color ;  and,  when  machinery  was  ai)plicd 
toward  fashioning  it,  it  was  found  serviceable  for  a  variety  of  objects  for  which 
no  other  metal  has  been  able  to  do  ecpially  well. 

Lead  was  found  scattered  along  the  coast  of  North  America,  here  and 
there,  by  the  earlier  settlers,  as  will  be  more  fully  described  elsewhere  ;  and  its 
manufacture  for  common  purpo:-cs  began  long  before  the  Rcno- 
lution.  It  was  chiefly  employed  for  bullets.  The  metal  was 
obtained  at  the  store,  and  the  huntsman  cast  his  own  bullets  by 
hand.  In  the  government  armories,  balls  were  made  for  the  use 
;  but  there  was  httle  general  manufacture  of  lead  for  the  niarki.1. 
:i>  wilu  r  jiiirpose,  until  after  the  Revolution.     After  the  peace  nt 


Early  use  of 
lead  was 
chiefly  for 
bullets. 


of  the  a.iVi 

for  that  or  cUi)  » 

1 7S3  the  uses  u 

to    pres'.Tv..-    w  ■•  > 

l)ainte\; 

regarded 

New  EngKin'      'iS  ben  it-  was  found  ti  .it  paint  not  only  beautified,  but  was  "i 

positive  utility,  .t  [rr^l:,'-  ^pid,  'iiic,  of  coloring  houses,  barns,  and  other  wooden 


!f.id  increased.     It  was  found  that  oil-paint  liad  a  tendemv 
'dc!)    dwtiiings   from   de  ay.     Very   k'w   dwellings  had   hecii 
tor    'he  war.     P\I'it  was  <  osdy,  it  beinp;   ill  imported;  and  it  was 
..  \.i>,!v|]y  ;..,-,d  sinful  luxury  in  most  of  the  colonies,  especiallv  111 


'■inrici 
fro  111 
The  ; 
l>c-an 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


355 


in  the 
e    one 
rm  of" 
1  the 
When 
ful  10 
pphcil 
which 


buildings,  set  in,  and  the  home  manufacture  of  it  began.  A  flictory  to 
make  lead-paint  was  started  in  Piiiladelphia  before  i^oo:  by  1820  used  for 
there  were  several  in  New-York  City,  and  still  others  west  of  the  P*'"*- 
Aileghanies  and  v-'lsewhere  in  operation.  Other  factories  in  Brooklyn,  Albany, 
lioston,  Buffalo,  and  the  West,  soon  followed.  Then  the  manufacture  of  small 
shot  had  been  invented.  In  1782  a  plumber  living  in  Bristol,  by  the  name  of 
Watts,  dreamed  that  he  was  caught  out  in  a  rain-storm,  which  turned  to  lead 
as  it  fell.  This  suggested  the  idea  of  shot-making.  He  went  up  into  a 
cliurch  and  poured  out  some  melted  lead,  which  fell  into  water  btlow,  and 
became  shot.  The  idea  was  taken  up  quite  generally.  In  1807  E.riyshot- 
raul  lieck  built  a  large  ;ihot-towcr  on  the  Schuylkill,  a  hundred  "'a^'ng- 
and  se\eiity  feet  high,  which  he  thought  would  supply  the  whol:  Unit'  d 
States.  He  could  not  supply  the  United  States,  however;  and  several  other 
factories  were  built  in  the  country  in  succeeding  years.  Four  were  built  at 
New-York  City,  with  a  capacity  of  over  three  thousand  tons  per  annum  ;  and 
seven  were  built  at  St.  Louis.  Virgin.  ,  Baltimore,  and  other  localities,  were 
ecpiipped  with  shot-towers  also;  and  the^  have,  in  fact,  sprung  u[)  all  over  the 
country.  The  census  of  1870  showed  .^even  of  then'  in  active  operation, 
produc  ing  about  five  thousand  tons  of  shot  annually.  Besides  these  uses  of 
lead,  various  others  were  introduced  at  different  periods  ;  and  the  United  Stav.es 
have  embarked  in  the  manufacture  of  lead  therefor  in  a  greater  or  less  degree. 
I'iin(ii)al  among  these  uses  of  lead  is  its  application,  either  in  the  fonr  of 
the  pure  metal  or  an  alloy,  to  pipe-making,  and  the  manufactr.re  of  type, 
emery-wheels,  solder,  table-ware,  sheet-metal,  the  keys  of  musical  instruments. 
Babbitt  metal  for  the  bearing.)  of  machinery,  &c. 

Lead  derives  a  great  part  of  its  importance   from   its  useful   alloys.       a 
coml)ination  with  antimony  it  makes  a  metal  good  for  type,  the  bearings     f 
machinery,    and     ornamental     metal-work,     being    white,    hard,   xheuse 
capable  of  a  polish,  and  pioducing  a  sharper  casting.     The  alloy   i-iad  as  «„ 
melts  more  readily  than  lead,  and   is  harder.     With   twenty  per   ^  °^' 
rent  of  tin,  lead  produces  pewter.     It  is  harder  in  the  form  of  an  allo\     md 
more  fusible  ;  a  fact  whicli  is  turned  to  use  in  the  making  of  solder.  '        lix- 
ing  equal  parts  of  tin  and  lead,  and  in  the  production  of  a  metal  wii    wnich 
naturalists  can  take  delicate  castings.     Lead  melts,  when  ])ure,  at  635°  :  but  in 
the  form  of  an  alloy  composed  of  lead  i.  bismuth  2,  tin   i,  it  fuses  at  201°; 
wliich  is  considerably  less  than  that  of  boiling  water.     W^ien,  therefore,  it  is 
desired  to  form  a  mould  of  some  delicate  tissue  or  substance  which  would  be 
destroyed  by  boiling  water,  this  useful  alloy  is  available  for  the  purpose. 

I'erhajjs    type-founding,    next   after   that   of    bullet-making,    is   the    'i.">st 
amient  industry  in  which  the   people   engaged   in  producing  usciul  ari:.  les 
fr"in   lead.      Type   was  cast   in    this   country  as  early  as   1735.   Type- 
i  He  i)ioneer  in  the  art  was  Christopher  Saws   (or  Sowes),  who   "^ai^'oS' 
hcgan  printing  at  C.ermantown,   Penn.,  and   cast    the    type    required   in   his 


35^> 


lA-nUSTNlAI.     HISTOR  Y 


'       flfll  :k  r  •  't^  I  '^  '  il  il 


%x'- 


^r>;i 


ill 


!  I  »i 


1)1 
of 


business,  executing  tiierewilh,  in    i  743,  the  second   liible  printed  in  America, 
il  being  in  tiie  (lernian  language.     Type  was  cast  l)y  several  printers  subse- 

(Itient  to  him,  including  I'Vanklin 
among  others.  In  1796  i'.iiiney 
and  Ronaldson  of  lOdinljurgh 
established  type-founding  as  a 
regular  business  at  I'hiladelphia. 
having  a  jtretty  hard  time  of  it 
for  a  few  years,  l)ut  finallv  ob- 
taining State  aid,  con(|ucring  all 
difficulties,  and  building  u])  a 
business  which  was  the  origin 
the  i)resent  great  establishment 
Mackellar,  Smiths.  \'  Jordan.  ISe- 
fore  the  close  of  the  centiu'v  I  )avid 
Ihiuc,  also  of  iMlinburgh.  started 
the  business  at  New- York  ("ity. 
Mr.  Bruce  was  an  ingenious  man, 
and  invented  improvements  in  the 
methods  of  ty]X>-lbunding  which 
developed  the  business.  'I'he  ori- 
ginal method  was  to  cast  each 
letter  by  hand,  one  at  a  time.  .V 
copper  mould  was  made  for  the 
type,  the  letter  being  stamped 
into  the  lower  end  of  the  mould, 
or  matri.x,  with  a  steel  die,  and  the 
I'KiMiK'^  -iTANii.  matrix  capable  of  being  opened 

to  take  out  the  letter.  The  ma- 
trix was  put  into  a  little  wooden  or  iron  box  having  a  hopper  to  admit  the 
melted  metal.  The  workman,  hokhng  this  in  his  left  hand,  di]i])e(l  enuiiuh 
metal  for  a  letter  from  the  melting-pot  with  a  small  iron  ladle.  lie  poured  it 
in,  and  gave  the  matrix  a  sharp  jerk  upwards  as  high  as  his  head  to  settle  the 
metal  into  the  fmcst  lines  of  the  type  and  to  condense  it.  He  then  pressed 
a  spring,  opened  the  matrix,  shook  out  the  tyjie,  closed  the  box,  and  went 
on  as  before.  The  average  rate  of  casting  was  400  letters  an  hour.  Mr. 
[)avid  Bruce  invented  an  improvement  in  181  i  by  which  500  type  could  he 
vast  in  an  hour.  In  181 2  a  duty  of  thirty  per  cent  was  laid  u))on  foreign 
ty[)e,  in  place  of  the  previous  fifteen  per  cent.  This  was  a  great  help  t>' 
American  makers.  Both  at  Philadelphia  and  New  York  the  Inisiness  soon 
became  im])ortant.  In  1813  David  and  (George  Bruce  began  the  first  stereo- 
typing establishment  in  the  United  States.  In  1831  Mr.  David  Bruce,  juu., 
patented    the    only    successful    type-casting    machine    which    has    ever    been 


vent 
I'rai 

t\pt- 
nibl 


n,  (),  K 

50:  n: 


the 
ul.l, 

ina- 
ihc 

red  il 

c  tlu' 

rcsscil 

went 

Mr. 

orciiiii 

SudU 

been 


<■;/<     /7/A     LW'ITED    STA'l'ES. 


357 


made.       It    was    the    product    of  years  of   rxiterinient    and    study.       It    lias 

tiuirely  superseded  the   little    hand-inoul<ls,   and    has   t^one    intc)   general   use 

in  American    factories  and   in   many   i'airo[)ean.       in    this   machine   the  tvpe- 

metal  is  ke])t   in  a  melted   condition 

in  a  small  iron  reservoir  hy  means  of 

a  gas  jet.       P'rom   the   reservoir  it    is 

pumped,  under  great  pressure,  thnjugh 

,    steel  nipple,  into  the  matrix  of  the 

t\|)e.  which  presents  itself  to  the  nip- 
ple simultaneously  with  the  downward 

stroke   of  the    piston.       The   (piantity 

(if  metal   pumped   from   the   reservoir 

in  each  case   is  just  enough  to  make 

one  letter.     A  blast  of  cold  air  plays 

upon   the   mould,   the    metal   hardens 

instantly,  the  mould  rec  edes,  the  t\|)e 

is  cast  out   into  a  hopper,  the  mould 

closes    again,   and   moves   forward    to 

re|)eat    the    process.       The    sjjeed    of 

casting    was     increased    about    three 

twue^  by  this  machine,  and  the   ])ro- 

portion   of   imperfect    type   materially 

diminished.  By  an  impro\ement  in- 
vented by  J.  A.  T.  Overend  of  Sar 
f'rancisco,  in    1875,  the  speed  of  the  machine  was   increased  to  a  hundred 

tvpes  a  minute.     After  coming  from  the  mould,  type  has  to  be  smoothed  by 

nibbing  on  a  stone  slab  :    and  the  jct-entl  must    be  cut  off.  so   that  all   the 

types  shall  be  exactly  the 
same  length.  In  type-found- 
ing, certain  letters  of  the 
alphabet  are  gi\en  greater 
prominence  than  others. 
This  is  due  to  the  fre- 
quency with  which  the  dif- 
ferent letters  occur  in  the 
I'"nglish  language.  The  pro- 
portion in  which  they  are 
cast,  and  in  which  they  occur 
in  ])rint.  is  about  as  follows  : 
e.  1,500;  t.  900;  a.  830; 
:  u.  340  ;  c.  m.  300  :  f.  250  ; 
(].  50;  j,  X,  40:  z.  20  :  fi. 
50;  ft".  40;  fl.  20  :  ffi.  ftl.  15  ;  ^e,  10;  oe,  5.      In  cajiital  letters  the  differences 


1  AiiiNEi   lou   rvrh; 


ft. 


llf" 


>^" 


Mil  !<1SC,M.\C,IIINK. 


11.  <i.  s.  i,  Soo  ;  b,  640  ;  r.  620  ;  d.  440  ;  1,  400 
w.  \.  200  ;  g.  p.  I  70  ;  1),  i6o  :  v.  1  20  ;  k.  80  : 


I** 


If  I 


It 


't  nc 


,^': 


'If 


358 


/JVD  US  TRIA  L    HIS  ION  Y 


I.KAD-tUITliH. 


are  not  so  great;  l)ut  I,  T,  A,  and  E  lead  in  importance.       The  Ijest  tv[)e- 
metal    is    con)[)osed  of  fifty  parts  of  lead,   and   ab(nit  twenty-two   parts  of 

antimony  for  hardness,  twenty-two  of 
tin  fur  toughness,  and  four  of  copper 
for  tenacity.  The  copper  is  left  out, 
however,  very  often.  It  is  replaced  I)y 
copper-facing,  put  on  by  the  electro 
process  invented  by  Dr.  L.  V.  Newton 
of  New-York  City.  A  metal  very  much  like  that  used  for  type  is  em])lo\ed 
in  stereol;  ping.     It  will  be  referred  to  under  the  head  of  "  S'ereotyping." 

The  manufacture  of  lead-paint  was  begun  in  America  1  y  John  Harrison 
of  Philadeli)hia,  a  young  man  who  believed  that  a  large  number  of  chemi(  al 
Manufacture  [iroduc  ts  wi '(  ii  were  being  jjrocured  from  abroad  might  be  made 
of  lead  paint.  ])y  ,),,f-  ,,\y,^  people.  Having  finished  a  thorough  education  in 
chemistry  by  a  course  under  the  celebrated  Joseph  Priestley  of  lOngland, 
Harrison  started  a  factory  of  sulphuric  acid  and  white-lead  in  I'hiladeliihia 
Ip  I  798,  and  prospered  from  die  very  first.  The  house  of  John  T.  Lewis  \- 
brothers,  founded  in  1S07,  afterwards  went  into  the  same  business.  The 
manufav  ■  '  soon  extended  all  over  the  country.  It  became  [jarlii  ulaiiy 
successful  ill  lirooklyn,  N.Y.,  owing  to  the  growth  of  the  communities  in  that 
immediate  vi(  inity.  At  the  i)rcsent  time  there  are  145  factories  engage<l  in 
the  i)ro(luction  of  [)ainls,  the  manufacture  of  lead  pigments  being  a  part  of 
their  business.  They  •  uploy  3,000  hands,  and  produce  about  $17,000,000 
worth  of  goods  anniiai.'\  in  fair  years.  Of  the  total  number,  thirty-four  arc 
in  IVniisybaiiia,  sixteen  in  Massachusetts,  eleven  in  New  York,  iburtceu  in 
Ohio,  ten  in  Missouri,  and  four  in  Illinois. 

The  principal  pigments  made  Irom  lead  are  miniinn.  or  red-lead  (which  is 
easily  produced  by  exposing  litharge  at  a  continued  low  red-heat  to  the  action 
of  the  air),  white-lead,  a  carbonate  of  tlie  metal,  chrome-red,  and  cln'oinc- 
yellow.  'I'heyare  all  beautiful,  brilliant,  and  valuable  jjigments.  Oxide  of/ini 
now  contests  with  white-lead  the  favor  of  builders  ;  but  the  importance  of  the 
pigment  is  scarcely  affected  by  the  competition. 

White-lead  was  originally  made  in  Holland  ;  and  invention  has  thur,  far 
failc<l  to  sui)ersc(le  the  ••  Dutcli  process  "  of  its  luanufacture.  Some  variatmns 
„„  .     ,     ,      in   the   details   have   been   made    in  America  ;  but  the  iirocess  is 

White-lead.  ,  '  ' 

essentially  the  same  in  principle  as  that  invented  by  the  ])cn|ili.' 
who  taught  Northern  Europe  the  arts  of  industry.  To  prepare  the  iiignuni. 
the  ])urest  metallic  lead  is  obtained.  Originally  it  was  subjected  to  the  chcnii- 
Mode  of  ^"^    operation    in    the    form    of  loose    rolls    of  sheet-lead.       1  he 

manufactur-    American  method  is  to  cast  the  lead  into  circular  gratings  looking 
"^'  very  much  like  shoe-buckles.     In  whic  hc\er  shap''  prepareil.  the 

lead  is  put  into  earthen  jars,  with  a  little  vinegar  at  the  l)ottom,  the  lead  bein.i,' 
sup])orted    by    earthen    ledges    from    coming    into    contact  with   the  vineuir. 


hur,  far 
viatniiis 
)(t'SS    b 

iij;nuMit. 
chcnii- 
I'hc 
lookin.u 
red.  the 
(I  bcinii 
viiK\uar. 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


359 


Sometimes  the  pots  have  openings  in  the  sides  to  permit  a  free  circulation  of 
the  vapors  set  free  in  the  j)roccss.  An  immense  coilec  tion  of  the  jars,  tens  of 
thousands  in  numljer,  are  then  packed  in  aUernate  hi)ers,  with  hiyers  of  some 
fermenting  material  which  will  give  out  ( arbonic-acid  gas.  Originally  stable- 
manure  was  employed.  At  present  spent  tan-bark  is  preferred.  'I'he  layers 
of  jars  and  bark  are  carried  up  sometimes  twenty  feet  high,  the  bark  being 
kept  out  of  the  jars  l.)y  sheets  of  lead  and  by  boanls.  .A  large  buildmg  being 
filled  in  this  way  is  then  closed.  'I'he  fermentation  sets  free  a  large  iiuantity 
of  carbonic  acid.  I'asic  acetate  is  first  turmed  on  the  surface  of  the  lead  in 
the  pots,  which  is  decomposed  by  the  carbonic-ac  id  gas,  forming  carbonate 
anil  free  acetic  acid.  The  latter  again  acts  on  tlie  lead.  Very  little  vinegar 
is  re(iuiretl  ;  and  the  process  goes  on  continuously,  assisted  by  the  heat  of  the 
I'crmentatiou,  until,  at  the  end  of  ten  or  twelve  weeks,  fermentation  sto]is. 
The  process  is  then  at  an  end.  The  stack  is  then  taken  to  pieces.  The  lead 
is  found  i'.i  its  original  form,  though  increased  in  bulk  and  weight,  and  con- 
verted into  a  very  while  and  soft  carbonate.  If  the  conversion  has  not  been 
thoroughly  done,  a  can  of  metallic  or  blue  lead  will  be  found  in  the  interior 
of  some  of  the  jjieces.  The  pieces  of  lead  are  now  thrown  into  large  tanks 
filled  with  water,  in  which  they  rest  ujjon  shelves  of  cop])er  full  of  holes. 
Tliey  are  beaten  to  separate  and  pulverize  the  carbonate,  the  water  preventing 
tlic  fine  dust  from  poisoning  the  air  and  injuring  the  workmen.  (Irinding, 
and  wasiiing  in  water,  then  follow,  until  the  carbonate  is  reduced  to  an  im- 
palpable powder.  It  is  then  dried  in  steam  pans  or  upon  tile  tables,  and  put 
up  tor  the  market.  The  carbonate  obtained  in  this  way  is  superior  to  that 
obtained  in  any  other  ;  but  a  very  fair  commercial  article  is  made  by  boiling 
solutions  of  nitrate  or  acetate  with  litharge,  and  i)recipitating  the  solution  with 
carbonic  acid.  White-lead  is  not  alone  emi)loyed  as  the  best  white  paint ;  but 
it  ( onstitutes  the  body  of  almost  all  othe'-  paints,  it  being  colored  by  intermix- 
ture with  other  pigments. 

Chrome-yellow  is  obtained  by  precipitating  a  solution  of  nitrate  of  lead 
with  chromate  of  potash,  and  washing  and  drying  the  product.     The  red,  a 
bright  powder,  is  obtained  from  the  yellow  by  boiling  it  with  lime   chrome- 
or  some  other  alkali  ;   also  by  digesting  levigated  litharge,  by  boil-    yellow. 
ing  with  neutral  yellow  chromate  of  potash,  tS:c.     A  green  lead  is  also  made. 

Considering  how  far  a  pound  of  oil-jjaint  goes  in  coloring  a  house  or  a 
fence,  the  consumption  of  pig-lead  in  i)aint-making  must  be  regarded  as 
tiiormous.  It  now  amounts  in  the  I'nited  States,  yearly,  to  about  Aduitera- 
50,000  tons.  Notwithstanding  the  cheaj^ness  of  lead-paint,  it  is  *'°"- 
largely  adulterated  for  the  market  by  small  dealers  with  whiting.  The  jtowder 
is  absolutely  white,  and  does  not  discolor  ;  but  it  does  not  make  so  brilliant 
a  paint. 

When   the  use  of  paint  began   to   become  general  in   this    country,   the 
favorite  colors  were  vliile  for  hjuses,  churches,  and  wooden  stores,  —  the  color 


ml! 


iNifJi;;-.' 


J;: 


W^ 

'•l^,\    ',  ■  1 

^^jj 

111 

iji' I'M 

:i    '''^1^ 

L,   if 

:!m 

'if)!i':il  /^^. 


m. 


300 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


conforming  to  !hc  simplicity  of  that  age,  —  green  for  window-blinds,  and  red 
for  barns.  Red  barns  are  still  common  on  tlie  farms  of  the  country  ;  allhotigli 
drab  and  brown  ])aints  have  come  into  popularity  witiiin  the  last  twenty  years, 
and  threaten  soon  to  supersede  both  reil  and  white  for  wooden  l)uildiPL;s  of 
all  kinds. 

Shot-making  is  the  simplest  of  mechanical  processes.  'I'he  only  place  in 
tin-  i)rocess  where  any  special  judgment  is  rc(|uired  is  in  the  [)reparation  of 
Modern  pro-  '''*-'  pif^-'i!'-'''''-  Most  manufacturers  regard  the  presence  of  arsenic 
cess  of  shot-  in  the  metal  as  absolutely  necessary.  Very  c:heap  lead  is  used  in 
ma  ing.  sliol-uKiking,  and  the  presence  of  one  or  two  per  cent  of  arsenic 

gives  it  fluidity.  A  pot  of  lead  is  melted.  Mither  while  arsenic  or  orpiuKiii 
(the  sulphuret)  is  put  into  the  centre  of  the  mass,  and  a  cover  put  ujjon  the 
nnt,  and  sealed  down.  A  chemi(  al  combination  lakes  place  in  a  tew  hours ; 
and  the  pot  is  then  ojjcncd,  and  the  metal  tested  by  pouring  a  litUe  of  it 
through  a  strainer  at  a  moderate  height  into  water.  'I'he  globules  of  lead  are 
round,  if  the  mixture  has  been  made  in  the  right  |jroportion  ;  they  are  lens- 
shaped,  if  there  is  too  much  arsenic  ;  and  irregular  in  shape,  if  too  little.  If 
the  metal  is  all  right,  it  is  cast  into  jjigs  for  use.  It  is  converted  into  shot  by 
fusing  it  at  a  low  height,  and  letting  ii  drain  through  colanders  at  the  t(jp  of 
a  tower.  The  drops  harden  on  the  way  down,  and  fall  into  water.  The 
imi)erfect  shot  are  separated  from  the  others  by  letting  them  roll  down  in- 
clined planes.  The  gooil  ones  go  down  with  speed,  and  shoot  off  into  ])r()pir 
receptacles :  the  irregular  ones  go  down  more  slowly,  and  drop  off  upon  the 
floor.  They  n.re  sorted  into  sizes  by  being  shaken  in  sieves.  The  height  of  a 
shot-tower  is  from  150  to  250  feet.  One  in  Baltimore  is  256  feet  high,  and  is 
probably  the  tallest  in  the  world.  .\n  .American  method,  patented  by  David 
Smith  of  New  York  in  1848,  aimed  to  dispense  with  these  tall  towers,  which 
stand  up  above  the  other  buildings,  like  ancient  obelisks,  in  every  city  where 
they  are  erected.  A  shorter  tower  is  used,  and  a  powerful  current  of  cold  air 
is  blown  up  through  the  falling  shot  by  means  of  machinery. 

About  the  last  of  the  great  manufactures  of  lead  to  be  introduced  in  this 
country  was  that  of  sheet-lead  and  lead  pipe  :  it  is  now,  however,  the  principal 
Sheet-lead  consumer  of  the  metal.  There  are  about  twenty-five  factories  en- 
and  lead  gaged  in  making  lead  pipe  and  sheet-lead,  having  an  annual  proil- 
'"''^'  net  of  $15,000,000  worth  of  goods.     They  are  located  princii)ally 

in  the  Middle  States.  Sheet-lead  is  easily  made  by  rolling.  It  is  generally 
cast  into  plates  six  inches  thick  for  the  purpose,  and  is  gradually  worked  down 
between  two  heavy  iron  rollers.  Lead  pipe  was  formerly  made  by  hand  : 
sheet-lead  was  turned  u]>  into  a  i^ipe,  and  the  edges  soldered.  Large  j^ipes  arc 
still  made  in  this  way.  All  attempts  to  cast  lead  pipe  have  proved  to  be  too 
cumbersome  and  slow.  The  method  in  use  is  that  suggested  in  1797  by 
Bramah,  the  inventor  of  the  celebrated  Lnglish  lock  of  that  name,  and  patented 
by  him.     The  process  was  introduced  into  the  United  States  in  1840  by  Talh 


'*M 


(•     1  .u 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


3f>' 


h  this 
|u  ii)al 

;h  cn- 
iprotl- 
lipally 
Icrally 
idowii 
liand  : 

js  arc 
Ic  too 

I97  by 

lib 


^:  Brothers,  who  patented  ;in  improxeineiU  uixiii  it  in  tlie  genuine  Wuikee  way. 
It  consists  in  pouring  lead  into  a  cyliiKhical  tavity  in  a  block  of  ciM-jron, 
\vhi<  h  is  kept  at  a  heat  suftii  icnt  to  niilt  lead,  and  then  torcin;,^  the  IcmI  cit 
again,  under  a  pressure  of  two  hundred  or  three  hundred  ions,  with  an  hydrauli. 
apparatus,  through  an  annular  space  the  size  of  the  pipe  reiiuired.  The  steel 
rod,  or  core,  which  forms  the  bore  of  the  l^pe,  is  fa-'  ned  to  tli-  piston,  and 
passes  through  the  cavity  containing  the  lead,  anil  out  tliKMigh  the  iiole  ui  the 
top  of  the  chamber.  It  rises  slowly  with  the  piston,  which  crowds  the  melted 
metal  out  of  the  chanii)er  through  the  annular  opening  above  formed  b)  the 
(lie  and  the  core.  The  pipe,  as  it  cools,  and  rises  slowly  abo\e  the  top  of  the 
machine,  is  coiled  around  a  lar;'e  drum  above.  In  one  [iroccss  the  piston  rises 
into  the  chamber  of  melted  nictal :  in  the  other  the  pisu  n  descends,  die  die 
being  in  the  piston,  and  the  core  projecting  upwartl  through  it  from  the  bottom 
of  the  chamber.  An  old  method  of  making  lead  ))iiJe  was  to  cast  a  heavy 
cylinder  of  lead  with  a  bore  of  the  exact  si/e  reijuired,  and  then  gradually  to 
work  this  down  under  rollers,  using  a  mandrel  to  keep  the  bore  open.  It  is 
nut  yet  entirely  obsolete. 

I,ead  pipe  isveiv  convenient  for  domestic  jjurposi  ,  because  it  can  be 
readily  bent  to  any  angle  rc(iuired.  If  the  water  within  it  freezes,  and  bursts 
the  pipe,  the  1  itter  can  be  easily  repaired.  The  only  drawback  to  utility  of 
lead  pipes  is,  diat  the  water  they  distribute  through  the  iiouses  '*=*''  P'p** 
of  our  cities  often  corrodes  tie  lead,  and  becomes  thus  impregnated  with 
pni^on.  The  evil  is  obviated  by  keeping  the  pipes  always  full  of  water,  and 
letting  the  water  which  has  stood  in  them  any  length  of  time  flow  out  before 
drawing  water  for  cooking  or  drinking.  " 

l''or  ornamental  purposes,  lead  i  alloyed  with  seventy-five  per  cent  of 
antimony.  It  makes  a  hard,  white  alloy,  ca]iable  of  taking  a  high  polish.  It 
is  the  material  generally  usc<l  in  the  keys  of  llutes. 

STEREOTYPING. 

There  are  serious  objections  to  printing  newspapers  and  books  from  type. 
A  form  of  type  is  always  liable  to  be  "  knocked  into  pie,"  as  it  is  called  in  a 
liiinling-office.     If  the  edition  of  the  book  or  the  newspa])er  is  large,  it  cannot 
I'l.  printed  expeditiously  upon  one  press.     I:  is  necessary  to  set  several  at  work 
"I 'I Ml   exactly  the  same  job.     Not  only  would  it  be   expensive  to  keep  type 
enDugh  on  hand  to  "set  up"  some  pages  more  than  once,  but  it  would  be  still 
more  so  to  set  them  up.     A  better  way  is  to  cast  the  page  of  type   Economy  of 
in  type-metal.     I.y  making  a  mould  of  the  page,  as  many  plates   stereotyp- 
<aii  be  cast  from  it  as  may  be  desired,  and  thus  several  presses   '"^' 
(an  l)e  employed  at  once.     The  plates  have,  in  addition,  this  advantage  :  they 
<'aii  be  stored  \\\)  in  the  lumber-room,  and  kept  for  years,  if  necessary  ;  so 
tliat.  if  a  new  edition  of  the  almanac,  pamphlet,  or  bo  >k,  is  desired,  it  can  be 
I'liiUed  witlnnit  encountering  the  cost  of  comijosition. 


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IMAGE  EVALUATION 
TEST  TARGET  (MT-3) 


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V 


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Photographic 

Sciences 
Corporation 


23  WEST  MAIN  STREET 

WEBSTER,  N.Y.  14580 

(716)  872-4503 


I 

I 


<b 

M  ^^         i 


362 


IND  US  TK/A  L    HIS  TORY 


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No  books  or  papers  were  printed,  in  the  early  days  of  America,  in  suftic  icnt 
numbers  to  justify  a  resort  to  the  process  of  stereotyping.  After  the  war  of 
First  stereo-  ^"^^^  jjriuting  increased,  and  the  need  of  stereotyjiing  was  felt, 
typingestab-  David  and  (leorge  I'ruce  added  to  their  printing-business  in  Ncw- 
lishment.  y^j.j.  ^^.j^y  ^  stereotyping  establishment  in  1.S13.  It  was  the  first  in 
the  country.  Since  that  time,  scarce  any  large  book-printing  or  newspajicr 
establishment  has  failed  to  add  a  stereotype-room  to  the  resources  of  tiic 
business. 


HARI'ER  S    I'HINTlNO-llOLSE. 


The  method  adopted  by  Mr.  I'nue  was  to  oil  the  surface  of  the  page  ot 
type  to  be  copied,  and  jjour  upon  it  plaster  of  Paris  in  a  li(]uid  form,  liiis 
Bruce's  substancc,  when   wet,  hardens   in  a  few  minutes,  and  makes  an 

method.  excellent   mould.     'I'he  moulds,  having  set,  were  taken  off.  driid 

in  a  furnace,  put  in  a  casting-box,  and  dipped  into  melted  stereotyi)e-nutal. 
The  metal,  having  cooled,  was  taken  from  the  mould.  It  was  carefully  t'\- 
amined  for  defective  letters,  and  corrected  by  chiselling  out  the  bad  Icttiis. 


OF   THE    VXITED    STATES. 


2fil 


in  suffit  icnt 
r  the  war  of 
ng  kvas  tclt. 
if'.s  in  N ow- 
ls llio  first  in 
ir  nf\vs])ai)cr 
,rccs  of    the 


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lof  the  pa;;o  o\ 
liid  form,  lii'^ 
and  makes  an 
Itakon  off.  iliicd 
Itorcotypc-nictal. 
las  carefully  e\- 
Ithc  bad  lotiei->. 


and  inserting  type.  It  was  then  planed  on  the  back,  and  nailed  to  a  wooilen 
block  for  the  press.  'I'his  method  has  been  practised  in  the  United  States 
down  to  the  present  day.  It  is,  however,  rapidly  going  ont  of  use.  It  long 
ago  disappeared  from  the  large  daily  newspapcr-oifices,  and  has  been  replaced 
in  most  of  the  large  publication-houses  by  another  system. 

\\\  the  great  newspaper-offices  the   new  method   is   called   the  '' papier- 
ina(  he  "  process.     A  few  hours  before  the  pages  come  down  from 
'he  type-room  the  stereotypers  begin  to  [)repare  heavy  sheets  of 


How  the 
stereotyping 


paper,  in  order  to  make  the  mould  from  them.     .\  sheet  of  thin   of  news- 
paper! 

done. 


tissue-paper  is  spread  out  on  a  smooth  iron  table.     It  is  brushed   P^f"^"  '* 


with  some  sort  of  sizing.  Another  sheet  of  tissue-j)aper  is  laid 
upon  it,  and  brushed  smoothly  ilown.  This,  again,  is  sized,  and  another  sheet 
laid  on.  A  dozen  sheets  of  tissue-paper  are  thus  put  together,  forming  a 
moist  sheet  of  thick,  heavy  paper  of  extremely  fine  textiwe.  When  the 
forms  come  down,  one  of  these  thick  sheets  is  laiil  upon  the  page,  and  ham- 
mered down  with  a  heavy,  long-handled  brush,  the  stiff  hairs  of  whic  h  ilrive 
the  paper  into  the  finest  lines  of  the  type.  A  great  deal  of  the  pajjcr  is 
beaten  down  between  the  type.  I'he  heavy  indentations  in  the  paper  are 
then  smoothly  smeared  with  wet  marble-dust,  anil  another  of  the  tliii  k  sheets 
laid  on,  and  cemented  to  the  first  one  by  hammering  with  the  brush.  'I'he 
form  is  then  slid  off  upon  an  iron  steam  table,  and  put  under  a  press,  where  it 
<|ui(  kly  dries.  The  sheet  of  paper,  or  papier-mache,  is  then  taken  off.  It 
makes  a  perfect  mould,  and  can  be  used  for  the  casting  of  a  dozen  plates  if 
desired  ;  and  intleed  it  sometimes  is  desired,  the  casting  of  each  recjuiring  only 
two  or  three  minutes,  I'he  papier-mache  matri.x.  has  another  advantage.  It 
can  be  put  into  a  fiat  iron  box  for  the  casting  of  a  perfectly  fiat  plate,  or  into  a 
.semicircular  one,  or  one  describing  any  segment  of  a  circle,  for  the  production 
of  a  curved  plate.  It  is  this  style  of  mould  which  has  made  possible  the  use  of 
stereotype-plates  upcjn  a  cylinder,  anil,  per  consecpience,  the  invention  of  the 
perfei  ting  web-press.  It  takes  about  twenty-five  minutes  to  cast  three  j)lates 
of  the  page,  counting  from  the  moment  tiie  original  page  of  type  is  received  in 
the  stereoty[)e-room.  IJy  the  i)laster-ot"- Paris  process  it  would  take  several 
hnurs,  and  tlie  plates  would  be  imperfect  then  ;  whereas  bv  the  other  process 
iluy  are  absolutely  correct.  This  system  was  the  invention  of  several  men, 
hut  was  first  made  practical  by  Charles  Crashe.  It  was  brought  out  in  i<SOi. 
Printers  pooh-poohed  at  it  at  first,  and  "  The  New-Vork  Herald  "  refused  to 
ailopt  it ;  but  Mr.  Thomas  N.  Rooker,  the  old  foreman  of  Horace  (Ireelcy  in 
"I'he  'I'ribune  "  office,  saw  its  advantages,  and  tried  it  in  his  office.  It  worked 
^^ell,  and  was  instantly  adopted.  All  the  large  newsjxapers  of  the  country 
have  since  taken  up  and  now  employ  this  process,  if  they  do  any  stereotyping 
at  all. 

I'he  other  new  system  referred  to  is  also  an  .American  idea.     It  originated 
with   Joseph    .\.    .\dams,   a   wood-engraver   of   New-York   City,  who    rcpro- 


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/A'/>  C/S  TRJA  L    ins  TOR  Y 


duced  an  engraving  by  means  of  it  about  1839,  and,  about  1843,  employed  it 
in  producing  various  large  borders  and  engravings  for  Harper's  illustrated 
books.  It  has  been  greatly  improved  in  various  details  by  Wilcox,  JMlnier, 
Ad=im8'8  Lovejoy,  (Jay,  Knight,  and  others.  I'he  jjlan  is  to  oil  the  jKige 
process.  of  lyp^-  so  that  the   mould  will  not  adhere,  or  to  cover  it  with 

fmely-powdered  graphite.  \  thick  sheet  of  the  best  pure  yellow  beeswax, 
cast  in  a  shallow  box,  is  brought  down  ujjon  the  ])age  under  heavy  hy- 
drostatic pressure.  An  exact  imi)ression  is  thus  obtained  even  of  the  finest 
engraving.  Finely  pulverized  graphite  is  then  dusted  u])on  the  wax,  coating 
it  uniformly  in  every  line  and  depression,  the  excess  being  l)lown  awav. 
\  new  way  of  applying  the  grajjhite,  invented  by  Silas  P.  Knight,  is  to 
pour  a  torrent  of  water,  into  which  the  graphite  has  been  stirred,  upon  the 
mould.  The  wax  matrix  is  then  attached  to  the  negative  wire  of  a  battery, 
and  placed  in  a  solution  of  sulphate  of  copper.  The  graphite  serves  as  a 
(•ondu(.ting  medium,  and  a  film  of  copper  begins  to  form  immediately  upon 
the  face  of  the  wax  matrix.  The  mould  is  generally  left  in  the  soiulion 
over  night.  In  the  morning  the  copper  is  thick  enough  to  be  removed. 
A  little  quicker  plan  than  this  has  been  invented  by  Knight.  He  takes 
the  wax  mould  dusted  with  graphite,  and  i)owders  it  with  iron-filings.  He 
then  pours  on  a  solution  of  sulphate  of  copper.  The  acid  leaves  the  co])i)er, 
and  forms  sulphate  of  iron  ;  while  the  copper  is  deposited  in  a  film.  This  is 
afterwards  thickened  by  the  electrotype  process.  The  copper  plate,  when 
finally  obtained,  whatever  the  details  of  the  process,  is  removed  from  the  was, 
tinned  upon  the  back,  and  then  laid  face  do  vnwards,  when  stereot\pe-nietal 
is  bound  on  it,  giving  it  the  thickness  of  a  regular  stereotype-plate.  It  is  then 
triiTimed,  planed,  and  fitted  to  the  press  in  the  usual  way.  Or  only  a  thin  l)ack 
of  stereotype-metal  is  given  to  it,  and  it  is  mounted  upon  a  wooden  block. 
This  plan  of  making  the  plates  is  more  leisurely  than  the  other,  is  a  more 
agreeable  method  for  the  workmen,  and  is  adapted  to  the  finer  work  of  books 
and  engravings.  The  number  of  impressions  which  can  be  taken  from  electro- 
type-plates is  about  three  hundred  thousand. 

If  printing  was  the  "  art  preservative  "  when  in  its  crude  infancy,  what 
is  it  now,  when  the  pages  of  a  book  can  be  cheaply  cast  in  metal,  and  stored 
away,  for  centuries  if  need  be,  and  then  brought  out  to  reproduce  the  thoughts 
of  a  generation  of  thinkers  for  the  benefit  of  other  ages  ? 

TIN-WARE. 

Tin  is  one  of  the  most  expensive  of  common  metals,  and  most  serviceal)lc. 
While  the  average  price  of  commercial  iron  is  only  twenty  dollars  a  ton.  tin 
Utility  of  costs  about  three  hundred  dollars  a  ton.  The  metal  is  as  haiid- 
tin-ware.  some  as  silver,  and  possesses  the  properties  of  incorrosibility,  and 
of  remarkable  adhesion  to  iron  ;  which  makes  it  remarkably  useful  in  the  arts. 


ll! 


,  employed  it 
r's   illustrated 
Icox,   I'ilmer. 
oil  the  page 
cover  it  wilii 
low  beeswax, 
er  heavy   liy- 
of  the  finest 
:  wax,  coaliii}^ 
blown  away. 
Knight,   is  to 
X'd,  upon  I'ae 
of  a  battery, 
e  serves  as  a 
icdiately  upon 
1  the   solution 
be   removed, 
t.       He  takes 
n-filings.     He 
es  the  eo])])er, 
film.     This  is 
r   plate,  when 
fi-om  the  wax, 
,'reotype-metal 
te.     It  is  then 
ily  a  thin  back 
ivooden  blo(  k. 
icr,  is  a  more 
work  of  books 
from  electro- 
infancy,  what 
al,  and  stored 
c  the  thoughts 


)st  serviceable, 
ars  a  ton.  tin 
ll  is  as  hanil- 
rrosibility,  and 
ul  in  the  arts, 


OF    THE    ex, -TED    STATES. 


365 


and  would  alone  have  given  it  great  value,  even  did  it  not  ally  so  satisfactorily 
with  lead  and  copper.  'J'in  was  once  used  in  solid  form  for  dishes  for  the 
table  and  for  cooking-utensils,  on  account  of  its  beauty  and  incorrosibility.  In 
that  form  it  was  ex])ensive  When  it  was  foimd.  how  readily  sheet-iron  could 
be  plated  with  it.  and  thus,  for  all  practical  purposes,  a  sheet  of  metal  obtained 
answering  all  the  ri'i|uirements  of  pure  tin.  but  at  one-tenth  the  cost,  tin-ware 
came  into  general  use.  'I'iie  restless  mind  of  tiie  New-Mngland  Yankee, 
whi(  h  ever  ran  in  the  direc  tioii  of  improving  the  utensils  of  every-day  life, 
seized  upon  the  idea  of  producing  dishes  and  house-ware  from  tin  plates, 
and  his  ingenuity  and  enterprise  have  made  the  United  States  the  largest 
( onsumer  of  tin-ware  upon  tiie  face  of  the  earth.  In  introducing  the  ware  to 
the  public,  the  Yankees  resorted  to  that  im])ortant  agency  in  trade,  the  roving 
peddler,  who  with  a  wagon  loaded  with  plates,  milk-pans,  tea-kettles,  dippers, 
(lips,  pail.,  iVc,  threaded  every  highway  and  lane  in  the  country,  and  brought 
his  travelling  store  and  its  tempting  display  of  ware  before  the  eyes  of  every 
housewife  in  the  land.  Tin-ware  recommended  itself  not  only  on  account  of 
its  beauty,  but  its  lightness  antl  general  convenience.  The  milk-pan  was, 
before  its  advent,  a  heavy  earthen  article  ;  the  milk  and  water  pail  a  heavy 
hiK  kel  of  wood,  romantic  enough  for  its  association,  but  dreadfidly  tiresome 
to  milkmaids,  farmers'  boys,  and  whoever  had  to  carry  it  to  and  from  the 
pasture  and  the  well.  The  di])iK'r  was  a  heavy  pewter  scoop.  All  the  ware  of 
the  household  and  the  cans  and  pots  of  the  store  were  clumsy  and  fatiguing 
<()Mtrivances.  'I"in-ware  brought  ease  of  handling,  security  against  breakage, 
and  beauty.  'I  o  be  loved,  it  needed  o  ily  to  be  seen  ;  and  the  untiring  peddler 
who  went  through  the  land  like  the  missionary  of  a  new  gospel  of  comfort 
created  a  veritable  revolution  by  ni..'ans  of  it.  Forty  years  ago  the  peddler 
was  the  busiest  and  one  of  the  most  prosperous  of  our  countrymen.  Since  he 
took  to  selling  tin-ware,  however,  tin-shops  have  been  opened  in  every  com- 
munity ;  and  each  city  and  village  now  depends  for  its  supply  upon  its  local 
makers.  Farming-towns  are  still  supplied  to  a  great  extent  by  the  peddler. 
The  growth  of  the  manufacture  of  tin-ware  is  surjirising.  Formerly  confined 
to  the  sterile  soil  of  New  England,  it  has  extended  all  over  the  republic,  and 
110  corner  of  the  remotest  region  is  too  far  in  the  backwoods  not  to  have  been 
in\aded  by  it.  The  number  of  shops  where  tin,  copper,  and  sheet-iron  ware 
are  made  was  6,640  in  1870 ;  the  number  of  hands  employed  was  25,283  ; 
and  the  value  of  the  goods  produced,  $40,636,000.  Over  3,400  of  the  shops 
were  in  the  Eastern  and  Middle  States.  The  tin- ware  made  is  not  entirely 
for  culinary  and  pantry  use,  though  it  is  principally  so.  A  great  deal  of  it 
consists  of  gutters  for  roofs,  flues  for  the  distribution  of  hot  air  from  fur- 
naces, &c. 

besides  the  use  of  tin  for  the  plating  of  sheet-iron,  the  metal  is  also 
employed  in  coating  a  wide  variety  of  other  small  iron  articles  to  protect 
I'lvin  from  rust.     Stirrups,  bits,  &c.,  are  among  the  number. 


))  fl 


iflT 


m7;,M-j 


366 


1^ 


\t 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


TOYS. 


Tin  toys. 


I'latc  tin  is  now  extensively  consumed  in  the  manufacture  of  toys  for 
ciuhlrcn.  It  is  lighter  than  wood  or  jjapier-mache',  is  cheap,  and  can  he  easilv 
fashioned  by  the  use  of  dies  and  stamps.  The  business  is  of 
recent  development.  The  largest  house  in  the  business  is  that  of 
Leo  Schlesinger  &  Co.,  New  York.  It  is  an  interesting  f;tct  that  i)Iaytliinj,s 
have  become  so  necessary  a  part  of  American  life,  that  the  trade  in  them  has 
suffered  die  least  of  all  by  the  hard  times.  Playthings  are  a  luxury  ;  but,  even 
if  there  is  retrenchment  in  the  family,  the  children  have  to  be  amused  just 
as  much  as  ever,  and  playthings  are  bought  for  them  in  scarcely  diminished 
numbers.  Ik'sides,  there  is  a  growing  demand  for  American  toys  al)r();ul. 
Their  ingenuity  is  unequalled.  A  great  (piantity  of  them  now  go  to  ICurope 
and  South  America.  In  the  manufacture  of  toys,  the  princijjal  exi)ensc  is 
the  preparation  of  the  dies.  These  are  subjected  to  long  and  rough  work, 
and  conseiiuenlly  must  be  made  of  the  hardest  steel.  'I'hey  must  be  made 
with  great  nicety  too,  so  that  the  different  parts  of  a  toy  will  fit.  Some  of 
the  plainer  toys  require  only  one  or  two  ilies :  others  require  four,  six.  and 
even  nine.  P'rom  four  to  ten  weeks  are  necessary  for  the  making  of  the  dies 
for  a  single  toy.  In  working  up  the  tin  into  a  toy,  presses  arc  used.  In 
making  a  plain  and  unpretentious  horse  for  every-day  use,  a  sheet  of  tin  is 
cut  into  the  proper  shape,  placed  in  a  press,  and  rounded  out  in  such  a 
manner  as  lo  form  one  side  of  the  proposed  animal.  The  two  sides  are  next 
passed  through  a  couple  of  cutting-machines  for  the  purpose  of  trimming  off 
the  superfluous  metal,  and  are  then  sent  to  another  part  of  the  building,  fitted 
together  in  a  mould,  soldered,  and  sent  to  the  floor  above,  where  the  completed 
animal  assumes  a  coat  of  paint,  and  is  turned  out  for  use  as  a  black,  white, 
sorrel,  or  bay.  at  the  discretion  of  the  painter.  The  manufacture  of  a  horse 
is  a  comparatively  simple  operation  ;  but  in  making  a  yellow  lamb  standing 
on  a  smooth  tin  platform,  with  a  painted  bell  about  his  neck,  the  animal  passes 
through  fifteen  pairs  of  hands  before  a])pearing  in  a  finished  state.  A  grou]) 
rejiresenting  a  boy  leading  his  horse  to  a  manger  is  of  still  more  elaborate 
construction,  and  goes  through  at  least  thirty-five  operations  before  being 
packed  for  removal.  Of  all  toy  animals  the  horse  is  the  most  i)opular,  and  ho 
conseciuently  apjjears  in  nearly  every  variety  of  shape  and  size.  The  largest 
and  handsomest  is  the  "  Dexter,"  whose  graceful  form  is  made  of  zinc  instead 
of  tin.  180,000  "  Dexters"  are  born  and  arrive  at  maturity  in  one  factory  in 
New  York  every  year,  and  nearly  6,000,000  horses  of  a  smaller  breed  were 
turned  out  during  the  past  twelve  months.  One  of  the  simplest  playthings  mack- 
is  the  putty-blower,  well  known  to  every  school-teacher  in  the  country.  Ahoat 
2,880,000  of  these  infernal  machines  were  put  upon  the  market  by  this  one 
firm  during  the  year  1S76.  The  effects  of  the  falling  off  in  the  numl)cr  ot 
emigrants  to  this  country  during  the  past  few  years  do   not  seem   to  have 


OF    THE    IWITKD    STA'I'KS. 


367 


reached  toy-land  as  yet;  for  last  winter  nearly  10,000  emigrant-wagons,  pro- 
vided with  one  horse  and  two  wheels  each,  were  made  and  sold  by  one  firm. 
One  of  the  best  selling  tin  toys  maniifa(  tiircd  is  the  hose-carriage,  of  which 
seventy-three  different  sizes  and  shapes  are  made.  Kifty  kinds  of  express- 
wagons,  fifty-nine  kinds  of  steam-cars,  and  twenty-five  kinds  of  lu)rse-<  ars,  are 
manufactured.  The  newest  plaything  in  the  market  is  the  livery-stable  ;  and 
the  swinging  cradle  immediately  preceded  it,  with  an  .American  eagle  at  cither 
end,  instead  of  the  guardian  angel  of  tradition  and  song.  One  of  the  most 
important  departments  in  the  toy  establishint  ;  is  presided  over  by  young 
iiKU  wiiose  inventive  minds  are  constantly  enga  d  in  prodiu  ing  new  toys,  antl 
"  improvising  amendments  "  \\\>o\\  those  already  i  vogue.  .Ml  the  paints  used 
in  toy-making  are  mixed  by  the  operatives  themselves  before  using,  and  in  the 
process  of  painting  alone  all  the  larger  toys  jiass  through  half  a  dozen  or  half 
a  score  of  hands  and  brushes.  It  is  estimated  that  the  annual  production  of 
a  single  manufactcry  will  often  aggregate  between  40,000,000  and  50,000,000 
toys. 

Tin  i)lates  are  prepaicd  simply  by  dipping  the  sheets  of  brightened  iron 
into  a  bath  of  melted  tin. 


I 


% 


% 


APPLICATIONS    OF    ZINC. 

Zinc  is  good  for  a  great  many  things  besides  the  making  of  brass.     It  is  an 
important  rival  of  lead  in  the  manufacture  of  house-paint.     It  is  a  popular 
material  for  putting  under  stoves  to  prevent  coals  and  ashes  from  importance 
dropping  upon  the  carpet.     It  is  often  made  into  hot-air  flues  for  °'  *'"*=• 
furnaces  in  the  warming  of  dwellings.     It  is  also  now  largely  used  in  architect- 
ure for  orname.   al  and  fire-i)rotection  jiurposes. 

The  manufacture  of  white  oxide  of  zinc  for  the  purposes  of  paint  is  a 
French  invention.  The  process  of  making  the  oxide  directly  from  the  ore, 
instead  of  from  the  pig-metal,  is  purelv  an  .American  idea.      It 

'   °  '  '  '  Zinc-paint. 

^Tow  out  of  the  experiments  of  Mr.  Richard  Jones  of  Philadelphia 
al)()ut  1849,  and  was  first  put  into  practice  by  the  New-Jersey  Zinc  Company 
of  New-York  City,  which  was  incorporated  in  1849,  and  set  about  the  manu- 
fu  turing  of  oxide  from  the  ore  at  Newark,  N.J.     The  company   oeveiop- 
w as  \LTy  successfiil,  and  has  developed  its  business,  until  it  has  forty   ment  of 
furnai  OS  engaged  in  the  production  of  zinc-paint.     It  was  followed   '"  "'*''*'• 
in  the  business,  a'  out  1853,  by  the  Pennsylvania  and  Lehigh  Zinc  Company  at 
bethlcheni,  Penn. ;  and  a  third  company  was  established  in   1855,  called  the 
I'assaic.  which  put  up  its  works  at  Communipaw,  on  New-York  harbor.     The 
zinc  -i)aint  soon  recommended  itself,  from  the  fact  that  it  was  not   process  ^f 
poisonous  ;  and  the  manufacture  of  it  has  become  enormous.     The   manufactur- 
process  of  manufacture  has  one  spectacular  feature.     The  ore  is  ^^^' 
ground  up  fine,  mixed  with  coal-dust,  and  charged  into  a  blazing  Aimace  in 


* 


M 


.^68 


IND  US  TN I A  I.    HIS  TOR  / 


the  prc,)ortion  of  six  hundred  pounds  of  ore  to  three  hundred  pounds  of  roal. 
'I'he  heat  siihliines  the  /inc.  I  he  vapors  rise  up  through  a  pipe  at  the  top  of 
the  stack.  The  pipe  ends  ju.A  above  the  stack,  under  an  inverted  fuinicl, 
wiiich  covers  it  like  a  hood.  A  strong  current  of  air  is  drawn  up  through  this 
funnel  by  (lowing  apparatus  ;  and  the  vapors  of  the  stack  are  thus  carried  up 
through  the  funnel,  mingled  with  atmosphe  ic  air  which  enters  at  the  open 
base.  A  very  vivid  combustion  of  the  zinc  takes  place  within  the  hood.  The 
metal  unites  with  the  oxygen  of  the  air  with  a  pale  blue  flame,  and  rusho  up 
into  a  huge  pipe  above  in  the  lorm  of  oxide  of  /inc.  The  current  of  floatiuj^ 
particles  and  gases  is  now  carried  a  long  distance  through  i)ipeh  into  a  tower, 
where  it  is  partly  cooled  by  dripping  water,  and  thence  into  another,  where  tlie 
air  is  strained,  as  it  were,  by  huge  flannel  bags  stretched  horizontally  acros-,  the 
building.  'I'he  oxide  collects  upon  the  bags,  and  is  from  lime  to  time  shaken 
off  into  cotton  flues,  or  teats,  which  conduct  it  into  receptacles  below.  It  is  put 
into  bags  and  pressed  to  get  out  the  air,  and  then  ground  with  l>lanched  linseed- 
oil  for  market.  It  is  claimed  that  zinc-paint  thus  prepared  has  greater  purity, 
durability,  and  brilliancy  than  lead-paint.  It  makes  a  valuable  pigment.  (  er- 
tainly  ;  but  its  most  vahiable  ([uality  is  the  fact  that  it  is  not  poisonous,  and 
that,  therefore,  the  workmen  may  hancile  it  without  suffering  from  the  disease 
known  as  painter's  colic. 

A  recent  application  of  zinc  is  to  the  construction  of  the  cornices  of  build- 
ings. On  the  business-streets  of  a  city,  where  the  walls  of  the  buildings  are 
Zinc  of  stone  or  brick,  and  the  roofs  sheeted  with  tin  or  a  gravelly 

cornices.  composition  designed  to  protect  it  from  fire,  it  has  frec]uently  been 
foimd  that  the  buildings  often  take  fire  and  burn  down,  when  there  is  a  fire 
across  the  street,  because  the  cornices  are  inflammable.  The  wooden  c:ornicc 
is,  therefore,  an  element  of  danger  to  a  store.  Within  the  last  twenty  }ears 
American  builders  have  been  experimenting  with  cornices  made  of  metal,  and 
they  find  zinc  well  adapted  to  the  object.  It  can  be  easily  stamped  or  beaten 
into  any  pattern  desired  ;  resists  fire ;  and  is,  when  ;)ainted,  indestructible  1)\' 
the  elements.  It  is  so  cheap,  too,  that  it  has  brought  handsome  cornices 
within  the  means  of  all ;  and  the  invention  has  really  been  the  means  of 
improving  the  architectural  appearance  of  our  former  exceedingly  plain 
business-streets,  as  well  as  their  security. 


ill 


biii 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


369 


)unds  (if  roal. 
U  tllL"   loj)   of 
.•crtccl  funnel, 
|)  through  this 
lis  canicd  n|) 
s  at  the  open  • 
ic  hood.     'I'lu' 
and  rushes  ii|i 
Jilt  of  lloalini; 
s  into  a  lowei, 
llicr,  whfic  the 
tally  acros-,  ilu' 

0  time-  shaken 
.■low.  It  is  imt 
inched  linseed- 
,  greater  imrity, 
,'  pigment,  ( er- 
poisonous,  and 
i\\\  the  iliseaso 

irnices  of  IniiKl- 
le  buildings  arc 

1  or  a  gravelly 
frcciuently  been 

there  is  a  fire 
•ooden  cornice 
St  twenty  years 
of  metal,  and 
npcd  or  beaten 
[idestructible  hy 
.Isome  cornices 
the  means  of 
leedingly   plain 


how  first 
obtained. 


CHAPTER   IV. 

THE    MANUFACTURE   OF   WOOL. 
GENKKAL    HISTORY    OF    TIIK    WOOLLEN-MANUFACTURE. 

ONE  of  the  very  first  cares  of  the  early  colonists  of  America  was  to  obtain 
an  ample  supply  of  materials  for  clothing.     This  for  many  years  they 
hought  from  the  I  )utch  ships  which  came  across  the  sea  to  trade,   ^  ,   ,  ,  ,  . 

^  '  '    Saaterials  for 

and  from  the  English  at  home,  paying  for  their  clotii  with  tar,  cloth. ng. 
hoards,  tobacco,  hides,  and  other  rude  products  of  the  farm  and 
forest.  In  1660  a  law  was  passed  in  England  prohibiting  the 
hutch  from  trading  in  the  colonies,  and  requiring  the  colonic  to  trade  only 
with  England  direct.  This  cut  off  all  access  to  a  market  in  which  goods- 
might  be  bought  cheaper  than  in  England,  and  led  the  colonists  to  think  of 
manufacturing  their  goods  as  far  as  possible  for  themselves. 

Nevertheless,  the  manufacture  of  woollen  came  into  existence  as  a  public 
industry  very  slowly.     It  was  not  the  desire  of  the  home  government  that  the 
colonies  should  manufacture  for  themselves.     It  was  the  constant  study  of  the 
men  who  directed  the  government  to  find  ways  in  which  the  colonies  might  be 
made  useful  to  the  capitalists,  traders,  and  factory-owners  of  England.     Mac- 
pherson  gave  expression  to  the  sentiment  prevailing  in  England   i^^^^  ^f 
when  he  said,  "The  original  intent  of  planting  those  colonies  ;  viz..    English  on 
to  he  a  benefit  to  their  mother-country,  to  which  they  owed  their   ^  '  *"  ^"*" 
'leing  and  ])rotection."     The  way  in  which   it  was  sought  to  make  them  a 
'■  henefit "  was  to  compel  tht;m  to  sell  to  England  all  they  had  to  sell,  and  buy 
from  her  all  they  had  to  buy.     The  first  Lord  Sheffield  expressly  said  that 
"the  only  use"  of   the   colonics  was  a  monopoly  of  their  trade,   and  the 
carriage  of  their  produce.     Lord  Chatham  declared  that  "  the  British  colonists 
of  North  America  had  no  rii^ht  to  manufacture  even  a  nail  or  a  horseshoe." 
A  law  of  Virginia,  passed  in  1684,  to  encourage  textile  manufactures  in  that 
lirovincc,   was    promptly   annulled   by    England.      In    1731    the   England's 
<  arriage  of  woollen  goods  and   hats   from   one  colony  to  another   P°''<:y- 
was  forbidden  by  law.     The  exportation  of  woollen  was  also  forbidden.     The 


370 


INI)  (  S  /  A'  /,•/  /.    ///S  /  J.V  »■ 


.THE  TWO^APF  RCNTIOES 

1776, 


^ 


object  of  ICn^'land's  policy  was  to  keep  the  Americans,  a  race  of  farmers  and 
foresters,   raismj,'  tobacco,   suj;ar,   indij^o,   lump,  iVc,  and  K^''t'"K  *'i'>  pil<  li, 
rosin,  and  tiinbiT  Ironi  llu-  Ion  ^ts,  whit  ii  tiicy  slioiild  sell  to  tlic  niotiier-conn 
try;  and   to   make   lliein   depend   upon    l>rilisii   l.tdoiiis  absoliilcl)  lor  tin  ir 

cloliiinj;,  tools,  fiiniitiiic, 
carriaj;es,  and  all  oiIkt 
nianiifacture^.  This  poli*  y 
meant  mischief.  It  ( onld 
not  f;(j  on  Irrever.  No 
nation  (an  piodnce  a;;ri- 
'  ullur.il  jii'odncts  enoii;;h 
M)  as  to  have  a  siiITk  irnl 
-.urplus  to  |)ay  for  the  nun- 
ul'.K  lures  it  (onsunies.  I'he 
I  olonics  could  not.  'i'liov 
nr\i'r  exported  eno".L;h  to 
I'ln.nland  to  pay  for  what 
they  l)ou_L;hl  of  her ;  and 
never  could  have  paid  for 
what  ihcy  boni^hl  at  nil, 
e\(  cpl  that  they  sold  larL;e 
(luantities  of  i)rovisions  to 
the  West  Indies  and  other 
countries  in  vxcluuij^e  for 
money,  in  spite  of  the  Lnvi  which  forbade  it.  The  colonies  ^ot  jioorer  and 
poorer  inider  this  policy.  In  17(10  they  bouijht  ^'2, 500, 000  worth  of  .uooils 
from  ICngland,  and  s(jld  to  her  only  ^{'750,000  worth  ;  and  in  i77r  tlv.y 
bout^ht  about  ^4,100,000  worth,  and  sold  only  ^i, 350, 000  worth  of  j;ih)iU. 
They  were  nearly  ruined  by  it. 

'i'his  interference  with  the  freedom  of  the  colonists  to  trade  and  manufac- 
ture led  to  two  results.  First  they  took  to  wearing  leather  garments,  because 
Effect  of  '^'^^'y  *'""'l'l  rarely  afford  the  imported  woollens.  'I"lu;  men  wore, 
English  for  a  long  period,  waisti  oats  and  breeches  of  Indian-dressed  ^kins, 

po  icy.  — ,^  custom  which  survivetl  until  the  Revolution,  and  made  its  last 

appearance  historically  in  the  uniforms  of  the  Continental  regiments.  Tin' 
women  wore  leather  jerkins  and  petticoats  very  largely  ;  and  in  some  of  the 
colonies  the  clothing  of  the  bed  was  almost  entirely  of  leather.  The  sheets 
alone  were  of  linen.  A  second  result  was,  that  industry  not  permitted  to 
flourish  in  the  open  air  did  so  in  the  shade,  'i'he  women  learned  to  weave 
and  si)in  ;  and  a  large  quantity  of  woollen,  hemp,  and  linen  cloth  and  other 
goods,  was  made  in  the  privacy  of  the  household  throughout  the  whole  coun- 
try. Nearly  every  family  wove  a  part  or  the  whole  of  its  own  clothing  and 
blankets ;   and  many  which  had   skill   in   the  art   had  many  pieces  over  and 


; 


Ol-     riH<    UXITI'J^    STATES. 


.^71 


rmcrs  and 
tar,  l)il<  h. 
llifr-<  oun 
y  lor  tlu  II 
fiir:»iiuri', 
all     olhcr     , 
I'his  pi)li<y 
ll  (oultl 
ever.      No 
xlucc   aj;ri- 
•ts    cnon-h 
a  siitVii  iint 
i)r  ihc  iii.in- 
iumcs.     Ilii-' 
iioi.     'I'Ik'V 
I   ciio'.'.yli  lo 
ay   lor   wlial 
if  her;    ami 
avc  paid  tor 
lughl    al    all, 
cy  sold  UirL;o 
provisions  to 
cs  and  ullur 
xchirnj^c    tor 
t  poorer  and 
rlh  of  goods 

n    177'    ^*^-'>' 
rdi  of  goixU. 

luul  manufac- 
lents,  because 
he  men  wore, 
Idressed  ^kins, 
made  its  las', 
[inients.     'Hi" 
some  of  till- 
The   sheets 
permitted  to 
Irncd  to  weave 
loth  and  other 
t  whole  conn- 
elothing  and 
Lees   over  and 


above  theii  own  want-,  to  sell  the  luercliant.  i'lu'  law  conld  not  reacli  their 
private  factories.  In  1730  a  factory  of  woollen  hats  in  Massachusetts  was 
(iedared  a  iniismcc.  and  siipprcssfd.  Parliament  < onlil  cluh  down  tiie  ripen- 
ing fruit  whi<  ll  hunj;  in  pl.fin  Mght  on  the  hrant  lies  ;  liut  the  million  lnids  form- 
in;;  in  secret  under  the  hark,  \\lii<  li  a  favoring  time  would  eventually  hring  out 


DOLDI.i:-\(TlNi;    (.IG. 


iiitn  Mooin,  were  heycnd  its  reach.  In  1765  a  society  wa-,  formed  in  New 
»<irk  to  en(  (Muage  tb,e  home-manufacture  of  woollens.  'The  enthusiastic  mem- 
I'ers  sinned  a  pledge  not  to  buy  imported  (loth,  and  not  to  eat  the  meat  of 
sluep  or  lainh.  The  great  want  of  the  country  was  a  supply  of  wool  ;  and  the 
killiiif;  ot  mutton  was  diseouraged  hy  this  society  and  by  public  sen'iinent,   in 


" 


I 


'{ 


I 


372 


IXD  VS  TKIA  I.    niS  TON  Y 


order  not  to  iliminish  tlic  soiiircos  of  the  siijiply.  Momospnn  rloth  hcrame 
tlu"  r.if^c.  'I'lic  Inderal  troopi  were  drt-sscd  in  it;  and  Washington,  wlicn 
inaugurated  as  I'resitlent,  wore  a  brown  suit  of  it. 

The  maniitacture  as  carried  on  at  that  time  was  of  the  simplest  descrip- 
tion. The  wool,  being  washed,  was  tombed  as  nearly  straight  as  possible  by 
Simplicity  of  '^•'  <  ards,  with  leather  ba«  ks  ami  wire  teeth,  held  in  the  hands  of 
early  manu-  the  operator.  The  wool  was  detached  from  the  cards  in  a  long 
tacture.  ^.^j-^  j.^^||^  which  was  then  made  into  yarn  upon  the  simple  spinning- 

wheel  of  tiiose  days.  A  large,  light  wheel,  kept  constantly  in  motion  by  the 
hand  of  the  goodwife,  and  afterwards  by  her  foot  by  means  of  a  treadle, 
caused  a  singie  spindle  to  revolve  with  great  velocity  ;  and  this  spindle  gave  to 
fhe  yarn  its  twist,  the  dexterous  fingers  of  the  operator  regulating  the  supply 
of  wool  and  die  (  onseciuent  si/e  of  the  yarn.  The  cards  were  made  by  hand. 
Many  people  are  .-.till  living  who  either  made  those  old  hand-cards  for  spinning, 
or  who  spun  the  yarn  and  wove  the  cloth  of  the  whole  family,  year  in  and  year 
out.  The  cloth,  after  being  woven  on  the  simple,  slow  moving  handdooni  of 
the  colonial  days,  was  sent  out  to  be  fulled.  Every  village  and  country  had 
its  fuller  and  dyer,  and  this  individual  was  the  only  one  in  the  industry  who 
carried  on  his  business  publicly  and  for  a  mmiber  of  customers.  Dyeing  was 
not  well  practisetl  then,  and  colors  were  seldom  fixed  so  that  they  would  uol 
run.  Hrighl  colors  were  liked  by  gentlemen  for  coats  in  that  age,  —  bright 
blue,  .scarlet,  claret-color,  iS:c.  But,  while  a  great  deal  of  cloth  was  made  cf 
those  hues,  it  always  behooved  the  wearer  of  the  coat  to  keep  out  of  the  rain. 
The  Continental  troops  often  presented  a  forlorn  appearance  from  the  fi(lo<l 
a.spect  of  their  uniforms,  which  was  forlorner  even  than  that  of  the  weather- 
beaten  regiments  of  the  war  of  1861,  because  the  Continentals  made  some 
pretence  of  style,  while  the  regiments  of  1861-65  did  not. 

In  1 791  Alexander  Hamilton  made  his  celebrated  report  on  manufactures, 
Hamilton's  ill  which.  is  fouud  one  of  the  few  records  of  the  state  of  llie 
report.  wooUen  industry  at  that  time.      His  references  to  wool  are  the 

following  :  — 

"To  all  the  arguments  which  are  brought  to  evince  the  impracticability  of 
success  in  manufacturing-establishments  in  the  United  States,  it  might  have 
been  a  sufficient  answer  to  have  referred  to  the  experience  of  what  has  l)eeii 
already  done.  It  is  certain  that  several  important  branches  have  grown  up 
and  flourished  with  a  rapidity  which  surprises,  affording  an  en'ourai^ini,' 
assurance  of  success  in  fiiturc  attempts.  Of  these  it  may  not  be  improjjcr  to 
enumerate  the  most  considerable. 


"VIII. 
silk  shoes. 


■  Hats  of  fur  and  wool,  and  mixtures  of  both,  women's  stuff,  and 


OF    TIfE    UXlTF.n    STATi:S. 


373 


"  llfsidfs  luaniifartorics  of  these  articles,  which  arc  carried  on  ns  rcmilar 
trades,  and  have  attained  to  n  c^nsiderahle  degree  of  maturity,  there  is  a  vast 
scene  of  household  inanufa<tiirin^,  which  < ontrihiites  more  larj,'ciy  to  tlic 
supply  of  the  (ommimity  than  i oiild  he  imagined,  without  iiaving  m.ide  it  an 
olije*  t  of  particular  intpnry.  (Ireat  <iiiantities  of  < oarse  cloths,  coatings,  serges 
.uul  llannels,  linsey-woolseys,  .  ,  .  and  various  mixtures  of  wool  and  cotton, 
and  of  cotton  and  flax,  are  made  in  the  household  way,  and  in  many  instances 
to  an  extent  not  only  suffu  ient  for  the  supply  of  the  families  in  which  they 
are  made,  but  for  sale,  and  even,  in  some  cases,  for  exportation. 


M 


III 


"In  a  country  the  climate  of  which  partakes  of  so  considerable  a  propor- 
tion of  winter  as  that  of  a  great  part  of  the  I'nited  States,  the  woollen  branch 
cannot  be  regarded  as  inferior  to  any  which  relates  to  the  clothing  of  the  inhab- 
itants. Household  manufactures  of  this  material  are  carried  on  in  different 
p.irts  of  the  I'nited  States  to  a  very  interesting  extent.  lUit  there  is  only  one 
branch,  whi<  h,  as  a  regular  business,  can  be  said  to  have  acpiired  maturity  : 
this  is  the  making  of  hats.  Hats  of  wool,  and  of  wool  mixed  with  fur,  are  made 
in  large  ([uantities  in  different  States  ;  and  nothing  scenis  wanting,  but  an  ade- 
(|uale  supply  of  materials,  to  render  the  manufacture  commensurate  with  the 
(lemand.  \  promising  essay  toward  the  fabrication  of  doths,  cassimeres.  and 
other  woollen-goods,  is  likewise  going  on  at  Hartford  in  Connecticut.  Speci- 
mens of  the  different  kinds  which  are  made,  in  the  possession  of  the  secretary, 
evince  that  these  fabrics  have  attained  a  very  considerable  degree  of  perfection. 
'I'licir  (juality  certainly  surpasses  any  thing  that  could  have  been  looked  for  in 
so  short  a  time  and  under  so  great  disadvantages,  and  conspires,  with  the  scanti- 
ness of  the  means  which  have  been  at  the  command  of  the  directors,  to  form 
the  eulogium  of  that  public  spirit,  i)erseverance,  and  judgment  which  have  been 
able  to  accomplish  so  much.  To  cherish  and  bring  to  maturity  this  prec  ious 
embryo  must  engage  the  most  ardent  wishes  and  proportionable  regret,  as  far 
as  the  means  of  doing  it  may  appear  difficult  and  uncertain.  Measures  whic  h 
slu)ulil  tend  to  promote  an  abundant  sup])ly  of  wool  of  good  cpiality  would 
probably  afford  the  most  efficacious  aid  that  present  circumstances  i)ermil.  'i'o 
encourage  the  raising  and  improving  the  breed  of  sheei;  at  home  would  cer- 
tainly be  the  most  desirable  expedient  for  that  purpose." 

Farther  on  Mr.  Hamilton  alludes  to  the  fiibrication  of  carpets  and  carpet- 
ing. "  toward  which  some  beginnings  have  been  made."  He  also  remarks,  "  It 
is  doubtful  if  American  wool  is  fit  for  fine  cloths," — a  statement  which  sounds 
strangely,  seeing  that  all  our  fine  cloths  are  now  made  from  American  wools, 
and  the  coarser  fobrics  from  those  which  are  imported. 

The  woollen-manufacture  did  not  change  its  character  as  a  private  orcupa- 
tiiin  immediately  after  the  Revolutionary  war,  as  might  have  been  supjjosed, 
even  though  emancipated  from  the  chains  imposed  upon  it  by  I'lnglish  policy. 
New  ways  are  slowly  learned,  and  there  was  a  lack  of  capital  in  the  country  to 


Ill'- 1    ■*' I    ,■ 


'U  :i  J 


374 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


build  factories.  Besides,  after  the  treaty  of  peace,  a  flood  of  manufactured 
goods  of  all  kinds  was  again  poured  into  the  country  from  ICngland,  against 
Tariffs  of  which  tiicre  was  no  i)owcr  in  Congress  to  offer  the  shield  of  a  pro- 
1804  and  1812.  tective  tariff.  When  Congress  was  efjuipped  w: ''  the  power,  it  was 
thought  best,  at  first,  not  to  exercise  it  in  respect  to  woollens.  Wool  was 
admitted  free  of  duty ;  but  no  protective  duty  was  levied  on  cloths  until  1804, 
when  fifteen  per  cent  was  levied.  In  1812  this  was  increased  to  thirty  per 
cent.  Under  these  two  laws  the  dormant  buds  awoke,  and  the  manufacture 
bloomed  into  being. 

There  had  been  no  factories,  except  fulling-mills,  until  1791,  when  "the 
promising  essay  "  was  made  at  Hartford.  In  1794  a  successful  factory  was 
Rise  of  opened  in  Byfield  Parish  in  Newbury,  Mass.,  where  the  work  was 

factories.  done  by  machinery.  The  same  year  the  first  carding-mr.chine  in 
the  country  was  set  up  at  Pittsfield,  Mass.,  one  of  the  early  centres  of  the  wool- 
len-industry, where  also  the  first  broad  loom  in  the  country  was  afterwards 
set  in  motion.  In  1801,  1804,  and  1805,  other  carding-machines  were  started. 
Gray  mixed  broadcloth  of  good  quality  was  made  at  Pittsfield  as  early  as  1804. 
Madison  wore  a  suit  of  black  broadcloth  of  American  make  at  his  inauguration 
in  1809,  —  an  act  which  well  became  that  eminent  statesman,  who,  thougli  a 
free-trader  in  principle,  openly  advocated  the  policy  of  protection  to  home 
manufactures  as  essential  to  the  strength  and  prosperity  of  the  rcpui>lic,  and 
who  had  presented  to  Congress  the  original  tariff  bill  which  it  had  ailcptcd. 
In  1S09  a  woollen-mill  was  put  up  in  Northern  New  York,  at  Oriskany,  in  Onei- 
da County  ;  and  others  followed  it  within  a  {q\s  years  in  that  region.  In  1812  a 
large  mill,  for  those  days,  was  started  at  Middletown,  Conn.,  for  the  making  of 
fine  cloths  and  cassimeres.  Every  day  thirty  or  forty  yards  of  broadcloth  were 
made,  which  would  sell  from  nine  to  ten  dollars  a  yard  by  the  piece.  Small 
factories  for  coarse  cloths  were  now  getting  into  operation  in  all  directions 
throughout  the  country,  but  especially  in  Massachusetts,  New  Hampshire,  ami 
Connecticut,  which  were  both  wool-growing  and  extremely  enterprising  Slaks. 
Blankets  were  being  made  in  Connecticut  in  considerable  quantities.  Super- 
fine cloths  were  making  at  Northampton  and  elsewhere,  which  were  palrioti(  ally 
claimed  to  be  superior  to  the  imported  goods.  The  wool-supply  was  not  yet 
sufficient  for  the  needs  of  the  country.  But  a  merino-fever  was  raging  :  wool 
rose  to  a  dollar  and  a  half  and  two  dollars  a  pound  ;  heavy  importations  of 
sheep  were  taking  place,  and  farmers  giving  a  degree  of  attention  to  brccdinu. 
incited  thereto  by  the  high  prices,  which  jiromised  ere  long  to  give  the  manu- 
facturers an  ample  supply  of  excellent  and  cheap  home  grown  fleece.  The 
war  of  1 8 1 2  gave  a  fi-esh  impulse  to  manufacturing;  and,  during  those  three 
years  in  which  it  was  in  progress,  it  was  impossible  to  take  up  a  newspaper 
without  seeing  in  it  some  notice  of  a  new  woollen-factory  whicli  had  been 
started,  or  some  new  style  of  American-made  woollen-goods  which  manulac- 
turers  were  essaying  to  make. 


OF    THE    I'M  TED    Sl^ATES. 


375 


lanufactured 
and,  against 
:ld  of  a  pro- 
)0\ver,  it  was 
Wool  was 
s  until  1804. 
to  thirty  per 
manufacture 

[ ,  when  '•  the 
I  factory  was 
the  work  was 
K-nir.chine  in 
s  of  the  wool- 
as  afterwards 
were  started, 
early  as  1S04. 
i  inauguration 


The  census  of  1810  reported  tliat  the  manufacture  of  wool  was  at  that 
time  still  mostly  in  families.     The  production  was  roughly  valued  at  $25,608,- 


r.WKY    nUUAl)    I.ociM. 


y-'^'H.      Although    the   spinning-jenny,   the    power-loom,    the   nap-cutter,   and 
various  ingenious  machines,  were  now  in  practical  use  in  factories,    Household 
tliis   household  manufacture   appears  to  have  been  a  thing  the   manufac- 
pcoplc  wer*^;  slov,'  to  give  up.     It  was  a  valuable  source  of  income   *"''*®" 
to  people  of  moderate   means.     Women   could   then   do   but   few  things  to 


I     'I 

f'tl  ' 


i:>      i 


376 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


make  their  time  a  source  of  revenue,  besides  spinning  and  weaving ;  and  the 
generation  of  men  and  women  of  iSio  did  not  relinquish  the  household 
manufacture  tmlil  they  had  passed  off  the  scene  of  earthly  toil  and  struggle. 
This  household  employment  was  also  prized  by  public  men,  for  the  sake  of 
its  influences  upon  the  character  of  our  people.  Henry  Clay,  speaking  of  the 
lives  of  farmers  and  mechanics,  said  they  tended  to  "  beget  a  jjcculiarly  eager, 
disinterested  love  of  truth,  and  exempted  them  in  a  good  degree  froui  those 
sudden  impulses  to  which  those  who  move  in  the  more  excitable  walks  y){  life 
are  more  frequently  liable,  and  which,  though  sometimes  leading  to  great 
actions,  are  oftener  the  prolific  source  of  error."  And  it  was  upon  people 
working  among  the  pure  associations  of  family  life  that  these  influences 
exerted  their  most  powerful  effect.  In  the  flill  of  1814  thirty  bales  of  woollens 
were  sent  from  Berkshire  County,  Massachusetts,  to  Albany,  in  one  shipment ; 
and  one  economist  of  those  days,  speaking  through  the  columns  of  a  Balti- 
more newspaper,  said  of  it,  — 

"  These  cloths,  it  adds  much  to  our  pleasure  to  learn,  were  mostly  manu- 
factured in  private  families, — the  plan  that  of  all  others  we  wish  may  he 
pursued,  as  it  brings  the  whole  hxbor  of  the  people  into  active  and  healthful 
employment,  and  is  without  the  many  objections  to  which  large  establishments 
are  liable.  It  is  astonishing  to  be  informed  of  the  extent  to  which  this  industry 
is  applied.  Many  of  the  most  elegant  belles  that  trip  our  streets  are  covered 
with  superb  shawls,  antl  otherwise  protected  from  th.e  cold,  by  the  labor  of 
their  own  hands,  —  hands  that  heretofore  chiefly  held  a  romance,  or  touched  a 
piano.  These  household  manufactures  are  a  sort  of  clear  gain  to  our  country, 
and  we  particularly  exult  at  the  progress  they  make." 

Alas  for  the  simplicity  of  the  times  of  our  bright-eyed,  dear  old  grand- 
mothers !  How  many  of  their  daughters  who  now  trip  the  streets  are  "  covered 
with  superb  shawls,  and  otherwise  protected  from  the  cold,  by  the  labor  of 
their  own  hands  "?  It  is  to  be  feared  that  too  many  of  them  have  resumed 
the  romance  and  the  piano. 

So  long  did  the  home-manufacture  retain  its  charm,  even  after  factories 
were  established,  that  work  of  the  early  factories  simply  wove  the  yarn  tiiat  had 
been  spun  at  the  houses  in  the  country  round  j  and,  when  the  maidens  and 
spinsters  in  the  household  gave  up  tlie  sjjinning-wheel  and  hand-loom,  they 
simi)ly  did  it  to  go  to  the  factory,  and  resume  work  there. 

After  1816  (-arding-mills,  fulling-mills,  and  woollen-factories  increased 
rapidly  in  every  part  of  the  country.  In  1832  the  protection  to  woollen- 
manufactures,  which  had  been  lowered  sligluly  after  the  war,  uas 
increased  to  fifty  per  cent,  and  a  i^iw  years  of  great  prosperity  were 
enjoyed  by  the  trade.  Under  the  descending  tariff  of  1836,  which 
brought  the  duties  down  to  twenty-nine  per  cent  in  1842,  an  era 
of  deij.ession  occurred;  but  in  1842  protection  was  again  decreed  by  a  duty 
of  fortv  l)cr  cent,  which  chan.^ed  tlie  face  of  things.     New  vigor  was  imparled 


Rapid  in- 
crease of 
mills  after 
1816. 


r;  and  the 

household 
id  struggle. 
le  sake  of 
king  of  the 
liarly  eager, 

from  those 
,'alks  of  life 
ig  to  great 
pon  people 
;    influences 

of  woollens 
2  shipment ; 
i  of  a  lialti- 

nostly  nianu- 

/ish  may  be 

md  healthful 

stablishments 

this  industry 

are  covered 

the  labor  of 

or  touched  a 

our  country, 

r  old  grand- 
are  "covered 
the  labor  of 
lave  resumed 

after  f:\ct()rics 
arn  that  had 
maidens  and 
iddoom,  tl^y 

es  increased 
to  woollen - 
the  war,  was 

osperity  were 
1836,  which 
1842,  an  era 

cd  by  a  duiv 
was  imparled 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


377 


to  wool-growing  and  wool-manufacturing,  and  preparations  were  made  for  the 
erection  of  woollen-factories  in  great  numbers,  especially  in  New  York  and 
Pennsylvania.  Every  village  with  a  mill-stream  aspired  to  have  its  woollen- 
mill,  particularly  if  situated  in  a  pastoral  region.  Public  meetings  were  held  in 
all  such  places  10  raise  subscrii)tions  to  the  stock  of  the  mills  ;  corner-stones 
were  laid  with  impressive  puljlic  ceremonies,  and  odes  written,  beginning, 

"  Hail,  ICntcrprisc  !    whose  rising  sun 
Tiiis  day  beams  foitli  its  light;  " 

and  public  dinners  were  given  in  connnemoration  of  the  new  era  in  village 
affairs,  at  which  extraordinary  toasts  to  "  Liberty,"  "  PiU)lic  Spirit,"  "  Our  Own 
Village,"  "  Our  Guests  from  the  Neighboring  Towns,"  &c.,  were  drunk  enthusi- 
astically. It  was  a  period  of  great  excitement,  adventure,  and  public  satis- 
foction.  American  invention  took  fire  sympathetically  during  this  period,  and 
was  stimulated  to  improve  upon  the  looms  and  other  apparatus  then  in  use, 
and  a  great  many  valuable  ideas  were  patented  during  that  period.  P)y  1850 
the  number  of  fiictories  had  increased  from  about  twenty-five  in  1810  to  1.559, 
employing  39,252  hands,  and  producing  $43,207,545  worth  of  goods.  The 
growth  of  production  year  by  year  had  been  as  follows  :  — 


iSio 

1S20 

1S30 
1S40 
1S50 


In  foiindcrie.s  .... 
\  In  factories,  the  family  manu-  | 
(  fact'.uesnot  being  reiJoited,      ) 

In  factories 

In  factories 

In  factories  ..... 


?2  5,608,788 
4,413,068 

14,528,166 
20,696,999 

43.207.545 


1850. 


The  development  of  1850  was  chiefly  in  the  Middle  States.  One-half  of 
the  woollen-mills  in  the  country  were  in  the  three  States  of  Pennsylvania,  New 
York,  and  Ohio.  More  than  one-third  of  the  whole  number  were 
ill  New  England.  A  beginning  had  been  made  in  the  prairie 
States  of  the  AVest,  and  Virginia  was  em[)loying  no  less  than  a  hundred  and 
twenty-one  flictories  in  the  art.  In  the  great  mountainous  and  volcanic  regions 
of  the  Far  West,  which,  according  to  Judge  Kelley,  are  destined  to  be  the 
greatest  wool-producing  country  of  the  world,  there  was  as  yet  no  trace  of  the 
woollen-industry.  California  had  neither  mills  nor  sheep.  There  was  not  a 
mill  west  of  the  Missouri  River,  and  not  one  in  the  States  of  New  Jersey, 
South  Carolina,  Florida,  Alabama,  Mississippi.  Louisiana,  Arkansas,  Kansas,  and 
-Minnesota.  In  spite  of  the  une(iual  distribution  of  the  industry,  the  develop- 
iiK'iit  was  very  satisfactory.  It  kept  pace  with  population,  and  it  stimulated 
population  ;  for  it  enhanced  the  profits  of  agriculture  by  creating  a  large  home- 
market  for  wool,  and  it  brought  into  the  country  a  large  body  of  cmigrancs  to 
Work  in  the  factories  and  settle  on  the  public  lands. 


II 


?!'* 


!*;. 


373 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


Struggles  of 
woollen- 
manufac- 
turers. 


The  woollen-manufacture  of  the  United  States  has  had  the  misfortune  to 
be  constantly  sul)jccled  to  alternate  chills  and  fever,  owing  to  causes  entirely 
beyond  the  control  of  the  mill-owners.  It  was  now  to  encounter 
one  of  its  periodic  chills.  The  duties  were  lowered  a  trifle  after 
1846,  and  in  1857  they  had  been  reduced  about  one-half  what 
they  were  in  1842.  This  brought  upon  the  factories  again 
the  almost  undiminished  force  of  foreign  competition.  Their  plight  was 
aggravated  by  the  Massachusetts  and  Pennsylvania  mills  enlarging  thcir 
capacity  to  a  great  extent,  and  by  the  erection  of  a  hundred  and  thirty-eight 
new  mills,  many  of  them  of  unusual  capacity,  in  different  parts  of  the  coun- 
try ;  also  by  the  panic  of  1857,  which  brought  about  hard  times.  The  total 
l)roduction  of  the  country  had  slightly  increased  by  i860;  but  four  hundnd 
and  forty-seven  factories  which  were  running  in  1S50,  and  a  number  of  others 
built  during  the  interim,  had  closed  their  doors,  discharged  their  operati\cs, 
anil  ceased  to  do  business.  They  were  mostly  small  concerns,  built  to  make 
local  markets  for  the  wools  of  their  several  counties ;  but  a  large  amount  of 
the  earnings  of  the  people  was  invested  in  them,  and  the  disaster  was  a  serious 
one.  Many  of  the  mills  were  sold  out  by  the  sheriff,  to  the  great  loss  of  the 
original  owners.  Of  the  mills  which  closed,  sixty-five  were  in  Connecticut,  a 
hundred  and  nine  in  New  York,  a  hundred  and  ten  in  Pennsylvania,  and 
seventy-six  in  Virginia.     It  was  a  blue  time  for  the  woollen-industry. 


CHOMl'TON    nOM-WORKS,    WORCIiSTEK,    MASS. 


The  most  enrouraxing  feature  of  this  era  was  the  fact,  that,  though  nearly 
every  woollen-mill  in  tiic  country  was  in  straits,  the  quantity  of  wool  actually 
Encourage-  cousuiv  xl  was  fully  maintained  ;  and  the  farmers  of  the  country. 
ments.  finding  the  market  for  their  fleeces  unfailing,  were  encouraged  to 

go  on  and  enlarge  their  flocks  and  production.  This  was  a  remarkable  era  of 
merino-breeding,  particulaiiy  in  the  great  States  of  Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois,  and 
Kentucky,  The  flocks  of  that  region  multiplied  extremely  fiist  from  1850  tu 
1S60;  and  so  much  attention  was  paid  to  the  care  of  the  sheep,  that  the  wool 


OF  THE   UNITED  STATES. 


379 


produced  was  of  the  most  admirable  quality.  It  found  such  a  ready  sale  in 
tiic  general  market,  that  wool-growing  in  New  ICngland  received  a  check  on 
account  of  it.  The  flocks  of  New  England  actually  decreased  from  i<S5o  to 
i860.  Mr.  John  L.  Hayes,  one  of  the  high  authorities  on  this  subject, 
attril)utes  the  excellent  cjuality  of  the  wools  which  have  resulted  from  the 
breeding  of  this  particular  era  to  the  rural  and  economical  habits  of  the 
American  people  in  large  part.  He  says,  "  There  are  certain  qualities  com- 
mon to  the  varying  breeds  which  are  due  to  the  influence  of  our  climate  and 
soil,  but  especially  to  the  system  of  keeping  consequent  upon  the  thrifty 
habits  of  our  people  ;  and  the  most  influential  feature  in  their  keeping  is  the 
fact  that  our  sheep  are  uniformly  and  liberally  fed,  and  hence  produce  a 
uniform,  sound,  and  healthy  fibre."  The  finest  wool  at  the  Exhibition  of 
185 1  in  London  was  from  the  State  of  Tennessee.  Alexander  Hamilton  was 
"doubtfiil  if  American  wool  was  fit  for  fine  cloths."  The  quality  of  fleece 
bred  in  the  years  from  1850  to  i860  was  fit  for  the  finest  cloths;  and  from 
that  era  to  this  the  fine  cloths  of  the  United  States  huve  been  almost  exclu- 
sively made  of  American  wools,  while  it  is  into  the  coarser  fabrics  that  the 
imported  wools  have  principally  gone. 

A  new  era  in  the  woollen-industry  dawned  with  the  Morrill  tariff  of  1861, 
and  the  war  which  broke  out  in  our  territory  before  the  end  of  the  jear. 
The  Morrill  tariff  was  not  a  war  measure,  although  it  became  a  Morriu  tariff 
law  in  the  very  midst  of  the  excitement  which  preceded  the  war.  °'  ■^^'■ 
It  was  introtluccd  into  Congress  March  12,  1S60;  and  was  enacted  March  2, 
1 86 1.  It  gave  to  woollen-goods  a  protection  ranging  from  thirty  to  forty  per 
cent;  which  was  a  great  advance  from  the  low  standard  of  1S57.  Once  a 
law,  it  was  powerfully  supplemented  in  its  operation  by  the  war.  The  two 
causes  combined  were  followed  by  extraordinary  results. 

The  United  States  have  never  yet  gone  into  a  war  with  factories  enough  to 
supply  regiments  in  the  field  with  clothing  and  the  peoi)le  at  home  too. 
The  country  has  been  obliged  either  to  resort  to  leather,  as  in  the  Revolution, 
or  l)uy  cloth  abroad,  as  in  1812,  1S45,  and  1S61-65.  It  has  even  been  the 
iiut.  that  all  the  flags  of  the  United  States  have  had  to  be  purchased  outside  of 
our  own  country.  In  an  address  delivered  at  Thiladelphia  in  1865  it  was 
stated  that  ''all  our  flags  are  grown,  spun,  woven,  and  dyed  in  I^ngland  ;  and 
on  the  last  Fourth  of  July  the  proud  American  ensigns  which  floated  over 
every  national  ship,  post,  and  fort,  and  every  patriotic  home,  flaunted  forth 
upon  the  breeze  the  industrial  dependence  of -Vmerica  upon  England."  When 
the  hostilities  of  1S61  broke  out,  therefore,  and  it  became  necessary  to  clothe 
several  hundred  thousand  men  for  the  field  and  a  larger  number  for  the  local 
defence  of  the  several  States,  the  woollen-cloth  for  the  purpose  could  not  be 
found  in  the  United  States.  Not  only  was  the  country  absolutely  short  of  a 
supply  of  common  woollen-cloth  North  and  South  too,  but  there  was  another 
fact  in  Lhe  situation.     It  had  not  yet  entered  upon  the  manufacture  of   the 


38o 


INDUSTKIAI.    HISTORY 


11 

ii 


more  elegant  classes  of  goods.  l^efore  1861  the  factories  had  "attemi)tei\ 
scarcely  any  thing  beyontl  common  gootis  of  the  coarser  kinds."  During  the 
gloomy  (lays  of  the  war,  an  association  of  patriotic  ladies  at  Washington 
pledged  ihemselves  to  wear  nothing  except  of  American  fabrication  ;  and  they 
found,  much  to  their  chagrin,  that  tiie  variety  of  worsted  dress-goods  manufac- 
tured here  was  of  an  extremely  limited  character,  and  the  goods  were  of  a 
common  class  at  tiuit.  'I'his  scarcity  of  cloth  and  of  elegant  goods,  the  in- 
creased consum[)tion,  and  the  protection  of  a  timely  tariff,  made  an  immediate 
anil  lively  market  for  American  woollens.  The  manufacturers  were  not  sl(nv 
to  take  advantage  of  it. 

During  one  period  of  the  war,  a  large  nimiber  of  the  cotton-mills  of  the 
country  were  obliged  to  suspend  operations  for  the  want  of  the  raw  maten.il. 
,.,    „  Tiiere  was  so  little  cotton  to  be  had,  that  the  material  rose  fioin 

Woollen- 

manufac-  ciglity-eiglu  dollars  a  bale  to  nine  hundred  and  a  thousand  dollars. 
tures during    j^'^j    („^^.   (.(j,,i(i    manufacture  cotton  at   that  price.      iMill-owncrs 

the  civil  war. 

closed  their  doors.  At  one  tmie  it  is  said  that  there  was  not  a 
single  cotton-spindle  in  operation  in  the  whole  of  Lowell.  The  woollen-manu- 
facturers, on  the  contrary,  found  themselves  stimulated  into  wonderful  activity. 
The  government  was  calling  continually  for  enormous  ([uantities  of  goods,  A 
fresh  demand  for  American  goods  sprang  up  among  the  people,  and  the 
several  States  came  into  the  market  to  buy  uniforms  for  their  re-organi/ed  regi- 
ments of  militia.  The  mills  which  were  in  operation  at  the  beginning  of  the 
war  soon  found  themselves  overwhelmed  with  orders  for  their  gootis,  and  a 
large  number  of  them  were  engaged  to  run  exclusively  upon  goods  for  the 
armies  in  the  field.  Under  the  influence  of  this  new  state  of  things,  a  great 
many  of  the  woollen-factories  which  had  been  shut  up  during  the  ])revious  hard 
times  were  re-opened  and  set  at  work.  Hundreds  of  new  factories  were  built 
in  the  great  wool-growing  region  of  the  West :  new  mills  were  erectetl  in  nearly 
every  one  of  the  Southern  States  for  the  production  of  warm  fabrics  for  army 
and  people.  In  addition  to  all  this,  another  thing  took  place.  The  c(jtti>ii- 
mill  owners  of  the  North,  seeing  such  a  demand  for  woollens  from  both  the 
government  and  the  jieople  generally,  and  not  caring  to  keep  their  own 
machinery  idle,  resolved  to  turn  a  portion  of  their  establishments  to  the  manu- 
facture of  woollens.  They  bought  expensive  machinery,  and  put  it  into 
operation.  Operatives  were  plenty,  in  consequence  of  the  closing  of  the 
cotton-mills;  and  there  was  no  difficulty  in  manning  every  si)inning-jack  and 
loom  with  competent  hands.  Every  machine  was  run  so  as  to  produce  the 
greatest  amount  of  goods,  and  in  many  cases  the  mills  were  run  night  and 
day.  It  was  an  era  of  great  prosperity.  The  woollen-machinery  of  the 
country  was  more  than  doubled  during  the  war. 

After  the  war  there  was  a  folling-off  in  the  woollen-machinery  of  the  coun- 
try, owing  to  the  restoration  of  the  cotton-supply  and  the  conversion  of  mills 
from  the  woollen  to  the  cotton  manufacture.     But  the  South,  being  bare  of 


or    THE    i'X/TF.D    STATES. 


381 


.ttemptc(\ 
uriny  the 

and  they 

munufac- 
iverc  of  a 
Is,  tlic  iii- 
mmcdiatc 

not  slow 

ills  of  the 
V  malciial. 
I  rose  from 
nd  dollars. 
>I  ill-owners 
was  not  a 
lUen-niami- 
\il  activity, 
goods.     A 
le,  and  the 
mi/.ed  ret;i- 
^\\v^  of  the 
)ods.  and  a 
jds  for  the 
IS.  a  .ureat 
ions  hard 
were  built 
1  in  nearly 
s  for  army 
le  cotlon- 
Xi  both  tlie 
their  own 
the  manii- 
ut   it   into 
ng  of  the' 
;-jack  and 
rodvice  the 
night  and 
cry  of  the 

the  c(nm- 
lon  of  niill^ 
ing  bare  ot 


goods,  became  a  large  buyer  from  the  North  at  this  timi^ ;   and  this  served 
to  stimulate  toward  tiie  building  of  more  new  mills,  and  to  jjrevent  a  decline  in 
the  manufacturing  capac  ity  of  the  country.     As  the  abnormal  con-    ■yvQo,ij„. 
sumption  of  woollen-goods  by  the  goverinnent  ceased  as  suddenly   manufactur* 
almost  as  the  demand  for  them  from  this  (luarter  arose,  the  wants   '"^  since  the 

'  war. 

of  the  South  prevented  the  tide  from  turning  against  the  manufac- 
turers ;  and  so  they  continued  to  reap  a  golden  harvest.    The  state  of  things  in 


II  \l\     I  \l  1  I'l  -1  HUM. 


1870  as  compared  with  1S50  and  i860  will  show  the  o.traordinary  influence 
of  the  tariff  and  the  war.  and  the  subsecpient  demand  from  the  South,  in 
putting  this  important  industry  once  more  upon  its  feet.  The  figures  are 
taken  from  the  census  reports :  they  refer  only  to  the  manufacture  of  woollen- 
cknhs,  and  cloths  of  mixed  wool,  cotton,  and  silk,  the  carpet  and  worsted 
factories  not  beini:  included. 


I 


\ 


\ 


i 


II 


I 


I 


I 


'( r 


U.  i 


il 


ili!  i 


382 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


Alal)aina  . 

Arkansas  . 

California         . 

Connecticut 

Delaware 

DJNtrict  of  Columbia 

Morida     . 

(leorgia    . 

Illinois     . 

Indiana    . 

Iowa 

Kansas     . 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Maine 

Maryland 

Massacluisctt: 

Michigan 

Minnesota 

Mississippi 

Missouri  . 

New  Hampshire 

New  Jersey 

New  Mexico     . 

New  York 

North  Carolina 

Ohio         .         . 

Oregon     . 

Pennsylvania  . 

Rhode  Island  . 

South  Carolina 

Tennessee 

Texas 

Utah 

Vermont  . 

Virginia    . 

West  Virginia . 

Wisconsin 

Total 


1850. 


149 

9 
I 

I  •  •  • 

3 
16 

33 
I 


J" 

38 

119 


I 

61 
41 

249 

I 

130 

380 
45 

4 
I 

72 
121 


1. 559 


i860. 


I 

84 


II 
21 

79 
12 

37 
I 
26 
27 
134 
16 

4 
II 

51 
35 

140 

7 

"5 
I 

270 

57 
I 
I 


46 
45 

IS 


1,260 


1870. 


'4 
■3 

5 

108 

II 

I 

46 
I  or) 

'75 

«5 

9 

'25 

107 
3' 

'S5 
54 
10 
II 

156 

77 

29 

I 

252 

5^ 
"3 

9 

457 
65 
'5 

14S 

20 
15 

65 
6S 

74 
64 


2,891 


The  following  tabic  shows  the  production  in  all  the  States  at  thr-^e  different 
periods.  This  includes  a  space  of  thirty  years,  during  which  time  a  reniarlc- 
able  change  occurred  in  the  ratio  of  production  in  several  of  the  States. 
Massachusetts  had  the  lead  in  the  beginning,  and  has  kept  it  ever  since ;  but 
the  production  of  Pennsylvania,  which  was  $5,321,860  in  1850,  had  increased 
to  $27,580,586  twenty  years  later,  thus  placing  her  second  in  the  list,  the  rank 
which  for  many  years  was  occupied  by  New  York. 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


Z^i 


1S70. 

14 
•3 

S 

loS 

II 
I 

109 

>75 

«5 

9 

125 

107 
3' 

54 

10 

II 

156 

77 

-0 
I 

252 

•      52 

223 

9 
457 

65 

>5 
14S 

20 

IS 

65 
6S 

74 
64 

2,891 


Ahbnnia  . 

Arkansas 

(l.ilifornia 

(.'onncclicut      . 

Delaware 

District  of  Columbia 

Florida    . 

(Jcorgia    . 

Illinois     .        . 

Indiana    .         . 

Iowa 

Kansas    .         . 

Kintucky 

Louisiana 

Maine       .        . 

Maryland 

Massachusetts 

Michigan 

Minnesota 

Mississippi       . 

Missouri  .        . 

New  Hampshire 

Kcw  Jersey 

New  Mexico    . 

New  \'()rk 

North  Carolina 

Ohio 

Oregon     . 

Tennsylvania   . 

Rhode  Island  . 

South  Carolina 

'i'tnnesscc        . 

Texas       .        . 

Utah 

Vermont  . 

Virc;inia  .        . 

West  Virginia 

AVisconsin        . 

Total 


1850. 


$6,465,216 

251,000 

2,400 

SS,75o 
206,572 
205,582 

13,000 

318,819 

753.300 
295,1.10 

i2,770,sf'S 
90,242 


56,000 

2,127.745 
1,164,446 

7,030,604 

23.750 
1,111,027 

5,321,860 
2,381,825 

6,310 
1 5,000 

i,579,i6i 
841,013 

87,992 
543,207,545 


i860. 


5191,474 

1 50,000 

6,840,220 

'53.035 


401.1-0 
i87,(,i3 
649,771 
127,640 

8.15,226 

45,200 

1,717,007 

605,992 

'9.655.7>'^7 
139,246 

•5^^.507 

M3.025 

2,601,653 

1,085,104 

5,870,117 

29 1 ,000 

825,000 

85,000 

8,191,675 

6,915,205 

80,000 

S,ioo 

08.796 

2,938,626 
717.827 

172,720 


1870. 

5'89,9';8 

78,6(jo 

1,102,754 

17,371,048 

576,067 

500 

471.523 
2.849.249 
4.329.7" 
1, 6.)  7, 606 

'53. '.SO 

'.3 '2.1 58 

30.795 
6,398,881 

427.596 

39,502,542 

1,204,86s 

219,862 

'47.323 

'.256,213 

8,766,104 

1,903,825 

2 1 ,000 

14,394,786 

298,368 

3.287,699 

505.857 
27,580,586 
'2,558,117 

34,559 
696,844 
I  52,968 
199,600 

3.619.459 
488,352 

475.763 
1,250,467 


$61,894,986       5155.405.358 


hrpc  different 
mc  a  remark- 
Df  the  States. 
'cx  since ;  l)iit 
lad  increased 
list,  the  rank 


In  i860  the  number  of  worsted-estabhshments  in  the  country  was  three: 
in  1S70  it  was  102.    The  carpet-factories  had  not  changed  :  there  were  213  in 
i860,  and  215  in  1S70.    These  figures  show  amazing  progress,   wonderful 
The  States  of  the  South    (exckiding  Virginia),  which  had  only   progress, 
thirty-two  factories  of  woollen  goods  in  1850,  and  eighty-one  in  i860,  contained 


i ,  '4 


11* 


384 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


m 


m'-\ 


..I    i 


720  factories  in  1870,  mostly  small  concerns,  to  be  sure,  and  producinp  a 
coarse  class  of  fabrics,  but  slill  busy  factories,  and  afibrding  a  large  Itx  al 
market  for  tlie  fleeces  from  the  plantations  and  farms.  'There  were  497 
woollen-factories  in  the  West  as  compared  with  258  in  i<S6o.  In  Ohio,  New 
York,  and  Pennsylvania,  932  woollen-factories  had  been  put  into  ojjeration  as 
a{,'ainst  525  in  i860;  while  twenty-nine  had  been  built  west  of-the  Rocky 
Mountains.  In  i860  Massachusetts  had  two  worsted-factories,  and  Rhode 
Island  had  one.  There  were  no  others  in  t'lC  United  States.  In  1.S70  tluTi.' 
were  102,  eighty-seven  of  them  being  in  Massachusetts,  Rhode  Island,  and 
Pennsylvania. 

There  had  been  equally  interesting  progress  in  the  fiibrics  produced.  Before 
i860,  the  cloths,  carpets,  and  woollen-goods  of  the  country  generally  were  of 
the  coarse  or  common  makes.  Scarcely  any  thing  had  been  attempted  in  thi- 
line  of  fine  goods.  After  i860  the  factories  began  to  make  fine  goods  uf 
every  description.  Particularly  was  this  the  case  after  1864,  in  which  year  a 
more  favorable  adjustment  of  the  tariff  was  made.  It  was,  in  fact,  under  the 
act  of  1864  that  the  distinctively  fine  goods  were  chiefly  undertaken.  New 
machinery  was  bougiit,  and  old  machinery  was  adapted  to  new  uses.  Coarse 
articles  were  still  made  ;  but  the  mills  now  began  to  produce  fine  shawls, 
worsted  dress-goods,  fine  cassimeres,  broadcloth,  hosiery,  alpaca  fabrics, 
mohair-poplins,  moliair-lustres,  chinchilla  cloakings,  astrachans,  embroidcri'd 
table-covers,  druggets,  Axminster  carpets,  and  almost  every  other  variety  of 
elegant  wool-fabric.  Mntire  success  was  attained  with  every  class  of  goods ; 
unless,  perhaps,  the  finest  broadcloth  be  alone  excepted.  If  the  manufac- 
turers lacked  a  machine  proper  for  the  new  purposes  to  which  they  were 
adapting  their  mills,  they  invented  it.  They  frequented  the  world's  fairs,  and 
studied  styles  and  processes.  They  acted  on  the  old  principle,  whi(  h  is 
expressed  in  a  homely  but  forcible  way  in  the  motto  at  the  head  of  the  cards  of 
a  bill-poster  at  AUanta,  (la.,  for  187S  :  — 

"  It  is  not  hiitli,  nor  rank,  nor  state, 
It's  get  up  and  get,  that  makes  man  great." 

The  manufacturers,  during  this  period  of  ten  years,  displayed  unexampled 
energy,  and  for  the  first  time  in  the  history  of  their  trade  they  were  al)k'  to 
furnish  almost  the  wliole  of  the  immense  supply  both  of  coarse  and  fine 
goods  required  by  this  market.  This  market  too,  be  it  known,  had  increased 
threefold  in  power  to  consume  from  i860  to  1870.  The  new  styles  of  goods 
were  distinguished  by  greater  softness  and  strength,  owing  to  the  {[ualilics  of 
American  wool.  The  staple  goods,  such  as  cassimeres,  ingrain  carpets,  ivc, 
displayed  better  style,  improved  finish,  and  softer  and  more  agreeable  colors. 
The  delaines  became  so  perfect,  that  a  celebrated  importer  at  New  \'ork, 
who,  when  called  as  a  witness  in  a  trial  at  court,  had  asserted  his  inlal- 
libility    in   detecting   the   differences   in   fabrics,  was   astounded  to  discovcl 


OF    THE    UNITRD    STATES. 


385 


ucing  a 
je  local 

-•re  497 
lio,  New 
ration  as 
;  Rocky 
I  RImmIo 
70  there 
and,  and 

.    Before 
f  were  of 

.'d  in  ihe 
goods  of 
;:h  year  a 
under  the 
en.     New 
1.     Coarse 
lie  shawls, 
a    fabrics, 
iibroidercd 
variety  of 
of  goods ; 
manufac- 
they  were 
fairs,  and 
,  which  is 
lie  cards  of 


jnexamplcd 
tre  able  to 
|e  and   fine 
increased 
Is  of  goods 
jualilics  of 
irpcts.  iv-*"'- 
d)le  colors. 
;ew  York, 
his    infal- 
Ito  discover 


that  hf  liad  sworn  to  the  identity  of  foreign  woven  and  American  printed 
delaines. 

Since  1S70  depression  has  \gain  chilled  the  hearts  of  the  owners  of  the 
woollen-mills.  '1  his  is.  in  part,  owing  to  the  panic  of  1H73,  and  the  hard  times, 
'intl  retreni  hment  of  personal  expenses,  whi(  h  have  reigned  ever   ,.,    ,, 

,  .  Woollen- 

sine  L.     It    has    been,  in   part,  due   to   the    innnensc    (|uanlity   of  manufac- 

svoollens  which  the  government  had  on  hand  in  i<Sr)6,  when  it  dis-    *""■«■  »''*"=« 

1870. 

uanded  its  volunteer  army  of  a  million  of  men,  and  sent  tluin  to 
their  homes.     The  government  had  more  cloth  '.han  ( ould  be  consumed  by 
ihe  regular  army  in  several  generations.     As  these  goods  were  liable  to   be 
eaten  by  moths,  the  authorities  resolved  to  sell  them.     'I'he  auctions  eac  h  year 
vlepressed  the  price  of  coarse  cloths,  and  curtailed  the  sales  ol  tni'  mills.     l''or 


'^S^^zJS:^ 


several  years,  the  !iorse-rar  drivers,  truckmen,  teamsters,  and  farmers  wore  the 
sky-blue  uniform  overcoa*;,  or  clothing  made  of  that  blue  cloth  dyed  black, 
liought  from  the  government.  In  consecpience  of  the  panic  and  the  depres- 
sion, the  woollen-mills  have  lost  a  great  deal  of  money.  Many  of  them  have 
parsed  into  other  hands  at  a  loss.  It  is  a  fact  which  may  be  mentioned  here. 
iliat  nearly  every  woollen-mill  of  any  conseciucnce  in  the  I'nited  States  has, 
I'v  reason  of  these  regularly-recurring  periods  of  dejjression.  passed   out  of 


1'H 


^,1  (f1    ■'■ 


3«6 


IXDIISTNIM     IHSrOKV 


tin-  tiwiuTsliiii  ul  ilu-  (iri>,'iii.il  proji'dors  at  a  priic  < oiisidfraMy  lower  tliaii  its 
origin. il  in-^t.  ( )\vii)^  to  the  Ii.imI  tiiiK'^,  llic  imnliK  timi  ul  ilic  inilK  li.i-^  luni 
li.'ssi'iR'(l,  so  as  to  lij,'hton  tlir  Itiirik-ii  ri'slm^'  npwn  thriii  a>  iiiih  li  as  possilik-. 
I'nikT  tlu'  iiillii(.'m  ».•>  of  (li'<  rtMsid  pindiK  ikhi  ami  a  lower  rale  of  waj<i>..  tin- 
iiitiMvst  is  now  alriMtly  n-vivinj,'.  Iiii|ii)rtatioi)>  liavt.'  been  (  ut  down  from  S50,- 
000,000  in  1S72  to  Sjf),ooo,ooo  in  I'^yy.  lorei^^n  lahrii  s  are  hcinj^  steailily 
driven  out  ;  and  this  j^reat  market,  wherein  45.000.000  of  people  Imy  <  lotli^,. 
provisions,  ami  all  tlu'  necessaries  and  < omforts  of  life,  with  iti  wondirfn! 
power  of  recuperation,  is  fast  brin^'in^  bac  k  hope  and  enerj,'y  to  the  hearts  of 
tlu-  n.itivi'  inanuf.ii  tiirer>.  'The  industry  has  a  f,'reat  future  befori'  it.  and 
cannot  long  remain  under  the  <  louiU  that  now  surround  it. 


ft 


i\ 


if^i  ^ 


?! ':  \ 


SI'I.NMNd    AM)    \Vi;.\\IN(.. 

I'lie  wire-toothed  cards  for  combinff  out  the  wool  were  made  by  hand  in 

the   days   of  our   tbrefathers.  and  were   worked   by   hand.     ()li\i'r    j-lvans  uf 

!?„„„.•.  1.^  Maryland,  one  of  the  active-minded  inventor^  of  the  Revolution- 
bvans  s  im-  /  ' 

proved  nia-  ary  eta,  invcnteil  .1  mac  hine  to  prick  tlu'  leather,  cut.  bend,  .uid 
chinery.  ^^.^  ^|^^.  ^^.^,^|^   j^^  cards,  bul  (lid  not  have  liie  ^^ood  fortune  to  Me  it 

go  into  practical  operation.  Sul)se(|uently,  mac  hi'.ery  fur  <  utting  the  teedi. 
whi(  h  \\e>r  to  beset  in  the  leather  slieets  bv  hand,  was  employed  at  Worcester 
and  elsewh.ere  in  New  England,  'i'he  leetli,  put  up  in  bags,  were  given  out  to 
families  living  in  the  country  round  about.  'l"he  setting  of  the  teeth  wa>  a 
fireside  occujjation  ;  and  the  business  employed  large  numl)ers  of  the  genlle 
girls  of  tiiat  day.  who  afterwards  be<ame  the  mothers  of  rich  and  inllnenii.il 
families  of  to-day.  In  1796  Amos  W'hitteniore  took  out  a  patent  for  a 
macliine  to  make  the  cards,  and  this  invention  was  soon  followed  by  a  ma- 
chine to  do  the  carding,  and  the  two  new  processes  .soon  superseded  the  old 
ones. 

Carding  is  the  first  process  of  spinning.  The  wool  is  laid  upr)n  a  fe^il- 
apron,  and  is  drawn  down  therefrom  to  a  large,  slowly-revolving  drum,  who-^e 
whole  surfc4.v:e  is  covered  with  wire  canl.  The  wool  is  taken  \\y 
by  the  teeth  of  the  card,  and  combed  out  between  the  large  dnun 
and  two  smaller  ones  revolving  in  contact  with  it,  but  in  the  opposite  direi  - 
tion.  The  wool  is  then  detached  from  the  main  dnmi  by  the  action  of  ih'^' 
doffer,  —  a  sort  of  comb  moving  with  a  cpiick.  hoe-like  motion;  and  it  ll"«^ 
from  the  carding-machine  in  a  broad,  th.in,  gauzy  fleece,  through  a  smooth  sieel 
funnel,  in  which  it  contracts  into  a  ribbon,  or  sliver,  into  a  large  tin  ran. 
Long  wools  which  are  used  for  worsted-goods  are  made  into  a  sliver  on  tlu 
same  princijjle,  although  the  conibing-machinc  varies  from  the  one  describeil 
in  a  few  details.  The  slivers  are  now  carried  to  the  breaking-machine.  'I"" 
or  three  (or  more)  cans  are  placed  by  the  machine  ;  and  the  ends  of  the  slivers 
they  contain  are  laid  together,  and  passed  through  between  two  rollers,  wliii  n 


Carding. 


Had 
fnuj 

the 

ni;ic| 
^\-eii 


lala'H  u]' 

re  tlniii^ 

|to  (liri'<  ■ 

In  of  lli^" 

il  llow- 

tin  tan. 
Ir  on  tin' 
|lcs<vil»>-''l 

Ihe  slivi'i'-^ 
Irs.  wlii'  h 


r)A    77/A     r.\7/A7'    A/. / /A.V. 


.^'^7 


sci/c  ami  draw  thrin  Inrwanl.  ami  |i,i-.>.  ilu  in  on  in  anotln  i  >>  i  oT  rolUr^.  wliirh 
movi'  lliiri-  linu->  a^  I'asl  as  ilu'  rir>l.  .\i  a  «  (Mimmmiihi'  o|  iIii>  iiroci-ss, 
llu-  nuilcil  slivers  llow  from  llu'  niai  iiinc.  .unl  an-  loiKii  \\\  .niotlui  lar^i'  tin 
<  an.  in  i  fresh  sliver  of  three  limes  the  leni^lh  of  liu'  oriKiiKil  ".livers.  Three 
of  the  new  cans  an' tarried  to  another  frame,  ami  the  slivers  p.issed  ihroiif^h 
frisli  sets  of  roller-.;  and  ihi-.  prod-.-.  i-.  re|ie,iled  sometime-,  until  one  ol  the 
slivers  from  the  rardinn-mac  hine  i-,  drawn  out  lo  filiiin  hundred  times  its 
iinuin.il  Irn.nth.  altlujuj;h.  I>y  rea-.()n  ui  havuii;  lucn  uk  orpor.iUil  with  so  m.nu 
of  it-.  I  t)m|ianions,  it  h.is  lieen  redut  rd  in  hulk  onlv  to  ahout  one  fourth  it,i 
(irininal  si/e.  'riii^  lri'(|nent  dr.iwin:^  sirai,nhtens  the  I'lhres  of  tlu'  wool.  ,ind 
lays  them  par.illel  to  one  another.  Ihe  ifk'a  is  the  invention  of  Rii  hard  ,\rk- 
urij,'ht  of  I'lnj^l.mil.  who  made  a  fortime  from  it.  and  addi'd  ,1-.  mm  h  to  the 
produetive  powi'r  of  I'.njiland  as  thon).'h  the  ruunlry  had  doulile(l  h>  popnla- 
iion.  Wwr  till-  drawinj,f  is  (ompleti'd.  two  slivir-.  ari'  uniti'd.  ami  parsed 
thron^'h  the  rovinj;  I'ranie.  when.'  they  are  dr;nn  out  so  fme  th.it  they  have  to 
be  twisted  in  the  Iimp  •  sli_i,htly  to  hohl  to^elhrr.  I'lie  roving  is  now  wound 
njion  hobhins.  and  ( arried  to  the  spinnin;^  ma(  him  ly. 


CARUlNG-MAClllNli.       Cl.liVKl.AM>    M AtlllNK-WOKKS. 


The  ori^unal  spinning-jenny  of  llargreaves  of  England,  invented  in  1767, 
had  eight  spindles  only:  the  spinning  ja(k  of  to-day  has  often  as  many  as 
trom  two  hundred  and  forty  to  three  hundred.     Thev  are  mounted 

'  '  .  Spinning. 

Upon  a  long  frame,  bearmg  the  same  n-lation  to  the  machme  as 
the  front  board  of  a  bureau-drawer  to  the  bureau,  which,  like  the  drawer  of 
a  gigantic  burea  i,  can  be  pulled  out  a  distance  of  ten  or  more  feet  from  the 
machine  in  the  spinning  process.  Tt  runs  out  on  wheels  which  supjjort  its 
^v(■igllt.  The  bobbins  containing  the  rovings  are  placed  in  a  long  row  in  the 
spinning-frame,  and  the  ends  of  the  soft  yarn  are  carried  through  thn^e  sets  of 


'I'll 

n 

M 


t1 


4 


^,\.J^ 


388 


IND  US  TRIA  L    HIS  TORY 


rollers  to  the  spindles  on  the  frame.  The  second  set  of  rollers  moves  twice  as 
fast  as  the  first ;  and  the  third,  five  or  six  times  as  fiist  as  the  sl'(  ond.  I)y  this 
means  it  is  still  fiirther  attenuated.  The  twist  is  given  to  it  liv  the  spindles, 
which  revolve  with  great  velocity  as  the  long  frame  is  slowly  pulled  out  from 
the  machine  as  far  as  it  will  go.  As  the  frame  is  run  back  again  to  its  place, 
the  twisted  yarn  is  wound  up  on  the  spindles  automatically,  and  the  maciiine 
started  again,  and  the  process  repeated.  The  twist  gi\cn  to  yarn  is  from  li\e 
to  ten  turns  in  an  inch.     The  yarn   is   now  wound  off  on  reels  in  hanks  five 


in 


YAKN    Sl'iJi)l.l-;i!    AND    STAND. 


hundred  and  sixty  yards  long.     The  numl)er  of  hanks  to  ;i  pound  indicate  thi' 

si/e  of  the  yarn  ;  ns  No.  i.  \o.  2.  and  so  on. 

For  weaving,  the  yarns  whi(  h  are  to   comiiose   the  warp   of  the   (iolh  nr 

carpet  are  wound  off  from  the  p-'cls  upon  a  long  roller  in  a  broad  band  ol 
parallel  threads  the  width  of  the  intended  i)iece  of  stuff  I'lu' 
rollers  are  placed  in  the  loom.     A  forest  of  wires,  or  stout  thrtad-, 

crosses  the  loom  from  one  side  to  the  other,  each  one  carrving  an  eve  ahinit 


,-r' ^1  '" 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


3«9 


tlic  middle  of  its  length.  The  yarns  of  the  warp  are  passed  through  the  eyes 
of  the  harness,  as  it  is  called,  and  thence  on  to  the  roller  at  the  front  of  the 
loom.  The  office  of  the  harness  is  to  raise  one  set  of  the  threads  of  the  warp, 
and  depress  another  set,  so  as  to  leave  an  opening  through  which  the  shuttle 
can  be  thrown,  carrying  the  thread  of  the  woof,  and,  when  the  shuttle  has 
passed  through,  to  depress  the  ui)pcr  set  and  raise  tiie  lower  set,  thus  locking 
the  woof  in  its  place,  and  opening  liie  warp  anew  for  another  throw  of  the 


SHIiARlNG-MAClllNT. 


shuttle.  Tiiis  ^s  the  principle  upon  which  all  locjiiis  arc  made  ;  but  great  inge- 
nuity has  been  displayed  in  the  management  of  tin.'  jjringiplc,  so  as  to  produce 
not  only  plain  goods  by  means  of  the  loom,  but  goods  of  all  sorts  of  colored 
patterns,  and  varieties  of  surface.  Threads  of  different  colors  are  introduced 
Tor  different  parts  of  the  warp  ;  and  a  large  variety  of  colors,  sometimes  eight 
or  ten,  are  introduced  by  multiplying  the  number  of  sliuttles  a' d  the  apparatus 
for  throwing  them.     The  figures  in  weaving  are  produced  by  the  fancy  loom, 


39" 


INDCSTK/AL    HISTORY 


su  called,  liic  iiiNcnlion  of  Mr.  William  C'ronipton,  a  nalivc  of  J'^nglancl,  bul 
living,  at  the  tunc  ihc  loom  was  projected,  in  this  country.  His  patent  was 
taken  out  in  1837.  The  looms  were  fust  used,  it  is  believed,  in  the  Middlesex 
Mills  of  Lawrence,  Mass..  in  ICS40.  It  is  ujion  this  loom  that  the  fancy  cassi- 
nieres  and  other  li^iiured  cltjth-fabrics  are  now  woven. 


SIIAWI.-I.OO.M. 


After  weaving,' the  cloth   is   fulled   by  washing  and   poimding  in  a  tank, 
where  it  is  subjected  to  the  action  of  heavy  iron  mallets.     It  is 

Piiltinff 

reduced  greatly  from  its  original  dimensions,  both  in  length  and 
width,  by  this  ])rocess.     It  is  then  dried  upon  the  tenter-frame  upon  which  it 


1 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


39  > 


is  stretched.  Fulling  and  dyeing  complete  the  cloth,  and  it  then  needs  only 
to  be  llnished  to  be  ready  for  the  market.  Made  to  pass  over  rollers,  it  is  first 
scratched  by  a  revolving  drum  uiJun  which  are  niountetl  die  heads  of  the 
teasel-plant,  or  by  wire  teasels  ;  and  it  is  then  shorn  by  a  cutting-machine  with 
spiral  blades  on  a  cylinder  acting  against  a  straight  steel  l)lade,  which  cuts  die 
iiaj)  perfectly  to  an  even  length.  'I'his  helicoidal  shearing-machine  is  an 
American  invention,  dating  back  to  iSi  j. 

In  the  mechanical  department  of  the  industry  the  American  mind  has  been 
extremely  prolific.  There  is  not  a  machine  in  the  whole  tactory,  from  the 
i)i(  ker  and  the   card  to  nap-cutter,  which  has  not   been  altered,    , 

I  *  Improve- 

iniproved,    anil    made    to    do    bettei    and    faster   work    than    the    ments  of 
machines  enii)loyed  upon  other  continents.     Some  of  the  machines   ;'^'^^''"=3" 

'       •'  *  inventors. 

are  purely  of  American  invention.  The  wondeiful  J^igelow  auto- 
malic  loom,  by  which  figures  of  any  description  can  be  woven  into  carpets,  is 
the  conception  of  lOrastus  V>.  Eigelow  of  Massachusetts,  who  took  out  his 
patent  in  1845,  and  achieved  what  Kurope  had  given  up  as  hopeless.  I'lnglish 
machinery  was  largely  imported  at  one  time,  especially  during  the  war  :  but  the 
Kilbourn  self-o|)erate(l  jack,  a  home-invention,  has  superseded  many  of  the 
vcrv  best  English  mules;  and  the  Sawyer  spindle,  the  outgrowth  of  a  drought 
at  Lowell,  which  made  it  necessary  to  lighten  the  machinery,  lias  brought 
about  a  revolution  in  worsteil  s|)inning,  being  lighter,  more  efficient,  and 
running  with  ease  up  to  eight  thousand  revolutions,  being  at  twenty-five  per 
cent  higher  speed,  ■•ilh  thirty-three  per  cent  less  jjower,  than  tiie  common 
s|)in(lle. 

The   machinery  for  a  ten-set  woollen-mill,  all  of  American  make,  will   cost 
about  $70,000.     It  will  require    a  hundred-horse-power  to  drive    Cost  of 
it,  and    155  hands  to   tend    it.     In    staple    fancy  cassimeres   its   factory, 
production  will  be  from  1,150  to  1,200  yards  a  day. 


«     '.         :   ■ 


a  tank. 

■ts.     It  is 

ngth  and 

which  it 


HATS. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  uses  of  wool   arises  from  a  peculiarity  of  its 
structure.     The  fibres  of  wool   are  not  smooth  like  silk  and  fiax,  but  they  are 
roughly  barbed  with  minute  imbrications  like  the  blades  of  some    useofwool 
grasses,  or  the  branches  of  a  leather,  which  can  be  felt  by  pulling   in  making 
a  lock  of  wool  through  the  fingers.     Some  woc)ls  are  less  roughly    '^^^^' 
badicd  than  others,  and  some  fleeces  which  go  by  the  name  of  wool  —  as,  for 
instance,  that  of  the  Angora  goat  —  do  not  possess  the  quality  in  any  apprecia- 
ble degree.     But  real  wool  has  a  serrated  fibre.     This  peculiarity  renders  the 
shortest  kinds   of  wool  available  for  spinning,   because,  no   matter  what  the 
length  of  the   fibre  may  be,  the  barbs  of  the  wool  interlock  when  the  fibre  is 
twisted,  and  they  convert  the  fibre  into  a  practical  yarn.     This  pecifliarity  has 
also  given  rise  to  a  class  of  fabrics  which  are   not  spun   at  all.     By  rubbing  a 


392 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


Hat-making 
one  of  the 
earliest 
colonial 
industries. 


lot  of  wool  together  in  hot  water,  the  interlocking  of  the  fibres  takes  place  in 
a  marked  manner ;  and  the  result  is  the  felting  of  the  wool,  or  a  shrinking  into 
a  close,  compact,  thick  fabric,  which  is  serviceable  for  a  wide  variety  of  pur- 
poses. The  most  popular  use  of  fabric  thus  made  is  for  the  manufacture  of 
hats.  The  idea,  however,  is  applied  to  the  making  of  piano-covers,  druggets, 
beaver-cloths,  and  other  heavy  coatings  ;  the  wool  when  made  into  these  goods 
being  delivered  from  the  carding-machine  in  a  broad,  thin  web,  which  is 
doubled  and  crossed,  and  otherwise  thickened,  and  then  subjected  to  steam- 
ing and  gentle  hammering.  Some  felt  seamless  clothing  has  also  been 
made. 

Hat-making  was  one  of  the  very  earliest  of  colonial  industries.  The 
wintry  storms  and  general  cool  climate  of  North  America  re(]uired  that  the 
covering  of  the  head  should  be  warm  ;  and  so,  while  the  Spaniards 
of  the  West  Indies  were  buying  and  weaving  for  themselves  broad- 
brimmed  hats  of  straw,  the  Americans  went  into  the  making  of 
head-wear  of  thick  wool.  'I"he  industry  began  in  New  iMigland  : 
it  afterwards  extended  to  the  other  colonies.  In  Virginia,  in  1662, 
the  colonial  authorities  offered  a  i)remiuni  of  ten  jjounds  of  tobacco  (the 
currency  of  those  days)  for  every  good  hat  of  wool  and  fur  made  in  tho 
l)rovince.  Hats  were  made  in  almost  all  the  colonies;  and  in  1731  a  special 
committee  of  Parliament  reported  that  tiie  enterprising  Yankees  were  making 
10,000  hats  yearly,  and  were  actually  exporting  them,  with  other  things,  to  the 
continent  of  Europe  and  to  the  West  Indies,  —  a  piece  of  unparalleled 
impudence  on  the  part  of  that  underbred  people,  and  quite  in  defiance  of 
the  welfare  of  the  people  of  England  and  the  navigation  laws.  So  Parlia- 
ment, in  1732,  forbade  the  Americans  to  exjjort  hats  or  felts.  The  manu- 
facture continued,  however,  and,  indeed,  the  export  toe  ;  and  in  1791 
Alexander  Hamilton  reported  the  business  to  be  in  a  thrifty  condition.  It 
has  been  in  that  condition  ever  since.  It  has  had  a  steady  development,  and 
has  increased  in  value  of  total  product  from  ^4,323,000  in  1810,  until  it  has 
reached  the  large  aggregate  of  about  $30,000,000  at  the  i)rescnt  time.  The 
numl)er  of  establishments  making  hats  is  now  about  490,  employing  16,500 
hands. 

The  hats  of  the  Colonial  and  Revolutionary  era  were  broad-brimmed 
affairs,  originally  with  high  crowns,  but  afterward  with  low  crowns  barctv 
Style  of  rising  above  the  top  of  the  head.     In  the  Revolution  it  was  ilic 

early  hats,  fashion  to  catch  up  the  brim  on  one  side  of  the  head  with  ,'. 
cockade  and  feather,  also  to  catch  it  up  in  two  or  three  places,  ])roduciii.n 
the  regular  military  cocked  hat  and  the  hat  of  private  gentlemen.  'Ilic 
cocked  hat  went  out  of  fashion  after  the  Revolution,  and  gave  i)lace  to  the 
soft  felt  of  various  forms,  and  the  tall,  stiff  stove-pipe  which  still  remain^ 
the  dress-hat  of  gentlemen.  The  white,  bell-crowned,  shaggy  hat  of  the  dny> 
succeeding  the  Revolution  has  gone  into  history  as  the  symbolic;  hat  of  Urothtr 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


393 


jDiiathan.  When  Kossuth  visited  the  country  in  185 1  and  1852,  the  styh 
of  hat  he  wore  —  a  large,  soft  felt  —  became  the  rage  for  a  while,  and  was 
worn  for  a  few  years  with  a  feather.  At  jiresent  all  sorts  of  soft  and  stiff 
felt  hats  are  worn,  varying  in  their  outlines,  size,  and  width  of  brim,  from 
year  to  year,  in  response  to  the  American  taste  for  something  new  every 
successive  season. 

In  hat-making,  the  fur  of  raccoons,  beavers,  and  rabbits,  is  often  mixed 
witli  the  wool  in  small  proportions.  The  right  mixture  being  obtained,  it  was 
first  felted  by  a  process  called  "  bowing."  The  bunch  of  fleece  was  process  of 
<;Uhcred  in  front  of  the  operator,  and  then  violently  agitated,  and  hat-making. 
tossed  into  the  air,  by  twanging  the  string  of  a  stiff  bow,  antl  a;iplying  the 
string  to  the  wool.  The  flying  fibres  would  fall  upon  the  table  in  a  thin,  even 
wcl).  This  was  i)ressed  under  a  cloth,  and  another  layer  put  on,  until  the 
fabric  was  thick  enough  for  use.  It  was  then  put  between  two  cL  hs,  im- 
mersed in  hot  water,  and  worked  into  a  cone,  which  was  shaped  upon 
a  hit-block,  and  allowed  to  dry  in  proper  form,  when  it  was  r  '"led  and 
liiu  lied  for  the  store.  This  was  the  original  process.  One  man  coald  make 
•VoM.i  four  to  six  hat-bodies  in  a  day.  Tiiis  process  was  quite  suflicient  for  the 
leisurely  days  of  the  eighteenth  century  ;  but,  in  the  more  bustling  times  which 
succeeded  them,  it  became  necessary  to  increase  the  speed  of  manufactm-e, 
and  machines  were  introduced  to  form  the  bodies.  The  wool  was  carded  in 
the  usual  manner,  and  passed  in  a  thin  web  from  the  machine  to  two  revolving 
cones,  placed  base  to  base,  over  which  the  web  wound  in  a  zigzag  manner. 
When  the  web  was  thick  enough  upon  the  cone,  it  was  cut  off,  the  two  cones 
(lit  apart,  and  the  woolly  caps  removed ;  when  the  process  went  on  again  as 
before,  the  removal  of  the  cones  being  effected  with  great  rapidity.  The 
cones  thus  formed  were  treated  in  the  usual  manner.  Another  machine  was 
also  made  to  produce  felted  hats  both  of  wool  and  of  fur.  The  fibres  were 
made  to  fly  iiito  the  air ;  and  the  draught  of  air  passing  through  a  perforated 
cone  of  copper  or  one  of  wire  caused  them  to  settle  down  upon  the  cone 
evenly,  in  thickness  sufficient  for  a  body.  These  machines  cheapened  the 
cost  of  hats  materially,  and  enabled  the  manufacturers  to  make  them  as  light 
as  one  ounce  if  they  chose  ;  whereas,  before,  a  perfect  hat-body  could  not  have 
been  made  to  weigh  less  than  three  or  four  ounces.  The  stiff,  tall  silk  hat, 
which  weighs  about  six  ounces,  is  still  made  chiefly  by  hand.  Its  texture  is 
silk  plush.  It  was  once  made  of  beavcr-fiir,  and  was  called  a  beaver  in  con- 
se<|uence.  The  .stiff  hat  made  of  brown  or  light-gray  wool  is  called  a  cassi- 
niere. 

For  summer  wear,  hats  are  now  made  largely  of  woven  straw.  Large, 
broad-brimmed  affiiirs  of  cork  are  made  for  seaside  and  country  wear,  being 
light  and  airy,  and  protecting  the  head  from  heat,  and  the  face  from  the  fierce 
ravs  of  the  sun. 


m 


h  1  1 

ij 

B 

iffil 

ia 

dCJihii^Bil 

H^mm 

1 HIH 

394 


INDUSTRIAL    IH STORY 


CARPETS. 


The  progress  of  a  hundred  years  in  carpets  was  well  shown  at  the  Kxhibi- 
tion  in  Pliilailelpliia  in  1876.  No  objects  in  the  fair  attracted  more  attention 
than  the  brilHant  display  of  rich,  soft  American  carpets;  the  opulent  Axniinslcr, 
Improve-  ''^'^'  down  in  the  Old  World  only  for  the  feet  of  emperors  and 
ment  in  noblcmen,  showing  its  radiant  face  from  the  midst  of  tiie  throng, 

carpets.  along  with  the   more   humble    but   still  agreeable  ingrains,  three- 

plies,  Brussels,  and  tapestry  carpets.  In  1776  the  only  carpet  made  in  t!ie 
United  States  was  the  unpretentious  rag-carpet,  woven  with  a  stout  yarn  warp, 
and  a  woof  composed  of  strips  cut  from  the  cast-off  clothing  of  the  people. 
From  the  hand-made  rag-carpet  of  the  farmhouse,  to  the  aristocratic  Axinin- 
ster,  woven  in  intricate  anil  showy  patterns  upon  a  powerful  automatic  loom, 
one  of  the  highest  products  of  civilized  art,  is  a  hundred  years. 

The  fust  regular  carpet  used  in  this  country  is  said  to  have  been  inii)ortc(l 
by  Kidd  the  pirate.  A  few  carpets  were  imported,  just  before  the  Revoltitiou. 
Whoim-  from  (Ireat  Britain;  but  they  were  too  expensive  for  most  people, 
ported  the  In  1791  the  fu'st  car|)et-factory  was  built  in  the  city  of  I'liila- 
first  carpet.  ^\^\^\.^y^^  1,^  William  Peter  Sprague.  It  was  followed  not  Ion- 
after  by  others  in  the  same  city  ;  and  Phihulelphia  soon  became  the  principal 
seat  of  the  carpet-industrv  of  the  United  States.      It  has  always 

Carpet  in-  ' 

dustry  in  remained  so,  and  to-day  manufiictures  about  one-half  of  all  the 
Phiiadei-         can)cts  i)roduced   in   the   United   States.      Its  factories  are  verv 

phia.  '  ' 

numerous,  and  of  enormous  size.  The  city  has  a  very  extensi\e 
hand-loom  house-carpet  industry  also.  Up  to  1845  carpets  were  woven,  en- 
Bigeiow's  tirely  by  hand.  In  that  year  Mr.  K.  B.  iiigelow  patented  a  power- 
invention,  loom  which  would  make  figures  that  would  match,  and  would 
weave  so  rapidly  as  to  increase  the  production  from  eight  yards  a  day  (the 
average  of  hand-labor)  to  twenty-seven  yards  a  day  for  two-])Iy  carpet.  The 
same  machine  was  found  applicable  to  the  weaving  of  the  heavy  Brussels 
carpet  also.  It  was  employed  on  that  class  of  goods,  increasing  the  produc- 
tion from  four  to  twenty  yards  a  day.  This  invention  diflused  new  life  into 
the  carpet-business  of  the  country.  The  cost  of  carpets  was  so  reduced  by  ii 
as  to  bring  the  goods  within  the  reach  of  all.  The  heavy  purchases  which  were 
made  by  the  people  had  the  legitimate  effect  of  leading  to  the  construction 
of  a  large  number  of  new  factories  and  the  enlargement  of  old  ones.  America 
is  a  country  of  homes.  In  spite  of  the  emigration  of  population  from  one 
State  to  another,  the  .American,  wherever  found,  makes  his  house  a  home,  and 
brings  into  it  the  charms  and  gentleness  and  grace  of  family-life.  In  the 
comfort  of  a  home  the  carpet  i)lays  an  exceedingly  important  part.  It  is 
absolutely  essential  to  the  (piiet  and  happiness  of  the  home.  As  soon  as  its 
value  was  discovered,  it  found  its  way  into  every  dwelling,  from  farmhouse  to 
brown-stone  front ;  and  the  demand  for  carpets  has  therefore  been  regular, 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES.  395 

large,  and  unfailing.  The  value  of  the  carpet  is  so  ^reat,  both  on  account  of 
its  beauty  and  its  capacity  for  deadening  the  sound  of  the  footfall,  that  it  has 
within  the  last  twenty  years  also  invaded  schoolhouses,  churches,  counting- 
ruouis,  railroad-cars,  court-houses,  and  public  buildings  of  the  people.  Its 
usL'  is  now  universal. 

The  growth  of  the  manufacture  after  1850  is  indicated  by  the    indications 
tollowing  statement  of  the  value  of  products  :  —  °'  growth. 

1850 ?3,40i,234 

1S60  .-....■ 7,>SS7.<J36 

1870 21,761,573 

1876 36,000,000 

The  mills  were  distributed  in  1870  as  follows  :  — 

Connecticut 3 

District  of  Columbia i 

Maryland i 

Massachusetts 6 

New  Hampshire 3 

New  Jersey - 

New  York 13 

Pennsylvania 184 

Wisconsin 2 

Total 215 


The  Axmlnster  carpets,  which  are  laid  down  only  in   che  most  luxurious 
houses,  and  cost  eight  dollars  a  yard,  were  first  manufactured  at  Philadelphia 
in  T.S68.     They  had  been   imported  into  the  city  of  New  York   Manufac- 
from   France    under  the    name   of  "moquette."     They  were  all   ture  of 
haml-made.      The    Philadelphians    undertook   their   manufacture   carpets  in 
with  power-looms,  and  succeeded  so  well,  that  the  thi(  k,  velvety   PhiUdei- 
product,  when  placed  side  by  side  with  the   French,   could  only   ^ 
be  distinguished  from   it  by  its  own  superior  texture  and  cheaper  price.     The 
French  makers  were  obliged  to  lower  their  jjrices  one  dollar  and  two  dollars  a 
\anl  to  m.aintain  themselves. 

C'ari)ets  are  now  imported  only  to  a  limited  extent,  ^^'e  can  now  make  all 
the  ingrain,  two-ply,  three-ply,  jute,  and  hemp  carpets  that  are  used  in  this 
counlry.  We  have  the  capacity  to  produce  nearly  all  the  Brussels,  importations 
taijcstry,  and  Axminster  carpets  also.  The  importation  is  there-  nearly  over. 
tore  limited  to  Turkish  and  Persian  rugs,  and  a  few  of  the  move  elegant  and 
costly  styles  of  velvety  and  fashionable  F'rench  and  Fnglish  carpets,  which 
lashion  desires  because  they  are  foreign-made,  and  because  it  despises  that 
wiiif  h  the  multitude  can  have,  no  matter  how  beautiful  and  cotnfortable  the 
fabric. 


396 


/iVZ? l/S TRIA I.    HISTOK Y 


SHODDY. 

One  of  the  curiosities  of  the  woollen-manufacture  is  described  by  the  name 
above  given,  of  which  the  country  has  heard  so  much  since  the  outbreak  of 
the  war  of  1861,  and  which  has  come  into  common  use  to  designate  a  class 
of  vulgar  people  who  became  suddenly  rich  by  the  war,  and  went  about  tlu' 
world  aping  the  manners  of  the  aristocracy,  without  possessing  the  refinement, 
breeding,  and  true  gentleness  which  distinguish  aristocrats  from  the  rest  ot' 
mankind  more  than  their  money.  There  is  no  need  to  tell  any  man  wiio 
shouldered  a  musket  for  the  Union  in  any  of  the  earlier  volunteer  regiments 
of  New- York  State  as  to  what  shoddy  is  :  he  knows  already.  Four  or  five  of 
those  early  regiments,  comjiosed  of  the  best  young  men  of  the  best  fimilies 
of  the  State,  marched  to  the  front  clad  in  rough,  shaggy  uniforms  of  grav, 
which  disintegrated  by  the  mere  motion  of  the  body,  filling  the  underclothes 
and  shoes  fiill  of  sliort,  gritty  wool,  and  which  in  two  weeks'  time  were  in 
rags,  breaking  the  hearts  of  the  men  by  the  shabby  spectacle  they  presented 
among  the  splndidly-dressed  regiments  of  the  other  Middle  States  and  of 
New  England.  Those  uniforms  n-cre  made  of  shoddy.  They  were  a  disgrace 
to  the  contractors  who  i)ut  them  u])on  the  men,  and  an  insult  to  the  men. 
Uniforms  were  too  often  made  of  this  sort  of  cloth. 

Although  the  term  "  shoddy  "  has  become  one  of  opprobrium  from  this 
incident  of  the  war,  the  thing  itself  subserves  a  usefiil  purpose  at  times  in  tiie 
Importance  manufacture  of  woollen-goods.  It  has  already  been  noted  that 
of  shoddy.  (]-,(,  wool-supply  of  the  United  States  has  never  been  equal  to  the 
demand.  Carpet  and  other  coarse  wools  have  to  be  imported,  because  tlic 
coimtry  does  not  raise  all  the  wool  it  consumes,  even  at  this  late  day.  The 
scarcity  of  home-grown  wool,  and  its  high  price,  have  led  manufacturers  to 
study  the  question  of  introducing  other  materials  into  their  woollen- cloths,  for 
the  jnirpose  of  cheapening  them,  and  of  obtaining  an  abundant  sujijily  of  raw- 
material.  The  manufacturers  have  tried  cotton,  silk,  and  flax,  and  still  use 
them  in  their  goods.  Whenever  one  of  these  three  materials  rises  in  i>ii(e 
they  resort  to  the  others,  using  always  the  cheaper  in  the  greatest  ([uantity. 
They  obtained  another  idea  on  the  sul)ject  of  raw  materials,  however,  troni 
England.  It  is  w  11  known  that  worn-out  clothing  of  cotton  and  linen  i)i)>- 
sesses  a  certain  market-value  for  ])aper-making.  Peddlers  and  small  dealers 
take  the  clothing  which  goes  technically  by  the  name  of  "rags  "  for  a  few  ceiit^ 
a  pound,  and  sell  it  to  the  paper-makers.  But  what  is  worn-out  woollen-c  Imh- 
ing  good  for?  It  has  never  been  utilized  for  paper-making.  It  is  good  for  rag- 
carpets  ;  but  the  su])erannuated  woollens  of  forty-five  millions  of  people,  such 
as  we  have  in  the  United  States,  would  stock  the  market  with  more  rag-car]K-is 
in  a  year  than  would  be  consumed  in  ten  or  twenty  years.  In  England  tiny 
studied  the  subject  of  picking  the  old  woollen-clothing  to  pieces  again,  ami 
spinning  the  fibre  afresh.     A  machine  was  finally  invented  to  pull  the  cloths  to 


ah- .  I 


■<'"^' 


01'    THE    I'M  TED    STATES. 


397 


y  the  name 
DUlbreak  of 
late  a  class 
t  about  tlif 
refinemciil, 
the  resl  of 
y  man  wlio 
cr  rcgimciUs 
.ir  or  five  of 
best  fiiniilies 
rins  of  gray, 
iniderclotlics 
inic  were  in 
ey  jirc'scntcd 
tales  and  of 
re  a  disgrace 
10   the  men. 

.nil  from  this 
times  in  the 
n  noted  tliat 
equal  to  the 
,  because  the 
tc  day.    'IliL' 
nufiicturcrs  to 
cncloths.  for 
sujiply  of  niw 
and  still  use 
rises  in  I'vice 
itest  (luautiiy. 
lowever.  fioin 
nd  linen  l'0>- 
sniall  dealer^ 
or  a  few  eeiit^ 
woollen-(  loth- 
good  for  rag- 
Ijcople,  such 
ire  rag-carpets 
England   they 
ces  again,  ami 
1  the  cloths  tu 


jiieces,  and  reduce  them  to  the  condition  of  unspun  wool.  'Ihe  fibre  suffered 
ill  the  process,  and  the  wool  resulting  from  it  was  of  an  exceedingly  short 
staple  :  but,  by  reason  of  the  peculiarly  serrated  and  barbed  nature  of  woollen- 
libre,  even  this  very  short  staple  could  be  spun  into  a  yarn,  especially  if  it  were 
mixed  with  a  certain  proportion  of  long  staple  ;  which  yarn  was  available  for 
cloths. 


.^XN^^iNS^V?; 


SlIOUUY-l'ICKEH. 


The  l^ngiish  went  into  the  shoddy -business  to  an  enormous  extent. 
Yorkshire  became  the  warehouse  of  the  cast-off  garments  and  hosiery  of  all 
lliiroije.     These    garments   were   carefully  assorted    there,  selling    „ 

'  <^  .'  '  n     Enormous 

fur   from   fifty  dollars   to  a  hundred  and  fifty  dollars  a  ton,  and    use  of 
were  converted  into  shoddy  wool  by  the   machinery  set    up  for   shoddy  by 

-'  •'  -^  '  English. 

the  purpose,  and  sold  to  the  English  woollen- manufacturers. 
The  |)utting  of  shoddy  into  genuine  wool  was  a  clear  adulteration  of  the 
latter.  The  completed  cloth  could  be  called  "  all-wool  gootls,"  and  sold  for 
tlu'  market-value  of  such  goods;  yet  it  was  not  "all  wool  "  in  the  right  sense 
ol  ilie  term,  as  the  defrauded  buyer  fpiickly  found  out  after  putting  on  a  suit 
III  clothes  in  which  shoddy  was  present  in  any  considerable  proportion.  The 
shoddy  would  shake  and  ml)  out  into  his  underclothing,  and  irritate  his 
person  ;  while  every  pocket  and  lining  would  gather  balls  of  loose,  gritty  wool, 
whit  h  would  interfere  with  his  enjoyment  of  the  clothing.  This  was  the 
shoddy  working  out,  as  it  invariably  will  work  out  whenever  shoddy  goods 
are  worn.  But  the  p]nglish  did  not  care,  because  the  larger  part  of  their 
woollens  were  sent  abroad  ;  and  they  suffered  no  pangs  of  conscience  as  long 


'^^. 


39' 


IKl)  rs  TRIA  /,    I  J  IS  TOK  Y 


%\ 


*'      i 


\* 


% 


\:\,\ 


!»='■  ; 


lli 


as  it  was  somcluHly  else's  skin  which  was  scratched  by  the  shoddy,  and  \w\ 
their  own. 

Since  iS6i   (and  possibly  from  a  little  earlier  date)  shoddy  has  been  wxmV- 

in  the  Tnited  States.     There  are  only  about  a  dozen  mills  in  the  business: 

these  are  chielly  in  the  Mast.     Shotidv  is  not  nnich  nsed  in  this 

Use  of  -^  ' 

shoddy  in        coiuitry  ;  bul  it  is  sonK'wliat.      Respectable  manufactureis  are  \riv 
the  United       careful   about   i)UttinL'  it  into  their  cloths,  because,  if  thev  uaiind 

States.  •    '^ 

a  re])utation  for  usinj;  shoddy,  it  would  injure  their  goods.  When- 
ever the  i)rice  of  wool  goes  up,  howevci'.  shoddy  comes  into  dem;md.  'I'hi' 
material  is  employed  also  openly  in  the  manufacture  of  certain  classes  of 
goods.  In  druggets,  table-covers,  heavy  over-coatings,  and  various  felted 
goods,  it  is  regularly  present,  its  utilization  being  justified  on  the  ground  thai 
it  saves  expense  to  the  human  race,  and  is  a  means  of  turning  to  use  what 
would  otherwise  be  utterly  valueless.  'I'he  buyer  must,  however,  always  judne 
for  himself  whether  the  fine  coatings  he  is  looking  over  in  the  shop  have  nut 
shoddy  in  them  also  ;  for  some  manufacturers  think  a  certain  percentage  of  it  in 
their  cassimeres  does  no  harm,  but  too  often  they  outstep  the  boimds  of  safety 
in  the  proi)ortion  used.  Shoddy  costs  usually  about  ten  cents  a  iiouiid.  and 
wool  fift\ .     The  temptation  to  use  the  former  is,  therefore,  strong. 

Woollen-rags  are  reduced  to  shoddy  by  a  cylinder  three  feet  in  diame- 
ter, the  .surface  of  which  is  studded,  like  the  club  of  a  giant  of  fable,  with  steel 
teeth  an  inch  long,  and  half  an  inch  apart.  The  cylinder  makes  al)()ut  the 
himdred  revolutions  a  minute.  The  rags  fed  down  upon  it  are  torn  a])art  h\ 
tiie  speed  of  the  teeth  ;  all  rags  which  are  not  reduced  to  fibre  flilling  lia(  k 
by  their  own  weight,  to  be  caught  and  buffeted  again. 

During  the  war,  and  up  to  i86S,  shoddy  was  imported  at  the  rate  of  from 
five  million  to  eight  million  i)ounds  a  year.  The  importation  is  now  a  i^w 
hundred  thousand  i)oimds  only.  The  consumption  in  the  United  States  has 
been  as  high  as  twenty-five  million  poimds  a  year. 


CLOTHING, 

The  manufacture  of  clothing  grew  up  from  the  very  humble  beginning  of 
shops  in  the  cities  strung  along  the  Atlantic  seaboard  for  providing  sailors  with 
"  Slop-  their  outfit  for  voyages.     They  were  called  "  slop-shops."     They 

shops."  WQXQ.    part   of  a  very  bad  system  for  plundering  the  tar  of  the 

earnings  of  his  voyage  while  he  \vas  on  shore,  still  practised  to  a  very  great 
extent  in  commercial  cities  by  the  sailor  boarding-house  keepers.  The  idea 
was  and  is  to  lay  hold  of  Jack  the  moment  he  comes  ashore,  board  him, 
lead  him  into  extravagances,  supply  him  with  an  outfit  for  the  new  voy 
age,  get  from  the  ship-master  an  advance  of  a  month's  wages,  and,  if  the 
tar  is  not  enough  in  the  landlord's  debt  to  consume  all  the  money,  then 
to  get  him  drunk,  and  put   him   aboard   the   ship,  with  enough  "  slops,"  or 


OF  THE  rxiTiin  states. 


399 


(Idy,  and  imi 

s  been  111,11  Ir 
llu-  business; 
used  in  tlii^ 
iiR'is  are  mtv 
if  tlicy  gained 
3ods.  \\  lun- 
Icmand.  riie 
lin  classes  ol 
various  felted 
L'  ground  tliat 
<g  to  use  \vli;it 
,  always  jud-e 
hop  have  not 

entage  of  il  in 
iinds  of  safety 

a  pound, and 

feet  in  diatne- 
al)le,  with  steel 
kes  about  five 
torn  apart  by 
e  fiilling  back 

rate  of  from 

is  now  a  tew 

ted  States  has 


beginning  of 
ig  sailors  with 
hops."  They 
the  tar  of  the 
o  a  very  great 
rs.  The  idea 
e,  board  him. 
the  new  voy 
.-s,  and,  if  the 
money,  then 
h  "  slops,"  or 


ready-made  clothing,  charged  for  at  enormous  rates,  to  wipe  off  the  balance. 
( )f  course,  ready-made  clothing  had  to  be  kept  on  liand  in  order  to  carry  out 
the  system.  From  this  humble  origin  has  sprung  a  trade  in  ready-made 
<  lothing  whi<  h  has  led  to  the  erection  of  such  palaces  of  industry  and 
fa-ihion  as  may  be  seen  now  in  every  large  city  in  the  country,  inland  and 
( oinmercial,  for  supplying  the  masses  of  the  people  with  the  woollen  clothing 
they  wear  during  the  varying  seasons  and  upon  all  the  different  sorts  of  social 
occasions. 

The  second  step  in  the  clothing  business  was  taken  by  the  Jews  of  New- 
\'ork  ("ity.  These  industrious  peo|)le,  who  jiossess  in  a  remarkable  degree  the 
iiistint  t  and  faculty  of  trade,  congregated  on  that  (|ueer,  crooked,  ciothes- 
an<  lent  street  which  runs  down  hill  northward  from  City-hall  cleansing  by 
Park,  and  then  uj)  hill  again  to  the  llowery.  \\hi(  h  is  known  the  ■'^^^' 
(ountry  over  as  Chatham  Street  and  the  resort  of  old  clothes-dealers  and 
pawn-shop  keepers.  'I'hese  people  bought  clothing  partly  worn,  and  cleaned 
and  renovated  it,  and  sold  it  as  new;  and  afterwards  added  to  their  business 
that  of  fabricating  new  clothing  from  half-spoiled  goods,  such  as  those  rescued 
ill  a  wet  and  heated  condition  from  burning  buildings,  iVc.  The  customers  of 
the  Chatham-street  stores  were  poor  people.  'I"he  well-to-do  had  their  clothes 
made  either  at  home  by  their  own  families  or  by  employed  seamstresses,  or 
had  them  cut  and  made  to  order  at  tailor-shops  established  solely  to  secure 
the  patronage  of  prosperous  people.  Farmers  generally  had  their  clothing 
made  at  home,  often  from  the  strong  though  rough  goods  spun  and  woven  by 
the  girls  and  women  of  the  family.  In  the  cities,  large  and  small,  cutting  and 
making  were  generally  done  at  the  tailor-shops.  Coats  were  made  of  blue  or 
black  goods,  waistcoats  of  tlaming  red,  of  buff,  and  of  white  or  black,  and 
trousers  of  black  generally,  though  grays  and  browns  were  liked.  In  1S34 
and  i(S;55  the  wholesale  manut'acture  of  ready-made  clothing  for  well-to-do 
and  fashionable  people  began  in  New  \'ork  on  a  small  scale  ;  and  since  then 
the  business  has  extended  step  by  step,  the  manufacturers  catering  to  every 
I  lass  of  society,  until  now  the  home-manufactnre  of  men's  garments  has 
virtually  ceased,  and  every  one,  from  ploughman  to  railroad-president,  goes  to 
the  store  for  his  goods,  and  can  be  suited,  if  he  chooses,  from  the  shelves  of 
the  store  at  once.  For  a  long  time  there  was  a  prejudice  among  the  more 
fashionable  buyers  against  ready-made  goods.  They  did  not  always  fit;  and 
tailors  did  much  to  deepen  the  ])rejudice  by  their  tricks  in  trying  to  sell  to 
indiscriniinating  customers  garments  which  did  not  become  them,  in  order  not 
to  lose  a  bargain.  How  often  has  not  the  tailor  drawn  up  before  the  mirror  a 
man  whose  mind  runs  ordinarily  on  better  themes  than  his  clothes,  —  and  who, 
therefore,  is  not  a  judge  of  a  fit,  — and  shown  him  with  one  hand  how  beautifully 
a  coat  fitted  across  the  chest,  while  with  the  other  hand  he  took  a  large  reef  in 
bagging  back  so  as  to  produce  the  particular  phenomenon  to  which  he 


the 


m 


II 


I 


II 


\M 


\n 


drew  attention  !     It  used  to  l)e  said  of  an  unpopular  man.  as  a  ])arting  shot. 


"%l 


400 


/A/J I 'S  TNI  A  A    HIS  TOR  Y 


\%  i 


after  the  vocabulary  of  vituperation  had  been  i-xhaustod.  "and  his  clotht-n 
don't  fit."  For  fear  tiiat  his  own  clothes  woiihhi't  fit,  everybody  (lung  to  tin- 
habit  of  having  his  suits  made  to  order.  Hut  either  tailors  have  grown  more 
honest  with  the  civilizing  inlluences  of  the  age,  or  their  assortment  of  gonds  i^ 
now  made  in  greater  variety ;  for  every  one  can  secure  an  excellent  fit  at 
any  ready-made  clothing-store  ;  and  the  majority  of  mankind  depend  iijiom 
the  shelf  and  the  counter  for  their  suits  and  overcoats,  rather  than  upon  die 
measuring-tape  and  shears.  A  good  fit  can  be  obtained  oven  for  dress-suits. 
The  manufacturers  have  found  it  to  their  advantage  to  increase  the  resounds 
of  their  establishments;  and  great  fortunes  have  been  made  from  ready-made 
clothing  within  the  last  twenty  years  in  IJoston,  New  York,  I'hiladelpliia, 
Chicago,  St.  Louis,  Cincinnati,  l'>altimore,  and  elsewhere.  The  slop-shojjs  still 
exist :  Chatham  Street  still  preserves  its  distinctive  reputation.  ICvery  <  ity  of 
any  size  has  its  second-hand  clothing-stores.  Hut  the  business  has  grown  m) 
far  beyond  those  pioneer  institutions,  that  one  wonders,  with  tlie  arrogant 
turkey-gobbler  of  mature  years,  how  it  could  ever  have  been  hate  hed  from  so 
insignificant  a  shell. 

'I'he  census  of  1870  showed  that  the  establishments  for  manufacturing  the 
clothing  of  men  and  boys  had  increased  to  7,.S5iS  :  they  employed  ioS,ijS 
Magnitude  iiauds,  consumed  ;586, 794,000  worth  ol  materials,  paid  out 
of  business.  $50,745,000  for  wages,  and  created  clothing  worth,  at  market 
prices,  the  large  sum  of  $148,660,000.  'I'he  invention  of  the  sewing-machine 
about  1850,  and  its  sul)se(|ueiit  sale  by  the  tens  of  thousands,  gave  a  greai 
impulse  to  this  business  by  cheapening  the  goods  and  imparting  rapidity  t(j  the 
manufacture.  The  clothing-establishments  and  their  operatives  have  been  tlie 
best  customers  of  the  sewing--  nchine  factories.  The  war,  also,  gave  an  impulse 
to  the  business.  The  unifoMiis  for  the  troojis  were  bought  from  the  reads - 
made  clothiers  chiefly.  They,  having  the  facilities  and  ex])erien(  e  needed  Ibr 
the  production  of  large  quantities  of  clothing,  obtained  most  of  the  coiiiracts 
for  the  purpose. 

hosii:ry. 

This  term  includes  not  only  stockings,  but  knit  goods  for  underwear.  Tiiis 
is  one  of  the  classes  of  goods  consumed  by  the  great  masses  of  the  people, — 
consumed,  in  fact,  by  all,  —  for  which  the  country  was  formerly 
almost  entirely  dependent  upon  lOngland,  but  in  regard  to  whi(  h  it 
is  now  independent  of  all  foreign  countries.  Parliament  forbade  the  exiiorla- 
tion  of  knitting-frames  to  the  colonies  of  America  in  order  to  secure  tlu- 
exportation  of  the  manufactured  goods.  Nearly  all  the  knit  caps,  Ikjsc, 
doublets,  &c.,  which  were  sold  in  the  general  market  in  that  era,  were  conse- 
quently imported.  The  ladies  knit  for  their  o\s\\  families  ;  but  few  could  knit 
for  the  general  market.  'I'he  enterprising  State  of  Virginia  offered  a  premimn 
of  ten  pounds  of  tobacco  in  1662  ibr  every  dozen  pairs  of  woollen  or  worsted 


Knit  goods. 


I*""*  ■•• 


-:-"n: 


Oh     THE    iNlTED    STATES, 


401 


ir.     'I'his 

Icupk'.  — 

tuniK'iiy 

which  It 

cxpoila- 

[■(•iirc  ihc 

[)S,   hose, 

Ire  const - 

lould  knii 

Ipronii'ini 

jr  worsti'" 


stockings  ;  hut  this  device  did  httlf  toward  sui)|)lylng  tlie  general  market  witli 
American-made  goods.     Little  was  achieved  in  that  particular  direction  until 
the  stocking  loom  was  importe<l,  which  was  finally  accomplisheil  in  spite  of  the 
(crherus  of  the  I'.rilish  cusluin  house. 
About   1723  stockings  were  woven  in 
<!hester  County,  Pennsylvania,  by  John 
Camm,  and  they  obtained  some  repute. 
The  loom   itself  made  little  progress, 
however,  until  the  Revolution,  when  .1 
larger  supply  of  hose  was  needetl,  and 
..hen  direct  encouragement  was  given, 
in  the  shape  of  premiums  and  grants, 
for  the  establishment  cf  stocking-fac- 
tories in  Maryland,  Virginii,  and  New 
N'ork.     Then    several    stockng-looms 
w'.'re    started  here  and  there.      .After 
the    Revolution,  weaving   continued ; 
hut  it  was  a  hand-process,  and  there- 
fore  slow,   and   the   imported   goods 
were  cheaper.     The  business,  though 
fostered  in  Virginia,  Pennsylvania,  and 
Connecticut,  where  it  was  principally 
carried  on,   did    not    expand    rapidly 
until    1 83 1,   when  'I'imothy  Bailey  of 
Albany  ai)plieil    power  to  the   hand- 
loom,    and    made    it   a    power-loom. 
Then    American    hosiery    became    a 
(iictory  rather  than  a  householil   product,  and  began  to  hold  its  own  in  the 
market.     Up  to  this  time,  all  the  knitting  by  machinery  resulted  in  the  pro- 
duction of  a  flat  web  only.     The  stocking  was  made  from  the  web  by  being 
cut  out  in  the  right   pattern  and   sewed  together.     About  twenty  years  ago 
the  machine  to  knit  a  circular  and  seamless  webb  was  invented,  by  whom  is 
not  known.      This  gave  a  new  impetus  to  American   hosiery,  and  resulted 
in  the  entire  defeat  of  foreign    hosiery,   and   the    stopi)age  of  importations 
except  for  the  consumption   of  |)e()ple  who  have  the  silly  idea  that  foreign 
i^'oods  are  necessarily  more  beautiful,  aristocratic,  and  exclusive   than  those 
in;iile  ])y  their  own  more  intelligent  and  enterprising  countrymen.     But  the 
importations  have  become  very  small. 

( )n  hosiery  and  knit  goods  viicrc  arc  engaged  now  about  a  hundred  and 
litty  mills,  almost  wholly  supplying  the  market.     Some  of  the  dc-    progress  in 
iKulinents  of  manufacture  are  new  since  1867,  and  a  large  share   business. 
are   since    1864.      '^'i^    progress    made    in    this    branch    of   manufocture    is 
astonishing,  as   the   United   States    now   make   almost   all   the   under-goods, 


I.AMll   KNITTINC-MACiriNE. 


«''1 


Jhr 


M 
%l 

f 

''iff 


u-  -  i 


I  fin  a'-i  '■  ■   ■ 


40a 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


J^ 


Stockings,  hosiery,  scarfs,  neck-comforts,  opera-hoods,  &c.,  which  they  consume, 

amounting    to    about    forty    million 

^^  dollars  annually.     Not  only  arc  the 

m^/^S^S^^f^L  goods  woven   circular,    but    within 

^^^^       I  ^^  ten   or   fifteen   years   the   manu(;ic- 

turers  have  succeeded  in  making 
goods  which  are  fitted  to  the  form, 
and  in  making  them,  not  by  hand. 
but  by  machinery,  and  surpassing 
in  quality  the  goods  made  abroad. 
American  wool,  with  its  long,  glossy 
staple,  is  well  fitted  to  the  produc- 
tion of  this  class  of  fabrics ;  and 
American  competition  has  not  only 
succeeded  in  taking  possession  of 
the  home-market  for  American  prod- 
ucts, but  in  cutting  down  jjriccs 
from  ten  dollars  to  six  dollars  a 
dozen.  Thus  ihey  are  put  within 
the  reach  of  persons  having  only 
very  small  means ;  but,  alas  for 
our  grandmothers  !  their  occupation 
has  been  sadly  interrupted.  They 
ought  to  get  consolation  in  thinking 
that  their  loss  is  the  people's  gain ;  but  it  is  to  be  feared  that  many  of  them 
are  too  unreasoning  to  consider  the  subject  in  this  comfortable  light.  Few, 
who  can  afford  better,  will  prefer  t>e  unevenly  stitched  grandmother  stocking 
to  the  precisely  made  fal-ric  of  the  machine  :  so  that,  complain  as  bitterly 
as  the  grandmothers  may,  the  day  of  home-made  stockings  is  rapidly  going 
by.  The  principal  centres  of  the  industry  are  Philadelphia,  Penn.,  and 
Cohoes,  N.Y. 


r.ICKFORn   k-NlTTINC-MACIIINE. 


^1 


consume, 
y  million 
ly  arc  the 
ut    within 

manufac- 
n    making 

the  form. 
;  by  hand, 
surpassinj; 
de  abroad, 
ong,  glossy 
he  prodnc- 
brics ;    and 
IS  not  only 
sscssion  of 
irican  prod- 
own    prices 
X   dollars   a 

put  within 
having  only 
ut,  alas  for 
r  occupation 
[itcd.     They 

in  thinking 
any  of  them 

ight.     Few, 

ler  stocking 
as  bitterly 
rapidly  going 

Penn.,   and 


OF    THE    UNITED    STAT  IS. 


403 


ning  and 
weaving. 


CHAPTER  V. 

THE   MANUFACTURE   OF   COTTON. 

IT  is  not  known  when  cotton  spinning  and  weaving  began  in  the  world  ;  but 
the  record  of  it  goes  back  to  the  earliest  ages  of  which  we  have  any  knowl- 
edge. Probably  no  better  illustration  of  the  antiquity  of  the  ^^^^  ^.  . 
industry  can  be  given  'han  the  interesting  legend  of  the  voyage  of  cotton  spin- 
Jason  and  the  Argonauts  in  search  of  the  Ciolden  Fleece.  Like 
all  those  ancient  fables,  the  story  about  the  voyage  of  Jason  rests 
u])on  a  basis  of  f.\ct ;  but  this  fable  differs  from  some  of  the  others  in  the  cir- 
cumstance that  w-e  know  what  the  basis  of  fact  probably  is.  Jason's  expedition 
was  simply  an  attempt  to  reach  India,  by  way  of  the  Black  Sea  and  some 
overland  route  thence,  to  obtain  a  quantify  of  cotton,  —  a  beautiful  fleece  grow- 
ing on  a  tree,  which  it  was  reported  that  India  was  cultivating,  and  which 
produced  garments  far  superior  in  softness  and  beauty  to  those  of  wool  then 
exclusively  worn  in  the  West.  The  Greeks  of  that  age,  with  all  their  intelli- 
gence, v.'ere  more  than  half  pirates  ;  and  Jason's  voyage  was  simply  a  search 
for  plunder.  The  cotton-manufacture  attained  perfection  in  India  at  .1  very 
early  date.  The  cotton  was  spun  by  hand,  and  woven  by  hand :  but  the 
people  were  inventive,  and  the  mild  and  moist  climate  cf  the  region  was 
favoraljlc  to  the  production  of  delicate  fobrics ;  and,  when  Europeans  began 
to  trade  with  India  actively,  the  natives  were  already  making  textures  so  fairy- 
like, that  tlicy  resembled  cobwebs  when  spread  upon  th^  grass,  and  were 
invisible  when  wet  with  the  clew. 

From  India  the  cotton-niu.uifacture  spread  in  both  directions  around  the 
wodd.  Thick  cotton-cloths  began  to  be  used  for  tents  and  awnings  in 
Southern  Europe  about  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era.  The 
colton-i)lant  spread  slowly  along  through  the  countries  in  the 
south  of  Asia  until  it  finally  reached  Egypt.  The  fibre  was 
impo'ted  to  Italy  in  the  middle  ages,  and  shipments  of  it  reached  England 
about  1640.  The  fibre  was  greatly  admired  in  ICuropc,  and  all  the  industrial 
nations  of  that  part  of  the  world  fell  to  manufacturing  it  upon  as  large  a  scale 
as  was  consistent  with  the  small  supply  of  the  raw  material.     'i"he  process  of 


Spread  of 
cotton-man- 
ufacture. 


404 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


id 


manufacture  was  greatly  improved  by  the  invention  of  a  large  number  of 
machines.  Fro.n  ICurope  the  manufacture  extended  west  to  America.  Tlie 
plant,  however,  was  foinid  growing  wild  here  when  the  ICuropeans  landed. 
They  did  not  bring  the  plant,  but  only  the  processes  of  manufacture.  The 
Indians  were  already  working  it  up  into  rude  cloths,  and  pieces  of  armor, 
before  they  came.  In  America  the  manufacture  reached  a  perfection  never 
before  attained,  as  far  as  the  production  of  the  classes  of  goods  consumed  in 
large  quantities  by  the  population  of  the  continent  is  concerned.  In  the  year 
of  our  Lord  1878  we  find  the  art,  which  has  come  down  to  us  from  at  least 
thirty  centuries  ago,  practised  on  this  continent  —  the  farthest  point  westward 
it  can  go  —  upon  a  scale  of  which  the  ancients  of  the  land  of  its  birth  never 
dreamed  in  their  most  exalted  moments.  A  thousand  great  factories  are 
engaged  in  the  business,  many  of  them  employing  600  operatives,  and  ail 
of  them  performing  all  the  processes  of  spinning,  weaving,  finishing,  (Eyeing, 
and  decorating,  by  the  aid  of  ingenious  machines  which  are  driven  by  the 
forces  of  nature,  and  which  work  so  fast,  that,  whereas  there  are  only  about 
136,000  operatives  employed  in  those  thousand  factories,  the  product  of 
cloth  and  hosiery  every  year  is  equal  to  the  product  of  the  labor  of  40,- 
000,000  people  working  with  the  simple  appliances  of  the  birthplace  of  the 
cotton-industry.  Such  is  the  development  which  the  manufacture  has  reached 
in  its  journey  westward  round  the  world ;  and  it  seems  destined  to  reacli  a 
yet  greater  development. 

The  industry  started  upon  the  journey  eastward  around  the  world  at  an 
earlier  date.  It  was  introduced  to  China,  by  a  ruler  who  presided  over  both 
China  and  India,  before  the  Christian  era.  A  native  of  India  reached  Japan, 
the  utmost  limit  of  its  progress  in  that  direction,  as  early  as  799  A.I\  The 
manufacture  began  actively  in  Japan  as  early  as  1558  A.D.,  —  at  least  a  century 
earlier  than  it  did  in  England.  It  is  striking  to  notice  the  differences  of  its 
subsequent  development  in  the  two  quarters  of  the  earth,  —  the  East  and  the 
West.  In  1878  Japan  has  few  if  any  native  cotton-factories  which  emj/ioy 
more  than  thirty  or  forty  workmen.  There  has  been  no  invention  of  ma- 
chinery, and  no  progT'ess.  "^he  fibre  is  spun  by  hand,  and  woven  by  hand.  It 
is  ginned,  one  pod  at  a  time,  by  passing  it  between  a  pair  of  ..  ooden  rolKTs 
an  inch  in  diameter.  It  is  prepared  for  spinning,  not  by  carding,  but  by 
gathering  it  before  the  workman,  and  applying  to  it  the  twanging-string  of  a 
large  bow,  which  causes  the  fibres  to  Ily  up,  and  arrange  themselves  in  falling 
in  a  lap.  The  whole  industry  stands  just  where  it  did  a  thousand  years  ago; 
and  the  only  symptoms  of  a  new  order  of  things  in  that  aiicient  realm  are  pre- 
sented by  the  erection  of  a  very  fe  v  American  and  European  cotton-factories, 
with  machinery  and  power,  within  the  past  few  years.  The  older  nation 
borrows  from  the  younger  ones  the  ideas  which  are  necessary  to  her  progress 
and  regeneration.  Could  there  be  a  more  interesting  illustration  of  iiow 
much  farther  the  sons  of  Japhet  have  run  in  the  race  of  civilization  than  the 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


405 


sons  of  Shem  since  they  parted  company  on  the  plains  of  Asia  Minor  in  the 
(lawn  of  history? 

Ancient  as  is  the  origin  of  the  manufacture  of  cotton,  the  active  develop- 
ment of  the  industry  in  Europe  and  America  is  of  very  recent  date.  In  1770 
the  consumption  of  raw  cotton  in  France  was  only  sixteen  hundred    .  ,.      . 

'  •'  Active  de- 

tons  a  year:    in  England  it  was  only  twenty-five  hundred  tons  a   vciopmen't of 

vear.     In  that,  year  America  sent  to  Europe  her  first  venture  in  '"'•"^*''y  °f 

■'  •'  '  .  recent  date. 

cotton :  it  was  only  a  ton.  In  1 784  eight  bales  shipped  from 
("harlesion,  S.('.,  wcic  seized  in  England  by  the  custom-house  authorities  on 
the  grf<und  thot  so  large  a  quantity  of  cotton  could  not  have  been  produced 
in  the  United  States.  It  is  since  1770  that  thi;i  industry,  now  of  such  mag- 
nificent proportions,  employing  so  many  hundreds  of  thousands  of  human 
beings,  has  attained  its  stature. 

The  cotton-plant  being  native  to  the  soil  of  this  continent,  and  the  fleece 
being  desirable  for  spinning,  the  plant  was  cultivated  somewhat  in  the  Southern 
States  during  the  few  years  immediately  preceding  the  Revolutionary  war.     It 
was  raised  as  a  door-yard  plant  at  first.     A  great  deal  of  attentio    was  paid  to 
the  capabilities  of  cotton  on  account  of  the  scarcity  of  wool,  of  which  there 
was  a  very  inadetpiate  supply  in  this  country ;  and  the  fibre  was  spun  to  a 
very  considerable   extent  by  the  maids   and    matrons   of  the   Revolutionary 
period  North  and  South.     In  1787  a  first  timid  venture  at  a  regular  manufac- 
ture was  made  in  New  England  at  the  village  of  Beverly,  Mass., 
wlicre  a  small  concern  v/as  started  to  weave  corduroys  and  bed- 
ticks.    The  machinery  was  of  a  very  rude  description.     The  fac-  cotton  in 
tory  had  ;^9,ooo  capital,  and  it  received  a  grant  of  ;^i,ooo  from   ^^^  ^"&- 
the  State  of  Massachusetts.     It  managed  to  thrive  for  fifteen  years, 
when  it  suddenly  fliiled,  owing  to  the  building  of  better  mills,  with  wiiich 
it  could  not  compete  on  account  of  their  better  machinery.     Another  small 
factory  was  started  about  the  same  time  at  East  Bridgewater,  Mass.,  the  State 
making  a  grant  of  ;^200  pounds  to  help  it  along.     In   1788  Brown  &  Almy 
started  \  small  factory  at  Providence  for  making  homespun  cloth.     In   1 790 
a  venture  was  made  by  Samuel  Slater,  an  Englisliman  who  had   samuei 
come  to  the  United  States  for  the  sake  of  finding  a  field  whereni   siater. 
to  jjiactise  iiis  chosen  employment  of  spinning  and  weaving  to  better  advan- 
X:vs,c  than  in  luigland.     Slater  was  an  apprentice  of  Strutt,  the  partner  of  Ark- 
wriyht,  who  in   1769  had  invented  the  drawing-frame  for  drawing  out  the  rolls 
or  slivers  of  cotton   in   order  to  l-.y  the  fibres  parallel.     That  quarter  of  a 
century  was  a  time  of  great  excitement  in  the  cotton-trade  in  England,  owing 
to  the  rapid  succession  of  important  inventions  for  spinning  and  weaving  which 
were  coming  into  use.     In  1767  James  Hargreaves  had  improved   james 
the  spinning-wheel  employed  in  his  own  house  by  making  one   Hargreaves. 
wheel  (hive  eight  spindles  instead  of  one.     In   1769  Arkwright  had  invented 
the  drawing-frame.     In   1784  CromjDton  had  invented  the  mule-spinner,  in 


First  manu- 
facture of 


:''''^1"-; 


hI 


lit 


>1 


iiHi 


r>. 


4q6 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


i  ' 


Cartwright. 


which  the  spindles  were  mounted  upon  a  movable  frame,  which  would  run  cut 
five  or  six  feet  and  stretch  the  thrcatl  as  it  was  twisting,  and  would  run  in 
again  in  order  to  jjermit  the  thread  to  be  wound  upon  the  spindles.  The 
mule-spinner  was  able  to  carry  a  hundrec'.  and  thirty  spindles  instead  of  eight ; 
and  in  1790,  when  water-power  was  ajiplied  to  it,  it  carried  four  hundred  spin- 
dles. Improvements  were  made  in  carding  in  that  era  also,  aiul 
in  1785  the  Rev.  Dr.  Cartwright  invented  the  i^ower  loom.  It  was 
just  at  this  time  that  the  steam-engine  was  being  invented.  Kngland  was 
greatly  agitated  by  this  remarkable  machine,  and  the  business  of  the  cotton- 
manufacture  at  once  assumed  a  vast  importance  in  the  eyes  of  English  states- 
men. The  various  discoveries  were  kei)t  as  secret  as  possible.  None  of  the 
new  machines  were  allowed  to  go  out  of  the  country,  especially  to  America ; 
and  England  tried  in  every  way  to  maintain  a  monopoly  of  her  discoveriLs. 
It  is  due  to  that  fact  that  the  Beverly  mill,  started  in  Massachusetts  in  17H7, 
contained  none  of  the  improved  machinery  in  use  in  luigland.  Samuel  Slater 
was  the  first  man  that  brought  to  America  a  knowledge  of  tiiat  machinery  and 
its  use.  In  partnership  with  Almy  &  llrown,  Slater  put  up  at  Providence,  in 
1790,  the  whole  set  of  new  machines  used  and  invented  by  Arkwright  for  the 
spinning  of  cotton,  which  he  made  from  recollection  with  his  own  hands.  'I'his 
was  the  real  beginning  of  the  cotton-manufacture  in  the  United  States.  In 
1793  the  three  men  built  a  new  mill  at  Pawtucket.  Neidier  of  the  two  mills 
had  more  than  seventy-two  si)indles. 

The  beginnings  of  an  attempt  to  practise  so  important  an  industry  in 
regular  factories  could  not  fail  to  attract  the  attention  of  the  Congress  of  tiic 
United  States  when  that  body  organized  under  the  Constitution.  In  order 
that  Congress  might  be  fully  informed  in  regard  to  this  sul)ject,  Alexander 
Hamilton  obtained  the  facts  of  the  situation  as  it  then  existed,  and  in  Decem- 
ber, 1 791,  made  the  following  mention  of  the  industry  in  his  famous  report  to 
Congress  on  manufactures  :  — 

•'  Manufactories  of  cotton-goods  not  long  since  established  at  Bevcdy, 
Mass.,  and  at  Providence  in  the  State  of  Rhode  Island,  and  conducted  with  a 
perseverance  corresponding  with  the  patriotic  motives  which  began  them,  seem 
Early  goods  to  have  overcome  the  first  obstacles  to  success,  producing  cordu- 
produced.  ^oys,  velverets,  fustians,  jeans,  and  other  similar  articles,  of  a  quality 
which  will  bear  a  comparison  with  the  like  articles  brought  from  Manchester. 
The  one  at  Providence  has  the  merit  of  being  the  first  in  introducing  into  the 
United  States  the  celeorated  cotton-mill  [meaning  the  spinning-mule],  wliich 
not  only  furnishes  materials  for  that  manufactory  itself,  but  for  the  supply  of 
f)rivate  families  for  household  manufacture.  Other  manufactories  of  the  same 
material,  as  regular  businesses,  have  also  been  begun  at  different  places  in  the 
State  of  Connecticut,  but  all  upon  a  smaller  scale  than  those  al)ove  mentioned. 
Some  essays  are  also  making  in  the  printing  and  staining  of  cotton-goods. 
There  are  several  small  establishments  of  this  kind  already  on  foot." 


1*  «. 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


407 


The  variety  and  extent   ""°"-'"a'>- 

'  ulacture. 


In  another  part  of  the  report  Hamilton  says,  — 

"  Tliere  is  sometliing  in  the  texture  of  this  material  [cotton]  which  adapts 
it  in  a  peculiar  degree  to  the  application  of  machines.  .  .  .  This  veiy  im- 
portant circumstance  recommends  the  fabrics  of  cotton  in  a  more   „     .,,    , 

1  Hamilton's 

])articular  manner  to  a  country  in  which  a  defect  of  hands  con-   report  on 
stitutes  the  greatest  obstacle  to  success. 

of  the  uses  to  which  the  manuilictures  of  this  article  are  applica- 
l)lc  is  another  powerful  argument  in  its  favor.  And  the  faculty  of  the  United 
States  to  produce  the  raw  material  in  abundance,  and  of  a  quality,  which, 
though  alleged  to  be  inferior  to  some  that  is  produced  in  other  cjuarters,  is, 
nevertheless,  capable  of  bemg  used  with  ad\antage  in  many  fabrics,  and  is 
]irt)l)ably  susceptible  of  being  carried,  by  a  more  experienced  culture,  to  a 
much  greater  perfection,  suggests  an  additional  and  a  very  cogent  induce- 
ment to  the  vigorous  pursuit  of  the  cotton  branch  in  its  several  subdivisions. 
How  much  has  been  already  done  has  been  stated  in  a  preceding  jiart  of  this 
report.  In  addition  to  this,  it  may  be  announced  that  a  society  is  forming 
with  a  capital  which  is  expected  to  be  extended  to  at  least  half  a  million  of 
dollars ;  on  behalf  of  which  measures  are  already  in  train  for  prosecuting,  on 
a  large  scale,  the  making  and  printing  of  cotton-goods." 

Hamilton  advocated  protection  for  the  new  industry.     He  thought  the 
dul)'  of  three  cents  a  pound  on  the  raw  material  should  be  repealed,  because 
very  little   cotton  was  being   raised   in   this   country.     Hamilton   Hamilton's 
believed,   evidently,  that  very  little  would   ever   be   raised    here,   advocacy  of 
He  thought  hemp-raising  should  be  protected,  but  said,  "  Cotton   p''°'^'^*'°"- 
has  not  the  same  pretensions  with  hemp  to  form  an  exception  to  the  general 
rule.     Not  being,  like  hemp,  a  universal  production  of  the  country,  it  affords 
less  assurance  of  an  adequate  internal  supply ;  but  the  chief  objection  arises 
from  the  doubts  which  are  entertained  concerning  the  quality  of  the  national 
cotton."     Hamilton  advised  a  bounty  of  one  cent  a  pound  on  cloth  exi)orted, 
and  one  cent  more  if  the  cotton  used  was  American  grown.     The  suggestions 
of  the  secretary  were  not,  however,  carried  out.     The  duty  on  raw  cotton  was 
retained,  as   also   a   duty  of  seven   per  cent  and   a   half  on    manufactures, 
enacted  in  1790.     The  American  cotton  was  a  great  deal  better  than  Hamilton 
was  aware  of,  and  there  was  no  need  of  following  his  suggestions. 

It  will  have  been  obser\'ed  that  Slater's  original  enterprise  was  for  the 
spinning  of  cotton  merely.  The  Beverly  mill  wove ;  but  Slater's  did  not. 
The  weaving  of  that  day  was  done  with  sufficient  speed  and  character  of 
economy  in  i)rivate  families.  The  household  was  the  factory  Slater's 
of  1790.  No  public  need  really  existed  for  setting  up  factories  ^"'^''P'''^^- 
fur  performing  whrt  could  as  well  be  done  by  the  family  fireside ;  and  the 
only  thing  for  which  there  existed  a  positive  want  was  the  means  for  pro- 
ducing, on  a  large  scale,  a  cheap  and  abundant  supply  of  yar-i.  Slater's 
venture  went  no  further,  therefore,  at  first,  than  the  spinning  of  cotton-yam 


IJ 

iihi 

II 

i 

iii 

!:ii 

1 

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M 


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ri 


il 


408 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


for  distribution  to  the  families  of  the  ncighl)orhood,  to  be  woven  by  them  into 
the  cloth  they  needed  for  themselves,  or  which  they  desired  to  sell. 

Within  four  years  from  the  time  of  building  Samuel  Slater's  little  old 
wooden  mill,  however,  the  cotton-business  took  a  tremendous  start.  England 
had  done  much  for  the  business  by  originating  machines  for  working  up  the 
fleece  of  the  cotton-plant  into  yarn  and  doth.  The  United  States  were  now  lo 
do  more  for  the  cotton-manufacture  than  Arkwright  or  Crompton  ever  dreamed 
Whitney's  of,  and  all  by  one  simple  invention.  In  1792  P^li  ^^'hitney  of 
cotton-gin.  Massachusetts,  who  liad  gone  to  Georgia  as  a  private  tutor,  was 
one  day  a  guest  in  the  lamily  of  Mrs.  Gen.  Greene.  During  the  day  mention 
was  made  of  the  desirableness  of  the  creation  of  some  machine  for  sepa- 
rating from  the  fleece  of  the  cotton-plant  the  seed  which  filled  it.  Whitney 
was  an  inventive  fellow ;  and,  with  true  Yankee  zeal,  he  undertook  pri\  ately 
to  solve  the  problem  of  ginning  cotton.  He  obtained  some  cotton  from 
Savannah,  and  had  -oon  invented  his  famous  saw-gin.  The  first  gin  was  a 
cylinder  studded  with  rows  of  stout  wire  tetth,  which  caught  the  cotton,  and 
drew  it  through  a  wire  grating.  The  lint  passed  through  the  grating ;  but  llic 
seeds,  being  too  large  to  go  through,  were  torn  off,  and  separated  from  the 
fibre.  Wliitney  soon  afterwards  employed  circular  saws  instead  of  wire  tcedi, 
as  being  stronger  and  more  serviceable.  Even  his  first  imperfect  gin  did  good 
service,  and  satisfied  the  planters  of  Georgia,  who  were  invited  in  to  see  it 
work  ;  and  his  later  one  brought  with  it  the  assurance  that  cotton-planting  might 
now  become  one  of  the  most  profitable  branches  of  agriculture  into  which  the 
planters  of  the  South  could  go.  Whitney  took  out  his  patent  in  1793,  and 
began  the  manufacture  of  gins  with  a  partner  by  the  name  of  Miller.  He  had 
bad  luck,  however.  He  was  taken  ill  in  1794,  and  in  1795  his  shop  was 
destroyed  by  fire.  Furthermore,  his  gin  was  too  important  to  the  public  to 
permit  the  latter  to  wait  for  the  inventor  to  build  on  a  scale  large  enough  to 
supply  the  general  market ;  and,  almost  from  the  beginning,  a  large  number  of 
mechanics  in  New  ICngland  and  elsewhere  made  the  gins  in  large  nunil)crs, 
and  sold  them  in  competition  with  the  patentee.  Whitney  had  great  troul)le 
in  the  courts  with  these  infringers  upon  his  rights,  and  about  all  he  got  for  his 
invention  was  a  grant  of  fifty  thousand  dollars  from  the  State  of  SouUi  Caro- 
lina as  a  reward  for  his  discovery.  But  if  Whitney  gained  only  the  empty 
fame  of  his  invention,  without  the  substantial  rewards  to  which  he  was  entitled, 
the  United  States  at  any  rate  profited  by  it  exceedingly.  A  furore  of  cotton- 
planting  took  place ;  and  so  great  was  the  increase  of  production  resultiii;^ 
from  the  introduction  of  the  gin,  that,  whereas  only  138,328  pounds  of  cotton 
were  exported  from  the  United  States  in  1792,  the  amount  exported  in  1795 
was  more  than  6,000,000  pounds.  A  proportionate  increase  took  \\'Xcq.  in  tlie 
(quantity  of  cotton  sent  to  the  Northern  States  for  manufacture. 

Samuel  Salter's  good  luck,  and  the  cheapening  of  cotton  by  the  invention 
of  the  gin,  led  to  a  great  extension  of  factory-spinning  in  the  Northern  States 


OF    TlfE    UNITED    STATES. 


409 


lem  into 


HI:  it"! 


M 


4IO 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


Z   '' 


ip  i'*f 


Rapid  exten 
sion  of  cot- 
ton-manu- 
factures in 
the  North. 


immediately.  Factories  were  built  on  the  large  and  powerful  mill-streams  of 
Eastern  C'oiniecticut,  at  different  places  in  Massachusetts,  and 
elsewhere  in  New  I'^ngland  and  the  Middle  States.  'I'hey  were 
for  tlie  spinning  of  cotton-yarn,  and  were  neighborhood  affairs, 
designed  to  supply  the  farmers  and  citizens  of  their  respective 
counties  with  their  material  for  the  weaving  of  cloth.  The  girls 
and  young  men  who  found  employment  in  these  factories  were  of  the  best  blood 
of  New  ICngland.  From  a  report  made  by  Mr.  Albert  Gallatin,  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury  in  1810,  it  appeai-s,  that,  at  the  close  of  1809,  there  had  been  erected 
Condition  of  "^  ^"^^  United  States  eighty-seven  cotton-factories,  sixty-two  of 
industry  in  which  wcrc  in  operation,  and  twenty-five  of  which  would  probably 
'  '°*  be  completed  and  ready  to  go  to  work  in  18 10.     Of  the  sixty-two, 

forty-eight  were  driven  by  the  power  of  waterfalls,  and  fourteen  by  horse-power. 
They  employed  thirty-one  thousand  spindles :  the  whole  eighty-.seven  would 
employ  eighty  thousand  spindles. 

It  is  an  interesting  fact,  as  we  have  seen,  that,  before  the  cotton-gin  was 
invented,  hemp  was  considered  in  the  United  States  a  more  important  plant 
than  cotton.  Hemp  was  absolutely  necessary  for  the  supply  of  the  siiipping 
with  cordage ;  and  so  great  was  the  interest  felt  in  it,  that  t!ie  pi'otection 
accorded  to  textile  agriculture  by  Congress  was  extended  more  to  hemp  than 
to  cotton.  By  1 790  the  superior  importance  of  cotton  was  realized,  and 
Congress  gave  to  that  plant  and  its  manufactures  new  and  zealous  attention. 
There  was  little  need  of  recognizing  raw  cotton  itself  in  the  tariff,  as  none 
Congres-  °^  ^hc  raw  material  was  at  all  likely  to  be  imported,  notwith- 
siona)  legis-  standing  Hamilton's  alarm  :  yet  Congress  gave  it  a  protection  of 
ation.  three  cents  a  pound,  which  was  increased  to  six  cents  in  181 2; 

and,  in  order  to  secure  the  largest-home  market  for  it  possible,  the  manufac- 
ture of  the  fleece  was  encouraged  by  a  duty  of  twelve  and  a  half  per  cent  in 
1794,  which  was  increased  to  seventeen  and  a  half  in  1804,  and  to  thirty  five 
per  cent  in  181 2.  This  high  duty  on  the  manufactured  cloth  was  needed, 
because  England  was  now  sending  to  the  United  States  large  (piantities  of  the 
cotton-cloth  made  from  our  own  fleeces  by  steam-power ;  and  it  was  held,  that, 
if  cotton-cloth  was  to  be  consumed  in  large  cjuantity  in  the  United  States,  it 
would  be  better  to  encourage  its  manufiicture  here,  in  order  that  our  own 
people  might  derive  the  profits  of  manufacture,  and  save  the  transportation- 
charges  to  and  from  Europe.  If  the  tariff  increased  the  selling-prices  of 
cotton  and  cotton-goods  in  the  United  States,  it  probably  did  not  do  so  to 
any  greater  extent  than  those  prices  would  l)e  enhanced  under  a  lower  tariff 
by  transportation-charges  to  and  from  Europe ;  and  the  tariff,  at  any  rate, 
secured  the  profits  of  a  large  portion  of  the  manufacture  to  our  own 
countrvmen. 

Up  to  the  time  of  the  war  of  181 2  there  had  been  no  factories  in  the 
United   States   for  weaving   cotton-cloth,   except  the   pioneer   enterprise  at 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


411 


Beverly,  Mass.,  then  defunct.  The  factories  were  all  for  spinning  yarn.  Mr. 
Francis  C.  Lowell  of  IJoston  now  conceived  tiie  plan  of  start  iig  Francis  c. 
a  Victory  for  weaving,  in  whicli  the  work  should  not  be  d(  ;ie  Lowell, 
slowly  and  laboriously  by  hand  as  in  the  household  nianul.  dure,  but  by 
water-power.  Mr.  Lowell  got  back  to  the  United  States  from  a  visit  to  Lu- 
rope  —  which  he  had  spent  largely  in  inspecting  the  cotton-factories  —  just 
as  this  country  was  going  to  war  with  iMigland  for  ilic  i)rote(  tion  of  the 
freedom  of  our  commerce  anil  of  the  rights  of  nationality.  Mr.  Lowell  had 
neither  models  nor  machines  to  start  liis  factory  with,  —  nothing,  in  fact, 
except  his  recollection  and  Yankee  wit.  He  formed  a  i)artnership  with 
Patrick  S.  Jackson,  his  brother-in-law  ;  and  the  two  men  went  to  work  to  devise 
a  power-loom.  They  made  a  number  of  experiments,  and  finally  hit  upon  a 
machine  which  they  thought  woukl  work.  I'aul  Moody,  an  expert  mechanic 
whom  they  took  into  their  employ,  built  a  loom  for  them  iV(jm  their  i)lans  ;  and 
in  1813  the  firm  put  up  a  little  mill  at  Waltham,  Mass.,  and  began  manufactur- 
ing. They  had  a  full  set  of  machinery  for  spinning  and  weaving.  The 
number  of  spindles  was  1,700.  This  mill  is  claimed  anil  Ijclieved  to  have 
been  the  first  cotton-factory  in  the  world  which  performed  all  the  operations 
of  converting  the  cotton-lint  into  cloth  under  the  same  roof.  Hithe  '^  both 
in  Lngland  and  America,  spinning  and  weaving  had  been  carried  on  sepa- 
rate establishments.  Mr.  Lowell  had  a  great  deal  of  trouble  at  first  with  his 
looms.  They  were  right  in  principle,  but  crude  in  detail ;  and  it  was  several 
years  before  Moody,  Jackson,  and  himself  could  devise  and  find  out  the 
various  contrivances  needed  to  perfect  their  plan  of  manufacturing,  and  make 
it  a  success.  Their  perseverance  overcame  all  obstacles,  however ;  and  they 
prospered  in  their  enterprise.  The  concern  enlarged  its  business  in  1S22  by 
buying  the  whole  power  of  the  Merrimack  River  at  the  place  where  the  city  of 
Lowell  now  stands,  and  by  building  there  a  large  mill,  for  which  a  joint-stock 
company  was  formed  among  the  capitalists  of  the  State.  This  act  gave  birth 
both  to  the  city  of  Lowell  and  to  the  magnificent  development  of  the  cotton- 
manufacture  by  power  to  which  this  country  has  since  attained.  The  building 
of  cotton-factories  became  one  of  the  passions  of  the  age.  There  was  a  great 
deal  of  idle  capital  in  the  country ;  and  the  success  of  Slater,  Lowell,  and 
others,  stimulated  its  investment  in  this  industry.  An  immense  impetus  was 
given  to  the  manufacture  ;  and,  in  twenty  years  from  the  beginning  of  the  war 
of  181 2,  the  cotton-industry  had  grown  to  four  times  its  previous  stature. 

Nine-tenths  of  the  new  factories  built  were  put  up  in  New  England,  New 
York,  and  Pennsylvania.      That  was  not  the  part  of  the  United   Factories 
States  in  which  the  manufacture  could  have  been  carried  on  to  the  t>"''t  •"  ^^^ 
best  advantage.     The  climate  was  dry  and  cold,  entailing  a  large   ^^^  York, 
expense  in  warming  and  steaming  the  air  of  the   mills.     Wages   and  Penn- 
were  high  in  that  part  of  the  country.     The  factories  were  situated   ^^  vama. 
many  hundreds  of  miles  away  from  the  cotton-growing  regions,  entailing  another 


:i 


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412 


/AD  US  TKIA  L    II  IS  TOK  V 


large  expense  for  l)aling,  pressing,  hooping,  and  transporting  the  cotton  to 
the  mill,  and  for  iin])a(:king  it,  freeing  it  from  its  lioops  and  bagging,  and 
picking  it  up  loose  again,  after  it  hail  erosseil  the  threshold  of  the  mill. 
'The  distance  of  the  factories  from  the  cotton-fields  also  brought  loss  of 
interest,  and  waste  of  the  cotton  in  transportation  and  handling.  The  better 
l)lace  for  the  factories  would  have  been  in  the  Southern  States  themselves. 
There  the  climate  was  mild,  the  wages  of  free  labor  were  low,  baling,  hoop- 
ing, and  iiressing  would  have  been  almost  entirely  avoided,  and  transporta- 
tion would  have  been  only  a  nominal  charge.  The  water-power  of  the  Soiiih 
was   as   abundant   and   cheap,  too,  as   that   of  the   North.     In   the   North, 


CAUUlN(;-.M.\CmNU.      MASOM   MACIIINIi-WOlJKS. 


however,  the  population  was  denser,  the  climate  was  more  invigorating, 
and  the  spirit  of  industry  had  taken  possession  of  the  people.  'Jlie  States 
of  the  North  were  under  the  necessity  of  undertaking  to  carry  on  manufac- 
tures, because  agriculture  was  less  remunerative  with  them  than  in  the  South, 
and  the  genius  of  the  peo^jle  was  favorable  to  employments  which  called 
for  the  exercise  of  great  ingenuity,  technical  skill,  and  executive  ability.  The 
South  preferred  the  charms  and  independence  of  the  agreeable  agricultural 
life.  Accordingly,  in  1831,  of  the  795  cotton-mills  which  had  then  been  built 
in  the  United  States,  and  were  in  active  and  profitable  operation,  508  were  in 
New  I'vUgland  alone,  and  738  of  the  whole  numl)er  were  in  New  England  and 
the  Middle  States.     The  situation  in  1831  was  as  follows  :  — 

NO.    01'   FACTORIBS. 

Maine S 

New  IIain]5shire  ...........      40 

MasracIuistU.s       ...........     250 


3tion  to 
iiig,  and 
Lhc  mill, 
loss  of 
ic  bcUcr 
L'msL'lvcs. 
ig,  hoop- 
ansporta- 
hc  South 
le   Noiih, 


ivisoraling, 
The  States 
11  manufac- 
thc  Soulbf 
hich   called 
jility.     Tht-^ 
agricultural 
been  luiilt 
08  were  iu 
u,L;land  and 

F   PACTORIBS. 

S 
40 


OF    THE  UNITED    STATES.  413 

Kliodc  Island 116 

Connecticut 94 

New  \'<)rk t        ,        .112 

I'ciinsylvania 67 

New  Jersey 51 

Maryland 23 

Delaware 10 

Virginia 7 

Other  States 17 

''""'•d 79S 

The  largest  actual  development  of  the  industry  since  1831  has  still  been 
in  the  Northern  and  luastern  States.     The  largest  proportionrte  building  of 
factories,  however,  has  been  in  the  South,  whose  future  as  a  great  ^ 
cotton-manufacturing  district  is  now  well  assured.  ment  of 

The  growth  of  the  cotton-factories  in  number,  after  tire  war   '""^"^^'y 

°  since  1831. 

of  1S12,  would  be  one  of  the  most  marvellous  incidents  in  his- 
tory, were  it  not  for  the  fact  that  their  multii)lication  did  not  really  represent 
an  actual  growth  in  cotton  spinning  and  weaving  in  this  country.     It  must 
not  be  forgotten  that  the  cotton-manufacture  was  being  carried  on  upon  a 
< onsiderable  scale  throughout  the  length  and  breadth  of  the  land   _    ,. 

°  °  Continuation 

in  the  homes  of  the  peoi^le  when  factory-weaving  was  introduced    of  domestic 
to  the  country  by  Mr.  Lowell.     It  was  estimated  by  Mr.  Gallatin,   ""anu'^^- 
that,  in  18 10,  at  least  two-thirds  of  the  clothing  and  of  the  house 
and  table  cloths  consumed  in   the  United  States  were  still  the  product  of 
family  manufactures,  which  were   then   in   a   flourishing   state.     During  the 
next  twenty  years  the  principal  part  of  this  family  weaving  and  spinning  was 
transferred  to  the  factories,  and  this  transfer  was  of  itself  sufficient  to  create  a 
great  fiictory-industry.     The  growth  from  18 10  to  1831  was  chiefly  due  to  the 
factory  and  the  power-loom  taking  the  place  of  the  home-j.  mufacture  and 
the  hand-loom.     The  growth  after  1831   was  the  legitimate  product  of  the 
increase  of  population  in  the  United  States  in  numbers  and  wealth,  and  the 
brger  consumption  of  cotton-goods  which  followed  their  reduction  in  price. 
The  following  are  the  statistics  A  growth  :  — 


1S09 

iSio 
1S20 
183 1 
iSto 

1S6. 
1870 


10.-; 


79S 
1,240 
1,074 
1,091 

956 


sri  ndi.es. 


31,000 
90,800 

250,572 
1,246,503 
2,284,631 
4,052,000 

.235-727 
7.132,415 


OrEHATlVliS. 


4,000 


57,466 
72,119 

97,956 
122,028 

135.369 


COITON    fSIil), 
I.N    rOUNUS. 


3,600,000 

9,945,609 

77,757,3'6 

132,^35,856 
276,074,100 
437,905,036 

409,900,806 


VDS.  CLOTH  MADE. 


230,461,990 

398,507,568 

828,222,300 

1,148,252,406 

1,137,518,330 


$40,614,984 

5'. '02,359 

76,032,578 

98,585,269 

140,706,291 


\- : 


Jiii 


:^ 


414 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


Decline  in 
price  of 
cottons. 


Of  course  it  is  understood,  that,  like  all  statistics  which  cover  so  vast  a 
field  as  this,  tiicsc  figures,  tliougii  compilccl  by  tlic  government,  do  not  aspire 
to  al)S(jlute  accui'acj'.  'I'lvjy  are  simply  remarkably  close  approximations  to 
the  truth,  and  are  to  be  taken  as  valuable  indications  of  it.  'I'he  manufacture 
is  doubtless,  in  each  year  referred  to,  somewhat  larger  than  above  set  forth. 

The  fall  in  the  price  of  cotton-cloth  after  factory-weaving  began  was  some- 
thing remarkable.  In  1815,  when  cotton-cloth  was  still  woven  chiefly  by 
hand,  —  the  family  weaver  making  only  twenty-five  throws  of  the 
.shuttle  per  minute,  r.nd  finishing  only  four  yards  of  cloth  a  day, — 
the  price  of  ordinary  cloth  for  sheetings  was  forty  cents  a  yard.  In 
1822  it  had  fiUlen  to  twenty-two  cents,  and  in  1829  to  eight  cents  anil  a  lialf. 
In  1850,  when  the  factory-manufiicture  had  completely  abolished  the  old-time 
system,  when  the  power-loom  was  in  full  operation,  —  throwing  the  shuttle 
from  a  hundred  and  forty  to  two  hundred  times  a  minute,  and  one  person, 
tending  three  or  four  looms,  would  weave  from  ninety  to  a  hundred  and  sixty 
yards  of  cloth  a  day,  —  the  price  of  cloth  for  sheetings  was  reduced  to  seven 
cents  a  yard  as  the  result  of  machine-labor.  This  reduction  of  price  was 
interrupted  by  the  war  and  the  infiation  of  the  currency  resulting  from  the 
war ;  but  market-values  have  again  fallen  to  where  they  were  before  tiie  war, 
so  that  the  reduction  of  price  is  seen  to  be  permanent.  That  this  change 
of  price  is  due  chiefly  to  the  employment  of  machinery,  and  not  so  much  to 
a  fall  in  the  price  of  cotton,  is  evident  by  a  comparison  of  the  prices  of  cotton 
and  of  cloth.     The  following  figures  will  illustrate  the  point :  — 


; 


1816 
1819 
1826 
1829 

1843 
184s 
1850 

18SS 
i860 
1870 
1872 
1878 


TKlCr.  OF  IIKAVY 

siir.miNtis  A 

VAKI),  IN  CliNTS. 


30 
21 

13 

8i 
6J 
7 
I 

'°! 

'3j 
7i 


rmci'.  oKi'niNT- 

Kl)  CAl.lC<li;S  A 
YAM),  IN  CKNIS. 


17 
12 
II 

9i 


'3 

IS 
6 


rmcn  or  k-aw 

COTTON  A  I'OIND, 
IN  ITCNTS. 


22J 

'3A 
io| 

7i 
6 


14 

I3i 

14 

19 
II 


It  will  be  observed  that  the  prices  of  cloth  fell  faster  than  that  of  cotton, 
and  that  at  the  present  time,  while  cloth  is  substantially  as  cheap  as  before  the 
war,  cotton  commands  a  slightly  better  price.  The  reduction  from  the  prices 
of  I S 16  has  made  the  United  States  one  of  the  greatest  cotton-consuming 
countries  in  the  world. 


p>n 


01-     THE    CX/T/:/)    srATIiS. 


•MS 


Hy  iS6o  the  cotton-manufartiiro  had  ronrhcd  an  intcrosfinp;  and  Hatisfjictory 
staf^f  of  dc'vclopnunt.     Nearly  all  llic  hraiK  Iks  of  tnatuifac  lure  wire  practised 
here,  and  six-scvenllis  of  the  (loth  and  cotton-^^oods  lioiij^U  by  our    Production 
people  were  made  in  our  own  mills.     'I'he   production  was  $115,-   '"  ••O"- 
000,000  worth   of  Roods   yearly.     The   importation   was   about    ^125,000,000. 
'I'he  latter  consisted  almost  entirely  of  the  fuur  classes  of  sheetings,  calicoes, 


'"'1?!' 


i 


11 


I 


u~'-":i:rrta!ii:;iiiii;.:;i!L 


(ilNGllA.M-LOOM. 


lawns,  (Sec.  The  American  clotiis,  of  snch  kinds  as  were  made,  excelled  those 
produced  by  English  mills  on  account  of  their  heavier  (piality  and  their  freedom 
from  starch.  They  contained  more  honest  cotton  to  the  poimd  of  cloth  than 
the  English  goods.  They  were,  for  this  reason,  in  great  demand  in  China, 
India,  and  Japan  ;  and  there  was  an  exportation  of  them  amounting  to  $6,000,- 
000  and  $7,000,000  yearly.     There  was  every  prospect  that  the  American 


m§M 


\  I 


416 


/A'n  us  TKIA  L    HIS  TOR  Y 


war  upon 
industry. 


mills  would  soon  be  able  completely  to  supply  the  home-market  with  our  own 
manufactures  of  cotton,  and  in  a  few  years  more  would  be  ready  to  undertake 
to  work  up  f(ir  the  world  at  large  the  enormous  quantities  of  cotton  which 
were  sent  abroad  yearly  in  a  raw  state,  amounting  to  five-sixths  of  the  whole 
crop. 

The  war  which  broke  out  in  1861  affected  the  cotton-interests  of  the 
country  in  an  extraortlinary  manner.  The  cotton-growing  region  and  the 
EffLctof  cotton-manufacturing  region  were  separated  from  each  other,  and 
the  former  of  the  two  was  also  substantially  cut  off  from  the  world 
at  large'.  The  South  could  with  difficulty  dispose  of  its  cotton  : 
it  could  send  little  North,  antl  scarce  an)'  abroad.  The  result  w.^s,  that  tlie 
acreage  of  cotton  planted  in  the  South  fell  off  enormously.  The  planters 
began  to  raise  food-crops  instead.  The  cotton-manufi^ctures  of  the  South 
increased  somewhat ;  but  the  (Victories  were  by  no  means  able  to  stay  the 
decline  of  cotton-planting.  The  North,  on  the  other  hand,  deprived  of  its 
supply  of  fibre,  was  at  its  wits'  c  -Is  to  know  what  to  do  for  raw  material.  A 
cotton-famine  set  in,  during  wnich  the  price  of  the  raw  material  rose  from 
eleven  cents  to  a  dollar  and  seventy-six  cents  a  pound,  A  large  proportion  of 
the  mills  were  obliged  to  discontinue  operations  :  the  remainder  were  obliged 
to  resort  to  the  unprecedented  measure  of  importing  raw  cotton  from  foreign 
countries;  and  they  did,  for  four  j-ears,  imjjort  an  average  of  25,000,000 
pounds  a  year  from  India,  Egypt,  and  Brazil.  This  raw  material  they  made  to 
go  as  far  as  possible  by  mixing  in  with  it  flax  and  other  vegetable  fibres,  luid 
by  producing  to  a  larger  extent  than  before  goods  whereof  part  of  the  material 
entering  into  them  was  wool.  A  great  many  of  the  fiictories  transferred  their 
attention  entirely  from  cotton-goods  to  woollen-goods.  Were  it  not  for  the  fact 
that  the  South,  which  had  been  one  of  the  largest  markets  in  this  country  for 
imported  cotton-goods,  was  cut  off  from  receiving  regular  importations  durmg 
this  period,  the  cotton-famine  in  th'^  North  would  have  led  to  the  importation 
v>f  at  least  $50,000,000  worth  of  cotton  goods  a  year  while  the  warwa.;  pendiiit;. 
What  the  importations  into  the  South  actually  were  cannot  be  stated  ;  but  into 
the  North  they  were  only  $60,000,000  during  the  whole  four  years  of  the  WcU-. 
Besides  the  embarrassment  and  loss  which  the  war  inflicted  upon  the  factories 
of  the  North,  it  brought  a  still  greater  disaster,  with  reference  to  cotton,  \\\w\\ 
the  South.  It  not  only  cut  off  the  sale  of  5190,000,000  of  raw  cotton  yearly 
to  the  countries  of  Euroi)e,  and  of  $40,000,000  to  the  North,  but  it  developed 
the  cotton-growing  of  rival  regions  of  the  earth.  India,  I'^gypt,  and  Bra/il 
reaped  a  rich  harvest  from  the  failure  of  the  American  cotton-crops  from  1861 
to  1865.  At  the  end  of  the  war  the  South  found  itself  both  with  litde  cotton 
to  sell,  and  with  a  powerfiil  competition  on  its  hands  with  the  other  cotton- 
countries.  The  cotton-interests  of  the  South  have  recuperated  since  the  war, 
however,  in  the  most  marvellous  and  unexpected  manner,  copsidering  the  utter 
prostration  and  ruin  which  had  overtaken  them.     The  crop  of  1865-66  was 


I 


1  our  own 

undertake 

ton  which 

the  whole 

its    of  the 
n  and  tlie 
other,  and 
I  the  world 
ts  cotton  : 
iS,  that  the 
ic  planters 
the  South 
0   stay  the 
ivcd  of  its 
laterial.     A 
rose  from 
)portion  of 
;rc  obliged 
om  foreign 
25,000,000 
ey  maile  to 
fibres,  iMid 
he  material 
ferrcd  their 
"or  the  fact 
country  for 
ions  during 
hnportation 
a:;  pending. 
:\ ;  but  into 
of  the  war. 
he  factories 
atton,  upon 
3tton  yeady 
:  developed 
and  IJra/il 
from  1 86 1 
ittle  cotton 
her  cotton- 
ce  the  war, 
ig  the  utter 
65-66  was 


O/'     THE     UNITED    STATES. 

already  half  a  crop ;  and  so  muci.  progress  was  made  in  replanting,  that,  in 
1875-76,  the  crop  was  as  large  as  it  ever  had  been  in  the  most  favorable  year 
before  the  war.     The  competition  of  Brazil,  Kgypt,  and  India,  vanished   like 
the  dew  before  the  sun  ;  and  ten  years  have  placed  the  j^lanters  of  the  South  in 
exactly  the  same  position  in  referen-'e  to  the  world's  supjjly  that  they  occupied 
before  the  war.     Part  of  this  result   '-.is  doul)tless  due  to  the  ready  demands  of 
the  Northern  mills,  which  were  the  Inst  to  e.xtend  to  the  South  the  helping  hand 
which  lifted  that  section  to  its  feet  again.     The  North  itself  has  also  regained 
all  it  lost  daring  the  war:  it  has  nure  than  regained  it.     By  1870   production 
its  j)r()duct  of  cotton-r^anufactures  was  larger  than  ever  before   '"  '^7°. 
known  in  history.     It  was  manufacturing  more  cotton-goods  than  were  pro- 
du<:eil   in   the  whole   country  in  i860;   that  is  to  say,  $160,000,0 jo  worth  as 
against   $115,000,000 
worth    in    the    whole 
L'nited  States  in  i860. 
It  had  again  exported 
$6,000,000    worth    of 
goods   in  a  year.     It 
was    making    a    large 
variety  of  fine  goods 
which  had  never  been 
attempted  before  the 
war  ;  and,  while  it  had 
reduced    the    impor- 
ialions  to  only  $18,- 
000,000  a  year,  it  was 
doing  so  well,  that  it 
had    almost    reached 
the    point    of    being 
able     to     repay     the 
favors  of  England  by 
sending    American 
cotton-goods   to   her. 
This  extraordinary  re- 
cuperation  is  one  of 

the  marvels  of  the  age.  It  is  an  indication  of  the  inherent  vigor  and 
'•itality  of  the  .\merican  people,  which  promises  well  for  the  fiiture  of  our 
nationality. 

The  extent  and  distribution  of  the  cotton-manufacture  in  1870  are  described 
in  the  following  table,  taken  from  the  census-report  of  that  year.    Extent  and 
Massachusetts  was  far  ahead  of  every  other  State.     Rhode  Island   distribution, 
came  next ;  yet  only  two-fifths  as  many  spindles  were  in  operation  in  the  latter 
State  as  in  the  former. 


LOOM.      MASON   MACHINE-WORKS. 


€■11: 


'\%>\\ 


4i8 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


t'^AhM\'r. 


i>P!*-a.# 


(    11 


'» t.  i 


,  %■ 


NUMBER   OF 
KACTOKIES. 

Sl'INUI.ES. 
28,046 

Ol'ERATlVES. 

VAU'E   OF 
PROUICTS. 

Alabama 

13 

1,032 

$1,088,767 

Arkansas . 

2 

1,125 

17 

22,562 

Connecticut 

III 

597, '42 

I2,OS6 

14,026,334 

Delaware 

6 

29,534 

726 

1,060,898 

(Jeorgia    . 

34 

85,602 

2,846 

3,648,973 

Illinois 

5 

1,856 

98 

279,000 

Indiana     . 

4 

17,360 

503 

778,047 

Iowa 

I 

6 

7,000 

Kentucky 

5 

7,734 

269 

498,960 

Louisiana 

4 

13,084 

246 

251,550 

Maine 

23 

459.772 

9,439 

11,844,181 

Maryland . 

22 

89,112 

2,860 

4,852,808 

Massachusetts . 

191 

2,619,541 

43,512 

59.493.153 

Mississippi 

5 

3,526 

265 

234.445 

Missouri  . 

3 

16,715 

361 

798,050 

New  Hampshire 

36 

749,843 

12,542 

16,999,672 

New  Jersey 

27 

200,580 

3,154 

4.015,768 

New  York 

81 

492,573 

9,144 

11,178,211 

North  Carolina 

33 

39,877 

1,453 

1,345,052 

Ohio 

7 

23,240 

462 

681,835 

Pennsylvania    . 

'38 

434,246 

12,730 

17,490,080 

Kliode  Island   . 

139 

1,043,242 

16,745 

22,049,203 

South  Carolina 

12 

34,940 

1,123 

1,529,937 

Tennessee 

28 

27,923 

890 

941,542 

Texas 

4 

8,878 

291 

374,598 

Utah 

3 

1,020 

16 

16,803 

Vermont  . 

8 

28,768 

451 

546.5 '0 

Virginia    . 

II 

77,116 

1,741 
135,369 

1,435,800 

Totals 

956 

7,132,415 

$177,489,739 

The  relation   of  wages  and   materials   to   product,  &c.,  in    1870,  was  as 
follows  :  — 


Raw  materials 
Mill-supplies  . 


$100,826,264 
10,910,672 


$111,736,936 

Wages 39,044,132 

Product 177.489,739 

Capital  invested 140,706,291 

The  characterisi;ic  staple  products  of  the  American  mills  ar<"  now  hc.ny 

sheetings,    fine   sheetings,    serviceable    drillings,    shirtings    (espo- 

productof       cially  the  blue-striped  kind),  and  domestic  flannels.     Jeans  were 

American        among  the  earliest  goods  made.     The  strong  drillings  are  said  '•' 

have  been  introduced  in  1827,  and  the  substantial  and  blue-striped 

shirtings  in   1828.     The  drillings  have  not  varied  a  thread  since  they  were 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


419 


.I'E  OK 
DIXTS. 


,088,767 

22,562 

,026,334 

,060,898 

,648,973 
279,000 

778,047 

7,000 

498,960 

-5', 550 
1,844,181 

4,852,808 

9,493, '53 

234.445 

798,050 

6,999,672 

4,015,768 

[1,178,211 

1,345-052 

681,835 

17,490,080 

22,049,203 

1,529.937 

94 '.542 

374.59!^ 

16,803 

546,510 

1,435,800 

77,4«9.739 


o,  was  as 


I36 
32 
39 
91 

()\v  hca\y 
gs  (espc- 
cans  were 
re  said  ''> 
uL'-stripcd 
they  were 


first  introduced.  All  these  heavy  cottons  were  soon  made  in  sui)erior  style, 
and  were  heavily  exported.  One  of  the  native  cloths  of  the  United  States  was 
invented  in  1835  by  Mr.  James  Johnson,  and  took  the  name  of  the  domett 
flannel.  Mr.  Johnson  was  under  the  necessity  of  using  up  a  lot  of  cotton 
warp  which  had  been  made  for  a  satinet-mill  which  had  })roved  unremunera- 
tive.  He  produced  a  cloth  from  this  warp,  by  using  a  filling  of  wool,  which 
met  with  favor ;  and  its  manufacture  lias  since  been  carried  on  upon  a  very 
large  scale.  Calicoes  are  also  a  characteristic  American  product,  and  were  one 
of  the  earliest  attempted  :  they  were  being  made  in  1824  at  the  rate  of  sixty 
thousand  yards  a  week.  Sail-duck  was  also  made  at  a  very  early  date.  Recent 
progress  had  added  to  the  list  a  large  number  of  the  finer  goods  and  fabrics, 
such  as  delaines,  alpacas,  the  finer  prints  and  ginghams,  cambrics,  &c.  'J'he 
weights  of  some  of  the  standard  fabrics  are  as  follows  :  coarse  shirting  and 
sheeting,  two  yards  and  eight-tenths  to  the  pound  ;  fine  bleached  shirting  and 
sheeting,  three  yards  and  four-tenths  to  six  yards  to  the  jjound  ;  standard  drill- 
ings, two  yards  and  three-fourths  to  the  pound  ;  fine  drillings,  three  yards  and 
four-tenths  to  six  yards  to  the  pound ;  print- cloths,  seven  yards  to  the  pound ; 
flannels  (yard  wide),  %ur  to  seven  yards  to  the  pound  ;  and  ginghams  (thirty- 
two  inches  wide),  three  to  six  yards  to  the  pound.  Cottonades  weigh  from 
tour  to  twelve  ounces  to  the  yard  ;  cassim.eres,  from  six  to  fourteen  ounces  to 
the  yard ;  and  jeans,  from  three  to  six  ounces.  Every  mill  makes  many 
(liffe;ent  styl'^s  of  its  goods :  sometimes  the  number  ranges  as  high  as  two 
hundred  and  three  hundred. 

In  regard  to  the  machinery  in  use  in  the  .American  cotton-factories,  and 
the  processes  of  spinning  and  weaving,  it  may  be  said  that  the  mills  in  the 
older  States  are  organized  upon  the  most  approved  principle;,  of  Kind  of 
tiic  art,  and  are  supplied  with  the  best  machinery  in  the  world,  machinery 
Spinning  machines  and  looms  are  freciuently  of  I'lnglish  pattern,  ^'"^  °^^  ' 
and  sometimes  of  English  make.  On  the  whole,  however,  the  machinery  is 
generally  of  American  patterns  and  make.  The  manufacturers  have  found  it 
desiral)le  to  buy  American  looms  and  mules,  because  of  the  fact  that  they  were 
lightly  built.  American  iron  is  better  than  the  English,  and  tougher.  The 
Tn  mpton,  Knowles,  and  other  looms  made  in  this  country,  are  so  much 
I'^lUer,  in  consequence  of  the  ({uality  of  the  iron,  that  they  are  frecpiently  run 
at  a  saving  of  fifty  per  cent  of  the  power,  —  an  important  consideration,  whether 
the  power  be  water  or  steam.  In  the  spinning-frames  there  have  been  many 
important  y\merican  improvements.  One  of  thein,  the  ring-s{)indle,  was 
invented  by  a  pupil  of  Slater  named  Jenks,  a,.  '  has  now  nearly  superseded  all 
other  kinds  of  spindles  in  this  cotintry.  The  use  of  it  has  increased  the 
capacity  of  the  mills,  and  led  to  the  production  of  better  yarn.  The  Excelsior 
spindle,  invented  by  Mr.  Sawyer  at  Lowell,  is  an  improvement  upon  Jenks's. 
It  's  used  with  a  ring  ;  but  it  is  lighter,  saves  a  great  deal  of  power,  and  works 
iu  a  remarkable  velocity.     The  machinery  of  the  .American  mills,  in  fact,  is 


!    \.\ 


y  ■il 


^1■r^:|^ 


mm 


420 


/ND (/S  TRIA  L    HIS  TOR  \ '  • 


considered,  on  the  whole,  to  l)e  better  now  than  that  of  the  Knghsh  mills.  All 
the  improvements  are  American,  showing  the  intelligence  of  our  workmen, 
and  possibly,  also,  the  beneficial  effect  of  our  i)atent-law  system. 

Raw  cotton  is  divided  into  three  classes.  The  long-staple  (or  Sea- 
Island)  cotton  is  remarkable  for  the  length  and  beauty  of  its  fibre,  and  the 
ciassifica-  delicacy  of  tiie  thread  which  can  be  spun  from  it.  This  long 
tion  of  staple  is  generally  used  for  the  warp  of  the  cloth  ;  that  is,  for  the 

threads  which  run  lengthwise  of  it.  The  medium  sta|)le,  whi(  h 
comprises  the  vast  bulk  of  the  cotton  raised  in  the  United  States,  is  shorter, 
but  softer  and  silkier.  It  is  used  for  the  weft,  or  threa<ls  which  nui  cross- 
wise of  the  cloth,  because  it  fills  up  the  cloth  better.  'i"he  short  stajile.  whi(  Ji 
generally  comes  from  India,  is  harder,  and  is  only  used  mixed  with  a  ])r(Ji)oi- 
tion  of  the  medium  sla|*le.      for  sewing-thread,  only  the  long  sta[jle  is  used. 


KITSON  S    (.'lll'[l)>;-l'ICKliU. 


When  a  liale  of  cotton  reaches  the  mill,  the  first  thing  done  with  it  is 
to  oi)en  it,  and  clean  and  loosen  the  fibres.  Machines  are  necessary  for  this. 
Process  of  bccausc  the  circumstance  that  the  cotton-factories  have  been  in 
cotton-man-  the  past  SO  far  from  the  cotton-fields  has  made  necessary  tlu' 
u  acture.  i);iijng  and  packing  of  the  cotton  under  enormous  pressure  for 
convenient  transjjortation  ;  and  it  therefore  comes  to  tlie  mill  too  matted  to 
Cleaning,  go  at  once  to  the  carding-machine.  The  cotton  is  cleaned  ami 
picking,  &c.  picked  up  loose  in  an  o])ener  and  a  s])reader.  These  were  tor 
nierly  separate  machines  ;  but  the  tendency  is  now  to  liave  the  two  ])rocesses 
])erformed  in  one  operation.  The  cotton  is  either  pulled  apart  by  toolheil 
cylinders,  or  beaten  with  blunt  knives,  while  a  current  of  air  blows  throuf,'h 
it,  and  it  comes  from  the  s])rea(ler  in  the  form  of  a  lap,  or  great,  ihic  k. 
fluffy  sheet  of  fibre,  cleaned,  and  in  good  condition  for  carding.  The  lap  i-' 
wound  upoii  a  large  roller  as  it  comes  slowly  forth  from  the  spreader,  and  i- 
then  f^arried  to  the  carding-room. 


ho 


Ot^    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


421 


Carding. 


Drawing. 


The  card,  as  has  already  l)een  explained  in  the  chapter  on  "  Woollen 
Manufactures,"  is  a  broad  cylinder,  every  inch  of  the  surface  of  which  is 
covered  with  wire  teeth,  and  which  revolves  in  contact  with  two 
smaller  cards.  The  laj),  being  delivered  to  the  card,  is  taken 
up  by  the  large  cylinder,  and  slowly  combed  out,  between  it  and  the  small 
cylinders,  into  a  gauzy  film,  which  is  then  combed  from  the  card  by  the 
action  of  the  doffer.  The  cotton  leaves  the  cuid  in  a  roll,  and  flows  on 
to  a  pair  of  rollers,  which  press  and  stretch  the  roll  slightly,  and  let  it  drop 
into  a  tin  can.  The  cotton  then  forms  what  is  called  a  "  sliver."  Sometimes 
the  cotton  is  carded  twice.  There  is  more  or  less  variety  in  the  forms  of  the 
carding-machines,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  product  of  the  mill.  A 
thread-mill,  for  instance,  has  a  different  style  of  cards  from  the  print-cloth 
mill.  The  cards  are  almost  exclusively  of  American  make,  a..d  are  lighter 
l)uilt,  can  run  faster  and  cheaper,  and  do  better  work,  than  the  F2nglish  cards. 

The  slivers,  when  they  come  from  the  cards,  are  taken  to  the  drawing- 
frames.  Two  or  three  of  them  are  fed  between  a  pair  of  rollers  together, 
and  pass  thence  on  to  a  second  and  a  third  pair,  and  sometimes 
to  a  fourth  pair,  each  pair  revolving  faster  than  its  jjredecessor. 
The  slivers  are,  by  this  process,  united  and  stretched  out  into  a  new  sliver 
oiie-tliird  or  one-fourth  the  size  of  the  united  three.  Tiiis  drawing-process 
arranges  the  fibres  of  the  cotton,  and  la}s  them  parallel  with  each  other.  The 
process  is  repeated  a  great  numl)er  of  times,  the  certainty  of  a  perfect  thread 
or  yarn  increasing  with  each  doubling  and  drawing  of  the  slivers.  ( )ne  of 
tlie  original  slivers,  as  it  comes  from  the  cards,  is  frequently  elongated,  in: 
drawing,  to  thirty-two  thousand  times  its  length.  The  delicate  sliver  resulting 
frcini  this  continual  stretching  is  finally  taken  to  the  roving-frame,  and  drawn 
OIK  c  more,  and  given  a  slight  twist.  The  natural  interlocking  of  the  fibres 
would  not  be  sufficient  now  to  make  the  loose  yarn  hold  together  without 
assistance  ;  and  the  sliver  is  accordingly  slightly  spun,  and  then  forms  what 
is  called  a  "  roving."  The  roving,  being  wound  upon  a  bobbin,  is  then  spun 
iiilo  yarn  for  weaving,  or  threa<l  for  sewing. 

In  the  liouschold  manufacture  of  our  forefathers  the  spinning-apparatus 
was  a  wheel,  which  drove  a  single  horizontal  spindle  mounted  011  a  standard  at 
about  the  height  of  the  el])ow.  A  cord,  passing  from  around  the 
'ircumference  of  the  big  fly-wheel,  drove  the  spindle  at  a  great 
velocity.  The  end  of  the  roll  of  wool,  flax,  or  cotton,  was  attached  to  the 
spindle  by  simply  tying  it  around,  and  the  big  wheel  was  started.  Simulta- 
neously with  the  starting  of  the  wheel,  the  spinner  brought  back  her  hand 
lioldiiig  the  roll  of  fibre,  so  as  to  stretch  it  at  the  same  time  that  the  spindle, 
I'll  its  longitudinal  axis,  was  giving  the  roll  the  twist;  then,  without  stopping 
ilie  wheel,  the  spinner  suddenly  relaxed  the  strain  on  the  yarn,  and  let  her 
liand  come  quickly  up  to  the  end  of  the  spindle,  by  which  means  the  yarn 
wound  itself  up  on  the  spindle  instantaneously,  instead  of  continuing  to  twist. 


Spinning. 


\\ 


t 

^H8 


432 


IXIU-S  Ik'lA!.     11  LSI  OK  Y 


!t 


As  soon  as  this  process  had  been  repeated  enough  times  to  secure  a  spindle- 
fill  of  yarn,  the  wheel  was  stopped,  and  the  yarn  reeled  off  upon  a  wooden 
reel  into  hanks,  for  k''lting,  weaving,  or  sewing.  It  was  the  slowness  of  this 
method  of  producing  yarn  which  led  the  early  manufacturers  to  think,  that,  if 
they  could  perform  this  i)r()cess  by  machinery,  they  would  have  made  for  a 
while  a  great  and  sufficient  advanc;.  Hargreaves,  who  invented  the  spinning- 
jenny  in  1767,  used  eight  spindles.  Invention  has  now  gone  so  far,  that,  in 
the  American  factories,  spinning  is  done  upon  frames  or  mules  which  carrv 
three  hundred  and  sixty  spindles.  The  spindles  themselves  have  undergone 
a  change  also,  ''"hey  are  arranged  vertically,  instead  of  horizontally,  in  one  or 
more  rows.  The  yarn  is  no  longer  wound  on  the  spindle  itself,  but  upon  a 
spool,  or  bobbin,  through  which  the  iron  spindle  i)asses,  and  whidi  has  a  play 
up  and  down  the  spindle  eijual  to  its  own  length.  Several  forms  of  spindles 
are  used.     One  style  has  a  little  steel  fly  at  the  top,  through  which  the  thread 


passes  :    another  lias  a  little  steel  cap.      Jenks's  spinrlle  carries   a   little  steel 
ring,  and  is  called  the  ring-spindle  in  consequence.     The  latter  is  the  popuhir 
spindle  in  American  mills.     Sawyer,  who  made   it  lighter,  and  called  it  tin 
Excelsior  spindle,  secured  for  it  a  speed  of  ten  thousand  revolutions.     A  sell 
oiling  bolster  allows  the  spindle  to  run  at  a  minimum  of  power.     It  carries  tlu' 
bobbin  with  it  in  si)inning  ;  and  the  bobbin  turns  intlependently  in  winding  up 
the  thread  when  the  spindle-, ranie  or  mule  is  run  back  for  the  purpose.     <  )iir 
girl  will  tend  thirteen  hundn.'d  s])indles.     The  Sawyer  spindle  saves  onc-luili 
of  the  power  consumed  in  spinning  by  previous  processes,  or  one-sixth  ot 
the  ])ower  of  tlu'  whole  mill 


'»■ 


t«, 


♦'nni'Mll  1^,1' 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES, 


423 


Weaving. 


There  is  as  yet  no  machine  for  continuous  Spl.ir.ing ;  hut  several  experi- 
ments are  in  i)rogress  in  New  lOngland  looking  to  tlie  perfection  of  some  such 
device. 

The  yarn,  when  spun,  is  reeled  off  from  the  bobbins  into  hanks  of  eight 
hundred  and  forty  yards.  The  yarn  is  numbered  according  to  the  number  of 
hanks  to  the  pound.  No.  2  is  very  coarse  :  No.  300  is  very  fine.  No.  600 
has  b'.en  made,  however,  and  No.  350  woven.  Tlie  yarn  for  the  weft  of  the 
cloth  is  wound  upon  bobbins  for  placing  in  the  shuttles  :  the  yarn  for  the 
\var[.  re(iuires  treatment  before  it  goes  to  the  loom.  It  is  taken  to  the  proper 
(lei)artn.cnt  of  the  mill,  and  stiffened  with  sizing,  and  is  then  wound  upon 
beams  for  tiie  loom.  The  weaving  is  done  upon  American  looms  generally. 
All  the  fancy  weaving  is  done  upon  the  American  C'rompton. 
The  print-looms  work  u[)  to  a  hundred  and  eighty  and  two  hun- 
dred "  picks,"  or  throws  of  the  sliuttle,  a  minute.  Tlie  fancy  looms  run  on 
ginghams,  shawls,  c\:c., 
with  the  six-shuitle  box, 
from  a  iumtlred  and 
thirty-five  to  a  hundred 
nnd  forty-five  picks  a 
minute.  The  older 
looms  make  about  o 
hundred  and  five  picks 
a  minute.  The  averr.'re 
of  production  per  loom 
is  from  thirty  yards  to 
Ibrty-five  yards  a  day 
of  ten  hours  and  a  half. 
( )nc  girl  will  tend  three 
or  four  looms.  Tiiey 
are  perfectly  automatic, 
and  require  only  occa- 
sional care.  In  tlie 
.\merican  mills  the 
looms  are  run  slower 
than  in  England,  and 
one  person  attends  a 
greater  number  of  them. 

For  calico-printing  the  cloth  is  taken  iVom  thi  loom   to  the  singeing-room. 
The  cloth  when   it  comes  from   the  loom  is  co\cred  with  a.  fine  nap,  which 
would  interfere  with  the  perfection  of  tlie   printing,  and  which   is   caiico- 
accordingly  removed  by  running  the    cloili    rapidly  over  a    half  P"n"ne- 
cylinder  of  copper  heated  red-hot.     'i'he  cloth  is  sometimes,  though  rarely, 
passed   through  a   ga.i-flame.      The    singeing    is    a    remarkable    process,    the 


l^'iTAi:\-    I  I  iVlll-l'URSS. 


I  i  r  t?  i 


424 


/A'D  US  TKIA  L    HIS  TOK  Y 


wonder  being  why  the  cloth  does  not  liurn  when  in  contact  with  tlie  fiery 
cyUnder.  It  does  not  burn,  however  :  it  flows  jjast  too  (luickly  ;  and  it  conies 
from  the  ordeal  to  which  it  is  subjected  as  white  as  though  it  had  never 
smelled  the  (ire.  The  cloth  is  now  carefully  bleached  by  boiling,  steeping  in 
alkali  solutions,  washing,  sciueezing,  drying,  (Sec,  until  it  is  i)erfectly  wiiitc. 
Calico-printing  was  formerly  an  expensive  process.  Invented  in  India,  and 
carried  to  perfection  in  France,  it  was  introduced  into  England  in  i6y6,  and 
into  the  United  States  about  the  time  of  the  Revolution.  Printing  first  took 
jilace  by  the  use  of  wooden  blocks  applied  by  hand  or  by  macliine.  Cylin- 
der-printing was  then  invented,  in  which  the  design  was  engraved  on  a  copijcr 
cylinder,  and  the  i-attern  inii)ressed  upon  the  cloth  continuously.  It  was  very 
costly,  however,  to  iise  the..e  cylinders.     The  engraving  of  them  was  laborious, 


UA>,-I.OO.M,    MASON    IMACHINE-WOKKS. 

and  they  soon  wore  out.  Mr.  l?erl;ins  of  Newburyport  gjve  the  Irasincss  a 
vastly  improved  position  by  inventing  the  steel  die.  The  pattern  is  engraved 
upon  a  steel  roller,  which  is  then  hardened  as  much  as  nossible.  The  patlcni 
is  then  tra.isferred  to  a  soft  steel  roller  by  pressure,  and  thence  to  the  co])pLT 
roller  by  the  same  meaiis.  In  this  manner,  1  d^,sign  once  engra\ed  can  be 
I'rraltiplied  upon  copper  rollers  inexpensively  to  any  extent.  Before  1S45  only 
a  few  colors  were  employed  in  printing.  Four  was  the  usual  number.  Ma- 
chine^; are  now  in  us'^  which  api)ly  twenty  colors.  Each  roller  prints  one 
color;  and  the  cloth  passes  slo\.ly  through  the  big  machine  in  which  they  are 
placed,  going  from  one  to  the  other  until  it  has  received  the  whole  of  the 
design,      'i'ht;   printing   is   effected    at   the  rate  of   12,000  to   16,000  yards  a 


ry}ri 


OF    T/fE    UN /TED    S7ATES. 


425 


'.lay.  The  colors  are  fixeil  by  mordants.  Of  the  total  miinber  of  otton- 
factories  in  operation  in  the  Unitetl  States  in  1S70,  forty-two  were  print-works. 
These  iactories  had  240  printing-machines,  employed  ^,894  hands,  and  pro- 
diiced  453,809,000  yards  of  calicoes  and  27,710,000  yards  of  delaines,  worth 
,^53,800,000.  'I'he  works  were  dislributetl  as  follows :  Iowa,  one ;  Maine, 
one;  Massachusetts,  eleven;  New  Hampshire,  three;  New  Jersey,  live; 
New  York,  four;  Pennsylvanii\  seven ;  Rhode  Island,  nine  ;  West  Virginia, 
one. 

In  the  thread  mills,  particularly  in  the  great  concern  at  ^Villimantic,  Conn., 
the  long-staple  cotton  finds  its  most  cordial  customers.  So  much  are  the  long 
fibres  of  the  long  staple  valued  for  thread-making,  that  they  are  Thread- 
subjected  to  a  special  combing-jirocess  in  the  threail-mills  to  free  "^aWng. 
them  from  the  shorter  stai)le,  of  which  there  is  always  a  certain  quantity  in  the 
lleece.  ("otton-thread  was  first  spun  in  i  794.  Previous  to  that  date,  sewing- 
thread  was  made  of  fiax.  It  is  said  that  Mrs.  Samuel  Slater,  not.  ng  the  fine- 
ness and  evenness  of  some  yarn  which  she  was  spinning  from  Sea- Island  cotton, 
suggested  the  idea  that  this  staple  would  do  for  sewing-thread.  The  idea  was 
taken  u[)  by  Mr.  Slater,  and  the  first  cotton-thread  was  made  in  his  pioneer- 
mill  at  I'awtucket.  In  thread-making,  the  slivers  of  cotton  are  "  drawn  "  to 
several  billion  times  their  original  length. 

A  great  deal  of  the  cotton-yarn  made  in  the  United  States  is  now  con- 
\crted  into  hosiery  by  the  aid  of  machinery.  There  are  now  in  the  United 
States  about  two  hundred  and  fifty  mills  devoted  to  the  ."ixljrication  of  hosiery. 
( )f  the  total  number,  sixty  are  in  New  York,  seventy-five  in  Pennsylvania,  thirty 
in  New  Hampshire,  thirty Tive  in  Massachusetts,  and  fifteen  in  Connecticut. 
Their  product  is  in  cotton  and  woollen  hose  (i)lain  and  striped),  shirts,  drawers, 
i  (kets,  oj)era-hoods,  scarts.  and  shawls.  There  is  little  hand-knitting  in  the 
hiisiery-business  now,  except  in  Nev/  Hampshire.  The  Shakers  at  I'^nneld  knit 
the  legs  and  feet  of  their  hose  upon  cinuilar  machines,  and  send  out  the  hose 
tu  have  the  heels  and  toes  knit  in  by  hand  with  stronger  and  more  serviceable 
yarn.  In  consecpience  of  the  extent  to  which  their  business  has  grown,  it  is 
laid  that  there  is  more  hand-knitting  in  New  Hampshire  now  than  there  was 
Mxtv  vears  asio. 

In  the  United  States  it  is  usual  to  build  houses  for  the  working-people  of 
the  mills  in  the  vicinity  of  the  several  establishments,  which  are  turned  over  to 
tl)ein  for  occupancy  at  a  low  rent.     This  circumstance  has  given    Homes  of 
I'irth  to  a  vast  number  of  pretty  villages  in  New  I'Jigland  and  the   the  opera- 
Nuriu,  deriving  their  existence  solely  from  the    mills  of  the  place    **^^^" 
and  the  waterfalls  which  drive  them.     The  occupants  of  these  villages  were 
criginally  people  '"rom  the  farms  in  the  adjacent  townships,  —  intelligent,  cheer- 
ful, and  excellent  \  eople.     At  the  present  time,  the  population  of  the  factory- 
^illages  is  more  largely  composed  of  people  of  foreign  birth.      During  and  just 
■liter  the  late  war,  when  skilled  operatives  were  so  scarce  as  almost  to  l)e  worth 


#Ht  , 


If 


5!  •  M 


f!'t',! 


*», 


I 


I.  \ 


426 


Mv;  d/.s'  y  A-Z/i  /,  ///s  y  (m-  k 


their. weight  in  gold,  manufacturers  who  put  up  new  mills  were  ol)lige(l  to  sen<l 
to  Canada  or  I'lurope,  and  bring  their  operatives  o\er  in  cargoes  or  train-load:^ ; 
and  thus  the  cluster  of  houses  erected  near  the  mill  became  almost  a  foreign 
village  from  its  origin,  in  every  tiling  except  lot:alion  and  ownership.  Tiir 
operatives  have  in  most  instances,  however,  taken  kindly  to  American  ways 
and  American  ideas,  and  joined  heartily  in  the  sentiments  and  principles  of 
the  country  of  tiieir  adoption.  'I'hey  are  stimulated  by  freedom  of  opinion 
and  equality  of  political  condition,  and  in  almost  every  instance  have  i)ercep- 
tibly  brightened  up  mentally,  and  improved  their  condition  materially,  uiidd 
the  shadow  of  the  new  banner  l)eneath  which  they  have  taken  u|)  their  resi- 
dence. The  villages  still  wear  the  contented,  orderly,  and  self-respecting 
appearance  of  yore. 


Hiil 


!l 


¥m 


OF    Till-:     I' XI 11: 1)    STATHS. 


427 


CHAFIER   VI. 

SILK-MANUFACTURE. 

SILK  is  the  softest,  most  beautiful,  and  strongest  of  all  textile  fibres.  While 
as  stout  as  steel,  it  is,  by  virtue  of  its  other  ([ualities  and  its  costliness, 
the  symbol  and  accompaniment  of  luxury.  It  was  first  used  by  Ancient  cui- 
thc  people  of  C!hina  and  Northern  India:  gradually  it  extended  tureo's'"'. 
into  Japan  and  I'ersia,  and  so  into  ICurope.  Tradition  carries  the  date  of  its 
liist  manufacture  back  twenty-five  hundred  years  before  the  time  of  Christ ; 
but  better  authenticated  history  lessens  the  distance  by  eight  centuries,  credit- 
ing Moang-ti,  contemporaneous  with  Joseph,  the  son  of  Jacob,  with  being  the 
first  silk-culturist  of  the  Chinese  l"'mpire.  As  the  word  "silk  "occurs  but 
t\vi<  e  in  the  Hible,  and  in  those  cases  is  thought  by  some  to  have  been  trans- 
lated wronglv,  it  is  verv  doubtfiil  whether  the  Jews  knew  what  the  substance 
was  ])ri()r  to  Christ's  time.  Aristotle,  who  lived  nearly  fiiur  hundred  years 
helbre  Christ,  says  that  those  who  accompanied  .Alexander  the  (Ireat  into 
India  saw  silk-worms.  whi(  h  he  describes  accurately  ;  yet  he  does  not  seem 
t(i  have  understood  how  they  i)roduced  silk,  or  even  that  they  did  jiroduce  it. 
\'ct,  even  before  Aristotle's  time,  there  had  been  a  heavy  importation  of  raw 
and  manufactured  silk  into  Greece,  by  way  of  Persia  ;  and  this  continued  in 
the  days  of  the  Roman  republic  and  cmi)ire.  I'Aen  Pliny,  the  Roman 
historian,  who  lived  at  the  commencement  of  the  Christian  era,  described 
silk  as  a  fine  woolly  substance  combed  from  the  leaves  of  trees.  Not  until 
A.n.  555.  when  two  Nestorian  monks  who  were  particulariy  gratcfiil  to  the 
Kniperor  Justinian,  and  who  had  tra\elled  in  China  at  the  peril  of  their  lives, 
brought  a  quantity  of  silk-worm  eggs  in  the  hollow  of  their  staves  to  Byzan- 
tinm.  was  it  known  in  Europe  that  the  highly-prized  fibre  was  excreted,  like 
llic  web  of  a  spider,  by  a  worm,  which  formed  therewith  a  cluysalis  like  a 
'■ater])illar's.  At  the  same  time,  the  monks  gave  the  Roman  emperor  a  fiill 
description  of  the  processes  of  silknilture.  and  imparted  the  fact  that  the 
principal  food  (jf  the  worms  is  the  leaf  of  the  mulberry-tree  ;  although  it  is 
known  that  these  insects  do  subsist  upon  other  kinds  of  foliage,  but  yield,  in 
(■onse(|ucnce.  an  inferior  quality  </  silk. 


m 


r^.^  w 


I.  i 


fr^ 


438 


/Ar>  {  \S  TNI  A  I.    HIS  I  OK  Y 


(Irailually  the  ciiltiirc  and  manufacturt'  of  silk  extended  lliroii^h  Asia 
Minor  and  luirope,  althoiigii  euntined  for  many  ecnturies  lo  liic  liy/antine 
Progreisof  I'lnipire.  The  products  of  Damascus  soon  became  lamous.  'i'lu' 
theindustry.  industry  attained  prominence  in  Nortliern  Italy  in  about  the  tiiir- 
teenth  century  of  the  Clirislian  era.  tiie  \elvets  of  (lenoa  havinj,'  a  world- 
wide reputation.  Silk  growing,  spiiming,  and  weaving  obtained  a  very  little 
foothold  in  I'" ranee  until  the  <  lose  of  the  sixteenth  century.  It  is  now  the 
greatest  silk-manufacturing  country  of  the  civili/ed  world,  its  produ<  ts  beiiij; 
choicer,  if  not  more  copious,  than  those-  of  China.  Japan,  and  India.  TIk'  raw 
silk  of  China,  however,  is  scarcely  surpassed  by  any  grown  in  lairope.  From 
France,  within  the  past  two  or  three  centuries,  silk-culture  has  extended  into 
I'lngland  and  (lermany  and  other  parts  of  Europe,  and  to  America. 


MI.KWdUM. 


Two  of  the  best-known  hobbies  of  James  Stuart,  the  first  of  that  S( ottish 
royal  famil\'  who  sat  on  the  Fnglish  throne,  were  his  intense  detestation  of 
Colonialslik-  tobacco,  and  his  desire  to  build  u])  the  infant  silk-manufactures  of 
culture.  Great  IJritain.     Accordingly,  no  sooner  was  the  first  colony  e>t;il)- 

lished  in  Virginia  than  he  employed  his  administration  to  promote  the  cul- 
ture of  silk  in  America,  and  uproot  that  of  the  Nicotian  weed.  lie  did  no* 
care  to  ilevelop  the  manufacturing-industry  on  this  side  of  the  Atlautii  .  bni 
merely  to  secure  a  supply  of  cocoons,  to  be  soaked,  reeled,  spim,  and  wmtii 
by  British  industry.  As  early  as  i6o<S  he  sent  over  nndberry-trees  ami  >ilk 
worm  eggs,  and  reciuired  of  the  London  Company,  which  managed  the  affiiis 
of  the  colony,  that  it  force  the  i)lanters  to  engage  in  this  new  enterprise.  A 
fine  of  a  hundred  pomids  of  tcjbacco  was  in  1623  exacted  of  everv  planter  who 
ilid  not  cultivate  at  least  ten  mulberry-trees  to  every  lumdred  acres  of  his 
estate.  Under  these  influences  some  headway  was  made,  lint  it  was  nitlur 
unprofitable  business,  and  not  to  be  compared  with  tobacco-raising  ;  am.,  ^vluii 
Cromwell  succee<led  James  II.,  the  interest  of  Virginians  in  silk-culture  relaxed 
even  more.  In  1656  and  1657  the  industry  was  in  a  feeble  condition,  and 
the  colonial  authorities  deemed  encouragement  desirable.  A  bounty  ot  ten 
thousand  poimds  of  tobacco  was  offered  any  one  who  would  export  two  hun- 
dred pounds'  worth  of  cocoons  in  a  single  year,  five  thousand  pounds  ot 
tobacco  to  the  producer  of  a  thousand  pounds  of  raw  silk,  and  four  thou- 
sand pounds  of  tobacco  to  any  i)lanter  who  would  remain  in  the  colony  and 


Oh   rnF.   rxiTF.D  staihs. 


429 


(lisoic  l>imsi-lf  exclusively  to  silk-growing.  It  dots  not  appear  that  anyone 
ever  took  advantage  of  these  proffers,  whit  h  were  withdrawn  in  1666;  and 
tlioiigii  the  industry  still  lingered  along  for  many  years,  —  and  it  is  even  said 
that  silk  was  sent  from  X'irginia  to  England,  from  which  Charles  I.  or  Charles 
II.  had  a  robe  made, — yet  hy  degrees  the  business  died  out.  Waistt oats. 
lKindker(  hiefs.  and  e\en  gowns,  of  native  silk,  were  known  in  the  colony  until 
near  die  time  of  the  Kevolution  ;  hut  they  were  rare,  and,  whatever  sentiment 
thire  may  have  Ween  <  linging  to  them,  of  inferior  ([uality.  'I'lu'v  were  fu//y 
ami  lustreless. 

(Juile  a  specialty  was  made  of  silk-culture  in  the  mu(  h  younger  colony  of 
(li'orgia.  In  1  7^52  the  (olonial  government  started  a  large  nursery  plantation 
of  miilherry-trccs,  and  granted  land  to  settlers  on  condition  that  a  hundred 
of  these  Jiould  lie  planted  to  every  ten  at  res  cleared,  'frees,  seed,  and  t'ggs 
were  sent  over  by  the  colonial  trustees  ;  and  in  othiT  ways  the  industry  was  fos- 
tered. The  liritish  Parlianunt.  in  17.1^.  exiinpted  raw  silk  from  Cu'orgia  and 
Carolina  from  duty,  and  a  bounty  was  offered  {ox  its  ]>rodu<  tion.  .\n  l'',pisco- 
jKil  clergyman  versed  in  the  delicate  and  tlifficult  operation  of  reeling  the  silk 
from  cocoons,  and  a  native  of  Piedmont,  Italy,  was  sent  over  to  teach  the 
|H()]i]e  of  this  colony  how  to  perform  it  ;  and  Signor  Ortolengi,  an  Italian 
gentleman,  was  likewise  engageil  in  1749  to  teach  the  deorgians  silk-culture. 
Suhsecjuently  the  London  Society  for  the  I'lncouragement  of  .Arts.  Manufac- 
tures, and  Commerce,  ofiered  a  premium  of  threepence  a  piece  on  coiooiis 
(or  about  three  shillings  a  pound)  for  all  that  were  taken  to  Ortolengi's 
'"filature"  at  Savannah.  As  early  as  1735  silk  was  exporti'(l  ;  the  amoiml  not 
exceeding  eight  pounds,  however.  In  1 759,  the  ( ulminating  yi'ar  of  the 
(leorgia  silk-industry,  ten  thousand  pounds  were  exported  ;  which  is  about  as 
much  as  was  produced  in  this  whole  country  in  nS^o  and  1.S60,  and  more  than 
two  and  a  half  times  as  much  as  the  protluct  of  1S70.  A  lire  in  the  Savannah 
filature  destroyed  eight  thousand  pounds  in  175.S.  'I'lie  production  and  expor- 
tation thereafter  de(  reased.  In  1 790  the  only  shipment  subseciucnt  to  the 
Revolution  was  made,  and  this  amounted  to  only  two  hundred  pounds.  For 
the  next  forty  years  very  little  silk  was  grown  in  that  State. 

Nearly  as  much  attention  was  given  to  this  industry  in  South  Carolina  as  in 
Ceorgia  in  that  early  day.  The  (]uantity  produced  was  much  less,  but  the 
•  luality  excellent.  —  ecjual  even  to  the  best  Italian  silk.  In  1755  a  distin- 
guished laily,  named  Mrs.  Pinckney.  took  with  her  from  this  colony  to  lOngland 
silk  which  she  had  manufactured  into  three  dresses,  one  of  which  was  pre- 
sented to  the  mother  of  the  infant  King  (leorge  III.,  and  another  to  Lord 
Cliesterfield  :  she  reserved  to  herself  the  third.  The  Carolinian  silk-business 
began  to  decline  simultaneously  with  the  Georgian ;  but  in  the  settlement  of 
New  I'ordeaux,  on  the  Savannah  River,  seventy  miles  above  Augusta,  much 
sewing-silk  was  manufactured  and  sold  in  the  neighboring  counties,  during  the 
Revolution,  bv  the  French  residents. 


430 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


The  fourth  colony  to  engage  in  silk-culture,  and  about  the  only  one  to 
any  notable  extent  in  New  England,  was  Connecticut.  Mulberry-trees  from 
Cultivation  Long  Island  were  planted  In  1755  at  New  Haven  and  Mansfield 
of  silk  in  (the  latter  then  in  Windham  County,  Init  now  of  Tolland  County), 
Connecticut,  ^^^j  silk-worm  eggs  were  introduced  in  1762.  The  following  year. 
Dr.  Stii-s,  afterwards  president  of  Yale  College,  secured  an  act  of  the  Assem- 
bly granting  a  bounty  of  ten  shillings  on  every  hundred  mulberry-trees 
planted,  and  of  threepence  i)er  ounce  on  raw  silk.  These  ])ounties  resulted 
in  developing  the  culture  of  the  trees  vciy  substantially,  and  the  offer  was 
withdrawn  some  years  later.  A  small  bounty  on  manufactures  of  home-raised 
raw  silk  was  then  granted.  In  i  763  a  half-ounce  of  mulberry-seed  was  sent 
to  every  town  in  the  colony  for  distribution.  Dr.  Stiles  was  a  great  enthusiast 
on  the  subject  of  silk-growing,  and  made  many  valuable  experiments  and 
observations  from  1763  to  1790,  which  he  recorded  in  a  huge  manuscripi 
diary,  bound  with  a  silken  cord,  and  still  preserved  at  Yale  College.  The 
domestic  culture  of  silk  became  (juite  general  in  the  colony  prior  to  the 
Revolution,  and  still  existed  in  some  sections  mtil  1825.  Small  groves  of 
white  mulberry-trees,  a  ul  rude  cocooneries,  cared  for  by  women,  are  remeni- 
bered  by  persons  v,'ven  now  living.  It  is  especially  notable,  however,  that  the 
town  of  Mansfiel.l  was  the  great  centre  of  silk-production  in  this  coloiiv : 
and  Mr.  .\.  T.  Lilly  even  goes  so  far  as  to  say  ;hat  "  Mansfield  seems  to  have 
been  the  only  place  where  raising  silk  became  a  l":xed  industry."  This  applies 
more  particularly,  however,  to  the  })eriod  l)etween  18 10  and  1844.  Mans- 
field, nevertheless,  deserves  the  credit  of  being  the  first  silk-manufacturing 
centre  of  this  country,  —  a  fact  to  which  we  shall  presently  recur.  Mr.  I.illv 
estimates  that  the  people  of  Mansfield  received  as  much  as  fifty  thousand 
dollars  a  year  in  barter  for  their  silk  from  1820  to  1830. 

Dr.  Aspinwall  of  New  Haven,  who  was  the  first  to  im]wrt  mulberry-trees 
and  silk-worms  into  Connecticut,  introduced  them  into  Pennsylvania  in  1767 
or  1768.  In  1770  Susanna  Wright  of  Columbia,  Lancaster  County,  made 
Pennsyi-  a  piece  of  mantua  sixty  yards  long  from  home-raised  cocoons ; 
vaniiv,  ^^,-^1  jj-^jy  (\q\\-^  was  afterwards  worn  as  a  court-dress  by  the  ()ueen 

of  (ireat  liritain.  A  piece  of  similar  goods,  made  by  Crace  Fisher,  was  sub- 
sequently presented  by  Cov.  Dickinson  to  the  celebrated  Catherine  Macanlay. 
A  filature  was  erected  in  Philadelphia  in  1 769,  and  twenty-three  hundred 
pounds  of  cocoons  were  brought  there  the  next  vear  to  be  reeled.  I  he 
filature  was  built  by  subscription  and  at  the  inspiration  of  the  .\ineri(  in 
Philosophical  Society,  which  was  aroused  by  Benjamin  Franklin,  then  tlu' 
colony's  agent  in  London. 

Toward  the  close  of  the  last  century,  and  in  the  early  part  of  this,  silk 
New  York       ^^nlture  was  undertaken  to  a  limited  extent   in   New  York,  New 
and  other        Jersey.  Delaware,   near  Jialtimore,   Maryland,  Illinois,  Massachu- 
states.  'n^w.'-,,  Vermont,  New  Hampshire,  and  Maine,  with  but  little  success 

in  the  three  States  last  named. 


I)e( 

ca 
w 


11 

nil 

for 

do 

Sll| 

th. 


ly  one  to 
•eos  from 
MansfiL'hl 
County), 
k'ing  year, 
le  Asscm- 
)erry-trct's 
s  resultL-(l 

offer  was 
)mc-raisc(l 
I  was  scnl 
enthusiast 
iients  and 
-nanuscript 
eye.  'l"hc 
"ior  to  the 

groves  ot 
re  renieni- 
:r,  that  the 
lis  colony  ; 
ns  to  have 
'his  ai)i)lics 
44.  Mans- 
nufacturiiig 
Mr.  l.illv 

V  thousand 

ilbcrry-trecs 
lia  in  1767 
unty,  made 
(1  cocoons  : 
,'  the  ()ueen 
er.  was  sul)- 
e  Macaulav. 
ee  hunihcd 
eeled  'I'he 
e  American 
in.  then  the 

of  this,  silk- 

York,  New 

,   ^hissacliu- 

little  success 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


431 


The    Revolution    nearly   annihilated    the   production    in   this   country  by 
cutting  off  the  export  trade.     ]5ut  private   domestic  manufacture   p,„ 
still  created  a  demand  ;  and  after  the  war  was  over  a  slight  re-    Revolution 
vival   and   expansion  were  experienced  in  the  production,  Ohio,   "P°"  ^^^ 
Kentucky,  and  Tennessee  also  engaging  therein.     However,  the 
ueneral   decline   which  had   been   discernible  before  the  war  now  continued 
slowly,  and  by  1825   silk-culture  had  almost  entirely  died  out  in  the  United 
States. 

.\  famous  period  in  this  industry  was  the  so-called  Morus  iiiultiaxulis 
mania.  The  favorite  variety  of  the  nuilberry-tree  among  luiropean  silk- 
growers  is  the  white,  or  Afonis  alba.  American  experimenters,  Morus 
liowever,  among  the  first  of  whom  was  (lideon  B.  Smith,  who  muiticauiis 
inii)orted  a  specimen  in  1826,  began  to  advocate  the  marvellous  '"""'*• 
merits  of  the  Morus  muiticauiis,  and  to  instigate  a  revival  of  silk-growing. 
C'learly  the  most  important  preliminary  step  in  this  direction  was  the  cultiva- 
tion of  mulberry-trees,  which  were  propagated  by  slips.  So  successful  were 
the  agitators,  that  the  agricultural  classes  of  nearly  the  whole  country,  espe- 
'ially  of  the  North,  were  excited  on  the  subject;  and  by  1834  or  1835  a 
denmnd  was  created  for  young  trees  or  slips,  which  soon  rose  in  value  from 
three  or  four  dollars  a  himdred  to  twenty-five,  fifty,  a  hundred,  two  hundred, 
and  even  fi^'e  hundred  dollars  per  hundred.  One  enthusiast  bought  a  dozen 
cuttings,  not  more  than  two  feet  long,  nor  thicker  than  a  pipe-stem,  for  twenty- 
five  dollars,  and  said  he  valued  them  at  sixty  dollars.  In  the  furore  that 
ensued,  nurserymen  and  unscrupulous  agents  even  went  so  tar  a?  to  sell  slips  of 
entirely  different  stock  for  mulberry,  and  at  fabulous  prices.  A  story  is  told 
of  a  Long-Island  nurseryman  who  resorted  to  a  bold  and  shrewd  artifice  to 
build  up  his  trade.  He  drove  to  New  York,  and  took  the  steame.-  to  New- 
port. He  drove  to  the  first  nursery  there,  and  asked  eagerly,  "  Have  you 
any  muiticauiis  trees?"  —  "A  few,"  was  the  reply.  "I  will  give  you  fifty 
cents   aj)iece   for  all   you   have,"  said   the  Long-Islander.     The  nurseryn^an 

thought  a  minute  :  "  If  Mr. is  willing  to  give  that  price  for  them,  it  is 

l)ecause  he  thinks  they  are  worth  more."  So  he  answered,  "  I  don't  think  I 
want  to  sell  what  few  I  have."  —  "  Very  well,"  was  the  reply:  "I  presume  I 
can  get  them  for  that."  (Xf  he  went,  and  visited  every  other  nurseryman 
wl'io  was  known  to  have  mulberry -trees  in  Newport,  Providence,  Boston, 
^\orcester,  Springfield,  Northampton,  and  elsewhere.  He  did  not  buy  a 
single  tree ;  but  he  forced  the  price  up  from  twenty-five  cents  to  over  a  dollar 
in  a  single  week,  and  thus  improved  his  own  market  wonderfiilly.  So  enor- 
mous were  his  sales,  that  the  utmost  art  could  not  propagate  trees  fast  enough 
I'll'  the  trade;  and  in  1838-39  he  sent  an  agent  with  eighty  thousand 
dollars  cash  in  hand  to  France  to  buy  young  trees  for  him.  J^ut,  before  the 
supply  could  be  had,  the  speculative  bubble  burst.  I'.xcitement  throughout 
the  ( ountry  became  over-strained  in  1839,  and  a  sudden  re-action  took  place. 


id 


':'i 


\ 

i 


!     I 

1*    * 


'ii' 
I 


432 


IND  US  TKfA  L    HIS  TOR  Y 


L».  I   !, 


If  ^ 


There  was  no  furtlier  demand  fc  r  the  multicaulis ;  and,  when  the  enterprising 
Long-Islander's  supply  c:anie  from  France,  he  was  obliged  to  sell  it  tor  peu- 
bnish  at  the  rate  of  a  dollar  a  hundred.  Numerous  other  speculators  were 
bankrupted  in  the  same  way. 

This  spirit  of  speculation  proved 
hurtful  to  those  seci'r-is  where  silk- 
growing  had  been  already  c;arried  on 
successfully ;  for  it  created  su(  h 
a  demand  for  the  trees,  that  raisers 
could  not  afford  to  feed  their  worms. 
A  single  tree  was  often  worlji  niorr 
than  the  whole  probable  ])r()(lu(l  of 
silk  that  ,-;eason  to  the  owner.  Mr. 
Lilly  mentions  two  trees  of  onlv  a 
single  year's  growth,  in  Xonh  W'md- 
Jiam,  Conn.,  that  sold  at  au(  lion,  in 
August,  1.S42,  for  a  hundred  and  six 
and  a  hundred  dollars  respe('ti\  civ  : 
and  the  rest  were  withdrawn  from 
sale  because  the  biddin.";  was  noi 
sufficiently  spirited.  The  iiiii//ii;ii//is 
mania  completely  checked  the  adiuil 
silk-production  for  a  time  ;  and  tlicr. 
in  1844  a  general  blight  killed  m<»l 
of  the  trees  in  the  countrv.  and 
very  effectually  put  an  end  to  the 
business. 

There  were,  however,  prior  to 
this  time,  a  {c\\  gentlemen  of  single- 
hearted  devotion  to  the  country's 
industrial  interests,  who  had  ac  live- 
ly engaged  in  and  encouraged  a  re- 
vival of  silk-culture.  Among  tln-sc 
was  the  Hon.  Peter  S.  I)u])onceau 
of  Philadelphia.  After  much  agita- 
tion of  the  sul)ject,  and  having  employed  a  Frenchman  named  D'Homeniiie. 
Duponceau  "''^^^  versed  both  in  producing  and  manufacturing  raw  silk,  lie 
of  Phiia-  ne;irly  obtained  an  ai)])ropriation  from  Congress  of  forty  thousand 
dollars  wherewith  to  found  a  normal  filature,  or  school  ft)r 
teaching  the  delicate  ami  difficult  art  of  reeling  silk.  Failing  in  this,  Ik 
founded  such  an  institution  at  private  expense,  built  cocooneries,  went  into 
the  business  to  considerable  extent,  carried  on  extensive  correspondence  with 
other  parts  of  the   country  on   the  subject,  and    did   much   to   disseminata' 


CUCOCINS     (.nMI'lJ-.TKI). 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


433 


valual)lc  information.  His  efforts  resulted  in  financial  failure  in  1837.  Mr. 
Duponceau  is  on  record  as  having  expressed  the  very  decided  opinion,  that 
we  Americans  should  keep  on  trying  to  make  silk-growing  a  success  before 
trying  to  manufLicture,  even  if  we  had  to  wait  twenty  years.  But  the  country 
has  not  followed  his  advice. 

Another  gentleman  distinguished  by  his  earnest  efforts  and  wide  influence 
in  this  realm  of  industry  was  the  late  Jonathan  H.  Cobb  of  Dedham,  Mass. 
Though  not  as  wealthy  as  Mr.  Duponceau,  he  was  nearly  as  Jonathan  H. 
iictive.  Interest  having  become  aroused  afresh  in  Massachusetts  ^°''''- 
in  1830,  the  legislature  authorized  the  governor  to  appoint  him  to  prepare  a 
manual  on  silk-growing  for  distribution  among  the  agricultural  classes.  He 
did  the  work  ably,  and  the  book  ran  through  many  editions.  He  engaged, 
too,  extensively  in  the  culture  himself,  and  in  lecturing  thereupon.  In  1835 
he  engagetl  in  an  enterprise  for  manufacturing  at  Dedham,  and  his  mill  turned 
out  two  hundred  pounds  of  sewing-silk  a  week.  He  also  co-operated  with 
<'hristopher  Colt  of  Hartford,  and  others  in  the  Connecticut  Silk  Company, 
Avhose  works  were  in  the  latter  city.  This  latter  failed  in  1840.  His  losses 
jiaralyzed  his  activity  a  while  :  but  in  1843  he  started  up  his  old  mill  at  Ded- 
ham, under  the  management  of  C,  Colt,  jun. ;  but  a  fire  destroyed  the  estab- 
lishment in  1845,  and  thereafter  Judge  Cobb  had  no  more  to  do  with  the 
business  with  which  he  had  been  more  or  less  identified  for  forty  years. 

For  more  than  quarter  of  a  century  after  the  bursting  of  the  viulticaulis 
bubble,  little  raw  silk  was  produced  in  the  United  States.  The  census-returns 
\Y\\.  down  the  yield  of  1850  at  a  trifle  over  10,000  pounds, —  Decline  in 
e(iuivalcnt  to  about  120,000  cocoons,  and  worth,  perhaps,  $40,000.  siik-cuiture. 
The  yield  of  i860  is  returned  at  about  11,000  pounds,  and  that  of  1S70  at  less 
than  4,000.  Within  a  few  years,  however,  there  has  been  something  of  a 
revival  in  the  production,  to  a  slight  extent  in  Louisiana,  but  very  conspicu- 
ously in  Southern  California. 

In  the  South  there  has  been  no  ability  manifested  to  reel  the  little  silk 
produced,  and  no  market  for  the  cocoons.  New  Orleans  abounds  in  mul- 
berry-trees planted  nearly  a  century  ago  by  the  French,  and  the  siik-industry 
trees  are  haunted  by  a  wild  insect  whose  cocoons  are  plentiful.  '"  ^"^^  South. 
I'roin  1S71  to  1S74  an  Italian  named  Roca  nipdc  a  business  of  rearing  silk- 
worms in  that  city,  and  ship])ing  eggs  and  cocoons  to  Italy.  l"'or  the  last- 
mentioned  year  his  invoices  amounted  to  ten  thousand  dollars,  and  his  silk 
was  adjudgctl  at  Milan  superior  to  any  produced  thereabouts.  Ilcsides,  three 
<'rops  of  cocoons  were  obtained  from  the  American  market,  and  but  two  from 
the  Italian.  It  is  thus  demonstrated,  that,  though  the  climate  there  is  a  trifle 
<lain]).  Louisiana  might  make  a  great  success  of  silk-culture. 

California  soon  developed  wonderful  agricultural  excellence  after  her 
annexation  to  llie  I'nited  States.  Louis  Prevost  of  Normandy,  France, 
Ijlanled  mulberry-trees  at  San  Jose  in  1856,  but  could  not  procure  silk-worm 


It 


H 


m 

im\ 

l«l 

'  lit  i 

;|B 

1 

434 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


I 


"     I 


California. 


Kansas. 


eggs  until  1861.  He  grows  three  kinds  of  mnlberries,  —  the  alha,  mtilti- 
caiiiis,  and  morclta,  but  gives  the  white  {alha)  the  i)reference, 
as  do  most  other  C'alilbrnians.  .A.  M.  Miiller  of  San  Jose  went 
into  l)usiness  with  M.  Prevost  in  1861.  Joseph  Neumann,  a  (lerman  sill;- 
weaver,  started  a  similar  enter|)rise  near  San  Francisco  in  1866;  and  Felix 
(lillet  did  the  same  soon  after  at  Nevada  City.  These  California  i)ioneers 
raised  little  silk  during  the  fu-st  decade  that  followed  Prcvost's  beginnings. 
That  little  they  sent  to  Europe  as  samples  to  make  a  market  for  their  eggs. 
In  1869  Neumann  raised  a  hundred  and  thirty  pounds  of  silk,  which  he  Ikk) 
made  up  into  two  national  flags,  and  i)resented  them  to  the  governments  ut 
the  State  of  California  antl  the  United  States.  For  the  last  ten  years  tlu' 
business  has  grown  very  rapidly.  Silk-mills  have  been  built  in  tlie  State,  ami 
are  supplied  entirely  with  raw  silk  of  domestic  production  ;  and  thousands  of 
dollars'  worth  of  eggs  are  annually  sent  to  Europe. 

The  only  other  jioiut  at  which  silk  is  produced  in  this  country  to  any 
notable  extent  is  Silkville,  Franklin  County,  Kan.,  where  E.  de  IJoissiere.  a 
French  gentleman  of  means,  has  founded  a  small  colony  which 
is  engaged  in  both  growing  and  manufacturing  silk.  In  1870  he 
planted  a  large  (juantity  of  mulberry-seed,  and  in  the  following  spring  set  out 
ten  thousand  young  trees  from  France.  His  experiments  with  French  eggs 
have  not  been  very  successful ;  but  he  is  doing  nicely  with  Japanese  impor- 
tations. 

Thus  far  we  have  recounted  at  considerable  length  the  history  of  silk- 
culture  :  we  now  propose  to  give  the  story  of  silk-manufacturing  in  this 
country. 

Prior  to  the  Revolution,  nearly  a'l  the  silk  grown  on  this  side  of  the 
Atlantic  was  exported.  From  1780  to  1825  most  of  our  product  was  worked 
Domestic  '^'P  ^^  home.  Reeling,  spinning,  and  even  weaving  silk,  came  to 
manufactu. ,',  be  a  household  pursuit,  like  hatchelling  and  spinning  flax,  or  card- 
°  ^'    ■  ing  and  spinning  wool,  though  by  no  means  so  common.     Still  it 

was  a  domestic  manufacture.  Usually  it  got  no  farther  than  the  form  of  sew- 
ing-silk ;  although  it  was  sometimes  woven  into  dress-goods,  which  compared 
with  our  modern  machine-made  silks  about  as  the  old-fashioned  "  homespun  " 
would  with  fine  broadcloth.  The  ])rocesses  were  verv  rude  and  defective  : 
esjiecially  so  was  the  reeling,  l^ut  the  spinning  and  weaving  were  generally 
performed  on  the  same  wheel  and  in  the  same  loom  used  for  wool,  and  the 
apparatus  was  poorly  atlai)ted  to  their  use.  It  might  be  here  remarked,  that. 
during  the  first  quarter  of  the  present  century,  F'astern  Connecticut  was  the 
princij)al  centre  of  even  this  rude  industry.  The  sewing-silk  and  raw  silk 
made  in  Tolland,  Windham,  and  New-London  Counties,  in  1810,  were  vahud 
at  $28,503  ;  while  the  fabrics  made  of  refuse  silk  mingled  with  wool  were  esti- 
mated at  half  as  much.  In  some  other  parts  of  the  country,  however,  the 
business  was  carried  on,  but  to  a  mucli  more  limited  extent. 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


435 


The  first  organized  efforts  at  silk-nianufacture  in  this  country  were  those 
of  the  brothers  Rochiey  and  Horatio  Hanks  of  Mansfield,  Conn. ;  the  latter 
of  whom,  prior  to  the  building  of  their  mill  in  iSio,  had  invented    ^.„ 

'  °  '  Silk-manu- 

a   double  wheel-heatl  which   greatly   facilitated    the    spinning   of  factureat 
cotton,  wool,  or  silk.      This  first  mill,  run  by  water-power,  was   ^^ansfieid, 

Conn. 

devoted  to  the  manufacture   ot   sewing-silk  by  machinery.     The 

edifice  measured  but  twelve  feet  each  way  ;  but  the  enterpiise  was  successful. 
In  1 8 14  the  two  brothers  associated  with  themselves  Harrison  Holland  and 
John  ("lilbert.  and  built  a  new  and  larger  rail!  ai  (jurleyville,  near  by.  This 
venture  was  a  virtual  failure.  In  1821  Rodney  Hanks  built  still  another  mill 
at  Mansfield,  and  associated  his  son  (leorge  with  him  in  the  business.  This 
mill  was  operated  until  1828,  when  the  improvement  of  machinery  by  others, 
and  die  ruinous  competition  that  ensued,  drove  the  Hankses  out  of  the  field. 
A\'e  shall  presenii)'  recur,  however,  to  the  progress  of  the  industry  in  this  his- 
toric town  of  Alansfield. 

The  second  jiioneer  in  silk-manufacturing  in  the  United  States  was  William 
H.  Horslmann,  who  came  from  Clermany  to  Philadelphia  in  1815.  He  estab- 
lished himself  in  die  business  of  making  all  sorts  of  trimmings,  wiUiam  H. 
into  the  composition  of  which  silk  partially  entered.  He  had  Horstmann. 
learned  the  art  of  silk-weaving  in  France,  imported  several  machines  for  his 
use,  and  in\ented  others.  His  products  were  dress-trimmings,  belt  and  other 
ril)l)ons,  plaited  and  l)raided  goods,  fringes,  sashes,  epaulets.  &c.  ;  and  his 
business  steadii_\  developed.  He  was  the  first  to  introduce  the  Jacquard  loom 
into  this  country,  which  he  did  in  1S24.  His  son,  William  J.  Horstmann, 
manufactured  power-looms  of  his  own  designing  in  1837-38,  simultaneously 
with  their  adoption  in  Switzerland.  He  succeeded  his  father,  on  the  latter's 
death  in  1S52.  The  elder  Horstmann's  fiither-in-law,  Hoeckley,  was  estab- 
lished in  Philadelphia  in  the  business  of  making  coach  lace,  fringe,  and  tassels. 
The  Horstmann  Sons  combined  all  these  dei)artments,  and  have  developed  the 
business  greatly,  continuing  it  to  the  present  day,  ha\ing  taken  premiums  at 
many  local  and  national  exhibitions. 

The  high  tariffs  of  1824  and  1828,  and  other  influences  which  stimulated 
manufiicturing  of  all  sorts,  induced  fiirther  effort  with  silk.  In  1829  a  ribbon- 
manufactory  was  started  in  Baltimore  ;  but  it  was  a  short-lived  affair. 

The  next  enterprise  was  in  Mansfield,  Conn.,  again.     This  started  as  early 
as  1827-28.  when  a  corporation  was  organized  called   "The  Mansfield  Silk 
Company."     The  partners  were  Alfred  Lilly,  Joseph  Conant,  Wil-   Mansfield 
liam  A.  Fisk.  William  Atwood,  Storrs  Hovey,  and  Jesse  Bingham.    Siik  Com- 
These  names  have  since  figured  very  prominently  in  connection   p*"^* 
with  !^ilk-manufacturing.     The  organization  was  formally  incorporated  by  the 
legislature  in  1829.     It  gave  attention  to  the  encouragement  of  production, 
but  aimed  especially  to  impro\e  tlie  ([uality  of  sewing-silk  by  improving  the 
processes    of    reeling    and    "throwing,'     or   doubling.       Its    first   successful 


III 


iMi 


:    a 


43^ 


IND  US  TKIA  L    HIS  TOR  Y 


machinery  was  designed  l)y  Edward  folding,  a  young  English  throwster. 
Their  r;cls  were  groatly  improved  a  year  or  two  later  (at  the  suggestion  of  a 
Mr.  IJrov/n,  an  English  silk-manufacturer  who  had  settled  in  JJoston),  and 
operated  by  water  power  instead  of  hand.  Their  business  now  developed,  and 
they  attained  cpiite  a  reputation.  American  sewing-silk,  though  not  yet  per- 
fect in  color  or  evenness,  came  largely  into  use.  The  company  offered  to  buy 
all  the  cocoons  offered  it :  it  went  even  farther,  and  undertook  silk-growing 
itself  on  a  large  scale.  Large  tracts  of  land  were  leased,  and  i)lanteil  with 
mulberry-trees;  and  the  legislature  was  iniluced  in  1S32  to  grant  bounties  on 
tree-raising  and  reeling.  They  then  made  another  venture  ;  namely,  an  at- 
tempt at  weaving  :  but  their  api)aratus  was  poorly  adapted  to  the  end.  A  third 
influence  operated  hurtfuUy  upon  the  enterprise.  Nathan  Rixford  of  Mans- 
field invented  improvements  in  winding,  iloubling,  and  spinning,  which  put  the 
Mansfield  Company's  machinery  behind  the  times,  just  a;  theirs  had  eclipsed 
that  of  the  original  Hankses.  In  1835  Mr.  Lilly  withdrt  w  from  the  concern; 
three  others  did  in  1839;  and  then  the  company  susj/cnded,  although  for  a 
time  it  let  its  mill  to  other  i)arties.  This  factory,  however,  deserves  the  credit 
of  being  the  first  in  this  country  where  silk-manufacture  was  successfully 
carried  on  to  any  extent. 

The  early  endeavors  of  the  Hanks  family,  and  the  operations  of  the  Horst- 
manns,  had  widely  advertised  the  possibilities  of  silk-manufacture  in  this  coun- 
try. The  iniijosition  of  a  protective  tariff,  the  efibrts  of  public-si)irited  men  to 
promote  silk-growing,  the  application  of  Yankee  ingenuity  to  the  improvement 
of  machinery,  the  marked  success  of  these  mechanical  endeavors,  and  the 
practical  achievements  of  the  Mansfield  Company,  awakened  wide  interest  in 
the  fabrication  of  the  silk  fibre,  and  drew  men  and  capital  into  such  enterprises, 
to  a  great  extent,  from  1830  to  1S39,  — a  period  the  reader  will  identify  with 
that  of  the  fiimous  multicaulis  mania.  The  critical  year  1839 
blasted  nearly  all  these  many  young  and  promising  enterprises,  and 
marked  a  dividing-line,  beyond  which  few  of  the  earlier  ones  i)assed  ;  althougn 
several  of  the  most  successful  manufactures  of  later  days  were  built  upon  the 
ruins  of  that  fatal  ])eriod,  r.nd  by  men  intimately  associated  tliercwith.  This 
will  the  more  clearly  appear  from  the  history  of  three  or  four  of  the  leading 
undertakings  of  that  day  and  this. 

In  the  village  of  Florence,  near  Northampton,  Mass.,  on  the  stream  unown 
as  Mill  River,  where  the  historic  bursting  of  a  dam  occurred  in  1S74,  there 
Northamp-  ^^'^^  erected,  over  a  humlred  years  ago,  what  was  long  known  as 
ton  Silk  die  "old  oil-mill."     .About  1830  Samuel  Whitinarsh  of  New  York, 

ompany.  ^^^^  ^_^^^  accumulated  twenty-five  thousand  dollars  in  the  tailoring- 
business,  went  to  Northampton,  bought  the  mansion  no\v'  owned  by  ICdward 
Lyman,  erected  two  hothouses  for  raising  mulberry-trees,  ar>d  in  1S32  caused 
the  old  oil-mill  to  be  put  in  order  for  silk-manufacturing.  Machinery  w;;; 
constructed  after  designs  by  Nathan  Rixford,  the  Mansfield  inventor.     Mr. 


1839. 


.now  II 
there 

)\vn  as 
^■ork, 

oring- 
(hvavd 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


437 


Whitmarsh,  by  his  enthusiasm  and  activity,  not  only  excited  the  neighborhood, 
but  secured  tlic  co-operation  of  several  gentlemen  from  Middletown,  Conn., 
in  his  enterprise,  among  them  Augustus  and  Samuel  Russell,  who  had  founded 
a  large  American  shipping-house  in  Cliina.  These  gentlemen  now  organized 
the  N'or.iiampton  Silk  ("ompany,  and  in  i<S34  built  a  new  l;irick  mill  in 
add'tion  to  the  old  oil-mill.  They  laid  out  large  mulberry-jjlantations,  and 
proceeiled  with  the  manufacture  of  watch-ribbons,  vestings,  and  other  goods. 
Henry  Clay,  Daniel  Webster,  and  (Jlher  public  men,  were  i)resented  with  heavy 
black-silk  vest-patterns  from  this  establishment.  Hut  t.Iie  supply  of  raw  silk  was 
small,  and  headway  slight.  In  1835  Mr.  Whitmarsh.  president  of  the  com- 
pany, went  to  I'rance  to  obtain  infoniuition  on  sil!:-culture.  The  result  of  his 
observations  was  published  in  a  valuable  book  in  1S39.  That  summer  he 
remarked  to  John  Ryle,  then  in  his  employ  as  a  weaver,  "  I  shall  make  this 
year  two  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  dollars  before  next  winter."  The  c(>]- 
lapse  of  the  inullicaitlis  bulible  ruined  the  company  ;  and,  when  winter  came, 
Mr.  Whitn.arsh  iiad  neither  cash  nor  credit  enough  to  buy  a  barrel  of  flour. 
The  company  eventually  paid  all  its  debts,  amounting  to  a  hundred  thousand 
dollars  ;  and  Air.  Whitmarsh  went  to  Jamaica,  where  he  made  fresh  ventures, 
that  were  but  partially  successful.  Shortly  before  his  death,  in  1875,  he 
seriously  contemplated  undertaking  new  ones  in  California. 

When  Mr.  Whitmarsh  left,  the  Northampton  Com])any  secured  the  services 
of  Capt.  Joseph  Conant,  who  had  l):en  associated  with  several  Mansfield 
enterprises  since  1827;  but,  when  bankruptcy  ensued  in  1840.1110  company 
sold  out.  Capt.  Conant,  S.  L.  Hill,  Ceorge  W.  IJenson,  and  William  Adams, 
were  the  ])urchasers.  The  new  cor[)oration  took  the  l'"!orcncc  propcrt\',  and 
organized  a  "community"  of  interest  and  participation  in  work.  This  proved 
a  failure;  and  in  1844  the  pro])erty  again  changed  hands,  and  Mr  Hill,  who 
had  secured  the  partnership  of  a  Northampton  capitalist,  S.  L.  Hinckley, 
obtained  control.  Tiie  establishment  was  now  denominated  the  "  Nonotuck 
Steam- Mill,"  and  hrs  done  a  prosperous  business  in  sewing-silk  and  twist  ever 
since.  Their  "  Corticelli  "  brand  is  widely  famous.  Conant  built 
tlie  Conant  Mill  .:.  Conantville,  Conn.,  in  1852;  and  he  and  his 
family  were  instrumental  in  founding  several  ether  enterprises.  New  and 
successful  ventures  have  since  been  made  at  Florence,  Northampton,  and 
Ilolyoke,  Mass.  This  brief  narration  gi\es  one  an  idea  of  the  vicissitudes 
tliat  have  attended  the  progress  of  the  silk-industry  in  this  country. 

Another  similar  story  is  tha.  of  the  Connecticut  Silk-Manufitcturing  Compa- 
ny, incorporated  at  Hartford  in  1835,  which  received  a  bonus  of  about  eleven 
thousand  dollars  net  from  a  bank  charter.  It  was  managed  by  Christoj^her 
Colt  and  J.  H.  Hayden.  It  colla];)sed  in  i8j8,  cU'ter  sinking  its  entire  caj)ital. 
iiie  latter  gentleman  then  went  into  ])artnershir  with  Mr.  Haskell,  who 
furnished  the  capital ;  and  they  established,  under  tlic  firm-name  of  J.  H. 
Hayden  &  Company,  a  silk-mill  at  Windsor  Locks,  near  Hartford,  which  con- 
tinues prosperous  to  this  day. 


Conantville. 


'      ■     I    I'L 


i 


if 


i' 


>m 


■I!' 


438 


/JV£>  crs  TRIA  L    II IS  TOR  Y 


One  of  the  most  successful  undertakings  in  this  department  of  inchi-.try  is 
that   of  the   Cheney  IJrotiiers  of  South    Manchester,  Conn.     'I'iie   fami       was 
one  of   brigiit,   industrious,   enterprising   farmer-hoys.      Se'     and 
Joiin    became  artists,  and    left    Ikmuc  ;    .lO    did    two  ot'^eii.   who 

Ml  of  thr 


luul 


Cheney 
Brothers, 

South  Man-     engaged  in  mercantile  ijursuits  in  Providence 

Chester.  °   ° 

been  more  less  familiar  with  the  culture  of  mull)erry-trcL'j  uing 
their  boyhood  ,  and  in  January,  1.S3S,  \Vard,  Rush,  Frank  .'nd  Raljjli  started 
tl  Mor:  '^eb  Silk-Mi!!s  in  their  nati\ c  town,  where  for  four  or  five  years 
p-,i-.i  ilr:  V  Mad  bien  raising  silk-worn^s  and  i)roducing  some  silk.  The  mills 
s  iQi;  '>':-f.!  for  a  brief  period,  during  which  Ward,  Rush,  and  Frank  went 
to  Bui:  igton,  ">'  T.,  to  engage  in  the  nursery  and  cocoonery  business.  They 
also  published  a  Magazine,  called  "The  Silk-Crower's  Manual,"  from  July, 
1838,  to  July,  1840.  Other  members  of  the  family  cultivated  mulberry-trees 
in  Florida,  Ceorgia,  and  Ohio.  The  imilticaulis  collapse  hurt  them  financially; 
and  so  the  brothers  went  back  to  South  Manchester  in  1841,  and  rc-opeued 
the  mill.  Putting  in  new  machinery,  they  began  with  the  manufa(  ture  of 
.sewing-silk,  gradually  extending  their  business  to  ribbons  and  handkerchiefs. 
T'hey  used  imported  raw  silk  almost  exclusively,  as  the  American  silk  was  too 
poorly  reeled  to  be  serviceable,  and  too  scanty  in  supply.  Soon  ...1  attempt 
was  made  to  manufacture  broad  goods,  ox  dress-goods  ;  their  first  experiments 
being  made  with  pierced  cocoons,  floss,  silk-waste,  and  such  material  as  could 
not  be  reeled.  This  was  carded  and  spun,  and  used  for  filling,  by  machinery 
made  expressly  for  the  purpose.  The  product  was  a  substantial  but  lustreless 
goods,  which  found  a  good  market.  Five  years  of  patient  ingenuity  and 
perseverance  were  needed  to  perfect  this  apparatus  and  insure  success.  This 
spun  silk  was  woven  into  pongees  and  handkerchiefs  at  first,  au'I  then  into 
foulards,  ribbons,  and  broad  goods.  In  1S54  a  new  mill  was  built  at  Hartford, 
and  put  in  charge  of  Charles  Cheney,  who  had  come   home  from  Ohio  in 

1847. 

Until  the  breaking-out  of  the  late  civil  war,  and  the  imposition  of  the 
heavy  tariff  of  1861  upon  foreign  silk-goods,  the  Cheney  TJrothers  could  not 
compete  successfully  with  imported  articles.  The  acts  oi"  iS^r 
and  1846  ha<l  left  the  silk-industry  in  this  country  with  too  little 
protection.  But,  with  the  re-imposition  of  a  stiff  tariff,  the  business  rapidly 
grew;  and  the  Cheney  silks  have  now  acciuired  a  wide  and  enviable  reputation. 
The  Cheneys  have  been  public-spirited  and  philanthropic  employers.  Not 
only  do  they  pay  their  help  w-ell,  but  they  have  beautified  the  village-honios 
of  their  operatives,  provided  commodious  boarding-houses,  erected  and  fur- 
nished a  fine  public  hall,  a  reading-room,  and  library,  and  contributed  largely 
to  the  erection  of  church,  school,  and  armory.  Meantime  they  have  pros- 
pered in  business,  and  acquired  wide  reputation  and  influence  in  their  state 
and  nation. 

The    largest   silk-manufacturing   centre  in   the   country  is    Paterson,  ^.]. 


Tariff. 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


441 


Hither,  in  i83lve  years  Ryle  was  without  local  competition.  In  1851-52 
innnufacturing  merly  a  cotton-manufacturer,  started  a  small  s'"  -mill  ;n 
inventor  and  m>  years  later,  Hamil  <S:  Booth  began  business  ■v..  twenty 
Christoplier  hadidually  developed  their  business  (tiieir  establi  •  lu  jnt,  the 
in  Hartlbv'.  with,  conlining  itself  for  fifteen  years  si'Viply  to  ' vrowing" 
ing  ruin  there,  'ther  small  factories  were  started,  some  of  which  were  the 
a  pistol-fiictory.  at  enterprises. 

tiie  younger  Qetched  the  foundations  of  the  silk-industry,  wc  i)ausc  to 
scale ;  but  in  the  causes  that  gave  it  tlevelopment,  and  hastily  to  outline 
Ryle.  IS. 

Ryle  was  a  hat  stimulated   manuflicture   from    iSio   to    JS40  was   the 
manufacturing,  material  in  tliis  country ;   but  since  the  last-named  tlate  we 
a  short  time  he  nt  chiefly  upon  the  f      •"'n  supply.     Another 
aiiiiJton,  and  latercntion    of  machines    b      \'nericans.      The   ...tT.ftTf^,, 

1  '  why  manu- 

niechanical  defectsl   rude    machiner-    vvitli       leir   water-power,   facture  has 
proved.     He  posses;cd  many  usefii'    levicf'S,  tne  most  valuable   succeeded  m 

'  '  •'  '  this  country. 

During  his  visit  to  N  reeling  silk.  "' 'jre  the  processes  of 
and  subsecjuently  met  lyeing,  -ire  performed,  the  fibre  from  half  a  dozen 
upon  Murray's  mind  bincd  in  a  '■'  .bread.  As  some  cocoons  contain 
1840,  one  could  most  /s  thirteen  hundred  feet  of  filament,  and  as  this  is 
advance  thirty-two  hund.work  of  combining  parallel  fibres,  and  attaciiing 
jun.  Murray  put  Ryle  in  ind  perfectly,  is  a  very  difficult  one.  Pixford's 
ship.  In  1846  Ryle  receivt.dvancc  on  our  old  ones,  and  were  '"ventions. 
to  purchase  the  full  owntdircad,  for  use  and  imitation  by  the  natives  who 
business  so  as  to  include  the  raw  material  after  1840  ;  and,  though  it  was 
set  a  few  looms  at  work,  anduction,  they  finally  came  into  wide  use,  and 
yards  in  length.  In  1S47  the>.  Mention  has  been  made  already  of 
to  France  to  visit  the  prin'.ipal  sver-loom  to  silk-weaving  at  Philadelphia  in 
of  his  work  at  this  period  was  the-»paratus  for  carding  and  s[)inning  silk  for 
Palace  Exhibition  in  New  York  in's  latter  was  an  important  advance  in 
creased,  i)rospercd,  and  excited  liv*.  Ralph  Cheney,  in  1S38,  a  friction- 
employing  four  hundred  or  five  huncnat  value  and  extendeil  use.  Mr. 
thousand  pounds  of  raw  silk  a  week,  —  of  silk  at  Middletown.  Conn.,  in 
America.  ''n  silk.     L.  1).  IJrown,  formerly 

This  is  the  foundation  of  the  Paterson  ;  Middletown,  invented  valua- 
was  but  a  villaire  of  seven  thousand  inhabitanthKo  that  the  thread  was  cut 
and  flourishing  city.  Then  John  Ryle  was  a  poor^cars  past  the  Danforth 
scarcely  a  friend  ;  he  has  since  won  a  national  rtcn  making  a  machine 
1852  he  bought  a  '  rge  piece  of  property  near  Passaic  ud  valuable  than  is 
it  by  the  arts  of  landscape-gardening  and  architecture,  and  &  Holland  of 
peojjle  of  the  town  as  a  free  puljlic  j^ark.  Shortly  afterward  -..Minesses  in 
mayor  of  Paterson.  In  1854  he  built  the  Murray  Mill,  then  one  o. 
and  best-e(]uipped  establishments  in  the  country.  ict  of 


Mil 


irli 


^JiAt^ 


mi 


mm 


438 


INDUSTRIAL    insrOKY 


Tariff. 


One  of  the  most  surressful  uiitlcrtakini^'s  in  tliis  department; 
that   of  the   Clieney   I'.iulhers  of  South    Maiidiester,  Conn.     Tit 
one  of   l)ri,L;ht,   inihistrioiis,   enterprising   f'"nicr-lKi5n 


Cheney 

Brothers,        John    became   artists,  and    lell    home  ;    so    ilid    tv 

South  Man-     ^jniram-d  in  mercantile  i^ursiiils  in  i'rovidence.     \\ 

Chester.  °   "  ^  ■  ,      ,  -  1, 

been  more  less  fiiniiliar  witii  tlie  culture  ot  mulber.  ;.i^|^    »u    ;x^>. 
tiieir  boyhood  ;  and  in  January,  I'SjS,  Ward,  Rush,  Frank,  andTIp^"   ' ''V|''^^X 
the  Mount-Nebo  Silk-Mills  in  their  native  town,  where  for  foij\':iF''^' '*'*'''  ^' 
])ast  they  hail  been  raising  silk-woriMs  and  producing  some  si*?: 
soon  closed  for  a  brief  period,  during   which   Ward,  Rush,  anl- 
to  liurlington,  N.J.,  to  engage  in  the  nursery  and  cocoonery  bjf? 
also  published   a  magazine,  called  "The  Silk-(lrower's   Man 
1838,  to  July,  1840.     (Jther  members  of  tiie  family  cullivale 
in  Florida,  (leorgia,  and  Ohio.    'I'he  iiiiilticai(lis  collai)se  hur 
and  so  the  brothers  went  back  to  South   Manchester  in    i 
the  mill.     Putting  in  new  maciiinery,  they  began  with  • 
sewing-silk,  gradually  extending  their  business  to  ribbon 
They  nsed  imported  raw  silk  almost  exclusively,  as  the  /| 
poorly  reeled  to  be  serviceable,  and  too  scanty  in  sup 
was  made  to  manufacture  broad  goods,  or  dress-good: 
being  made  with  pierced  cocoons,  floss,  silk-waste,  ar 
not  be  reeled.     This  was  carded  and  spun,  and  us 
made  expressly  for  the  purpose.     The  pnjduct  was 
goods,   which  fonnd  a  good  market.     Five   year 
perseverance  were  needed  to  perfect  this  apparati 
spun  silk  was  woven  into  pongees  and  handke" 
foulards,  ribbons,  and  broad  goods.     In  1S54 
and  put  in   charge  of  Charles 

1847. 

Until   the  breaking-ont  o 
heavy  tariff  of  1861  upon  for 

compete  successfully 
and  1846  had  left 
protection.     But,  with  the  re 
grew  ;  and  the  Cheney  silks  h; 
The  Cheneys  have  been  pi 
only  do  they  pay  their  h 
of  their  operatives,  pro* 
nished  a  fine  pubhc  'jjij 
to  the  erection 
pered  in  bn' 
and  natir>,,iilii!iii 

T'     "" 


/I    - 


V. 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


441 


For  nearly  twelve  years  Rylc  was  without  local  competition.  In  1851-52 
Joiiu  Hcnson,  formerly  a  ('otton-manutacturcr,  started  a  small  silk-mill  in 
I'aterson.  Three  years  later,  Hamil  iS:  Uooth  bei^'an  business  with  twenty 
operatives,  and  gradually  developed  their  business  (their  establishment,  the 
I'assaic  Silk-Works,  confminj,'  itself  for  fifteen  years  simply  to  '•throwing" 
silk)  ;  and  soon  other  small  factories  were  started,  some  of  which  were  the 
foundations  of  great  enterprises. 

Having  thus  sketched  the  foundations  of  the  silk-industry,  we  ])ause  to 
consider  some  of  the  causes  that  gave  it  development,  and  hastily  to  outline 
its  fuller  dimensions. 

One  agency  that  stimulated  manuflxcture  from  iSio  to  1S40  was  the 
culture  of  the  raw  material  in  tins  country;  l)ut  since  the  last-named  date  we 
have  been  dependent  chiefly  upon  the  foreign  supply.  Another 
agency   was   the    invention    of   maciiinery   by   Americans.      The 


Reasons 
why  manu- 


Hauks    brothers    used   rude    machinery  with    their   water-power,    (acture  hs 
Nathan   Rixford  invented  many  useful  devices,  the  most  valuable   ""cceeded  in 

■'  this  country. 

of  which  was  Uir.t  for  reeling  silk.  IJefore  the  processes  of 
doubling,  spinning,  or  dyeing,  arc  performed,  the  fibre  from  half  a  dozen 
cocoons  needs  to  be  combined  in  a  single  thread.  As  some  cocoons  contain 
but  three  hundred  and  others  thirteen  hundred  feet  of  filament,  and  as  this  is 
of  spider-web  delicacy,  the  work  of  combining  parallel  libres,  and  attaching 
the  successive  ones  smoothly  and  perfectly,  is  a  very  difficuli  one.  Rixford's 
Rixford's  reels  were  a  great  advance  on  our  old  ones,  and  were  inventions. 
sent  to  China,  with  samples  of  thread,  for  use  and  imitation  by  the  nati\es  who 
supplied  our  manufacturers  with  raw  material  after  1S40;  and,  though  it  was 
hard  v»-ork  to  secure  their  introductii^n.  they  finally  came  into  wide  use,  and 
facilitated  American  manufacture.  Mention  has  been  made  already  of 
Horstmann's  application  of  the  power-loom  to  silk-weaving  at  Philadelphia  in 
i.Sjjj,  and  to  the  Cheney  Brothers'  aj)paratus  lor  carding  and  spimiing  silk  for 
filling  which  could  not  be  reeled.  This  latter  was  an  important  advance  in 
the  business.  Rixford  also  invented  for  Ralph  Cheney,  in  iSjjS,  a  friction- 
roller  for  use  in  spinning,  which  was  of  great  value  and  extended  use.  Mr. 
M.  lleininway,  who  began  the  manufacture  of  silk  at  Middletown.  Conn.,  in 
1.S49,  was  the  first  to  substitute  s])ool  for  skein  silk.  L.  1).  Urown,  formerly 
of  (iurleyville,  but  afterwards  of  Conantville  and  Middletown,  invented  valua- 
ble a[)paratus  for  spooling  silk  and  weighing  it ;  so  that  the  thread  was  cut 
when  the  spool  contained  an  ounce.  For  many  years  past  the  Danforth 
Locomotive  and  Machine  Company  of  Paterson  has  been  making  a  machine 
for '•  throwing "  or  spinning  silk,  which  is  more  useful  and  valuable  than  is 
manuflictured  anywhere  else  in  the  world.  Messrs.  Atwood  c^'  Holland  of 
Willimantic  use  a  stretching-machine,  which  reduces  the  une\('nnesses  in 
knotty  Chinese  silk  to  the  smoothness  of  the  finest  Italian  product. 

The  enthusiasm,  far-sightedness,  persevering  energy,  and  business-tact  of 


u 


!', 


r! 


h 


I 


I! 


K  iciti 


44^ 


INDUSTKIAI.    IJLsrORV 


W 


tlK'  pioneers  in  the  silk-business,  in  the  face  of  faihire.  ridicule,  and  many  otluT 
adversities,  have  done  every  thinj,'  to  establish  the  industry,  and  win  others 
tiuTeto.  Dr.  liciijamin  Franklin,  Dr.  Stiles  of  New  Haven,  Dr.  .AspiMw.ill  of 
that  city,  Mr.  Duponceau  of  I'luladilpliia.  judge  Cobb  of  Dedhani,  Rodiify 
and  Horatio  Hanks,  the  Atwoods  and  ( onants,  the  l-illys  and  others  of  Maus- 
field,  Samuel  Whitniarsh,  (Christopher  Colt.  |.  H.  Hayden,  and  John  Kyle,  are 
among  the  individuals  to  whom  the  success  of  silk-mamifacture  in  Amerii  a  is 
i'hiefly  due.  .Association  for  the  exchange  of  information  and  ideas,  and  lor 
co-operation  in  promoting  the  common  interest,  has  proved  helpful  in  this  a-. 
in  other  industries.  I'aterson  had  a  local  organization  of  this  sort  in  bS^S. 
re-organized  in  iS;.'  ;  and  in  the  last-named  year  a  national  organization  was 
effected,  which  has  since  had  an  annual  meeting  every  spring.  'l"he  proiec  tivc 
tariffs  which  were  enacted  shortly  after  the  war  of  1812-15  did  something  to 
encourage  manufacturing;  but  they  were  nearly  all  removed  in  1831.  'IIil' 
threats  of  civil  war  in  1.S59  depressed  the  business  considerably;  but  tin.' 
imposition  of  the  tariff  of  186 1  gave  fresh  encouragement  by  checking  the 
importation  of  foreign  goods.  Within  the  past  three  or  four  years  the  law  lias 
been  so  evaded,  that  large  (piantities  of  dress-goods  have  been  put  on  thr 
market  in  New  York  which  had  escaped  payment  (jf  the  duty  ;  and  no  lillle 
embarrassment  has  ensued. 

By  1830  there  had  been  only  three  or  four  short-lived  ventures  in  Mans- 
field, Conn.,  one  in  Baltimore,  an<l  (jne  successful  one  in  I'hiladeljjhia.  'i'liis  laiter 
Progress  and  the  Mansfield  Company's  were  the  only  ones  in  operation  in 
until  1830.  that  year.  During  the  next  decade,  besides  the  Hartford,  Wind- 
sor-Locks, Nortiiam])ton,  Morence,  and  I'aterson  undertakings,  there  wen.- 
jjerhaps  a  dozen  others  started  ;  among  them  the  Atlantii:  Silk  Company  of 
Nantucket,  the  I'oughkeepsie  Silk  Company,  Mr.  Col)b's  silk-mill  at  Dedhaui, 
the  .Nforodendron  Silk  Company  of  Philailelphia,  ano  two  or  three  organizations 
at  Mansfield.  These  ami  a  icw  others  failed  altogether,  or  changed  hands, 
about  1840.  (3ne  of  the  succ^'ssful  enterprises  was  that  of  1>.  J>,  Tilt  of  boston, 
who  began  making  silk  trimmings  tor  dresses  in  1834,  and,  after  doing  a  good 
business  many  years,  went  to  Paterson  in  1862,  where  he  organizeil  the 
Phuinix  Silk  Manufocturing  Company. 

From  184010  1861,  besides  the  three  or  four  surviving  organizations  and  the 

three  or  four  more  built  upon  the  ruins  of  old  ones  already  named,  there  were 

upwards  of  a  hundred  new  enterprises  undertaken  in  lloston,  the 
184010 1861.        '  ' 

Connecticut  Valley,  various  small  villages  of  ICastern  Connectimt, 

New-York  City,  Paterson,  and   I'liilatlelphia.     IShiny  of  these  were  small,  and 

for  the  manufacture  of  only  sewing-silk  and  twist.     Several,  especially  iii  the 

cities,  made    dress,   coach,    upholsterers',  and  undertakers'    trimmings.     'Die 

Cheneys  and  Ryle  were  almost  the  only  ones  that  made  broad  goods. 

Since  1861  there  have  been  a  large  number  of  new  establishments  started  : 

but  a  larger  number  of  old  ones   have  suspended.     In  i860  there  were  139 


f!  i 


01     77/ K    UNITED    STATES, 


443 


i86i  to  1870, 


n'tiinK'(l  in  the  ci-nsiis,  i-in|»lt)yin{j  5,435  Iiniids  and  52,926, ().So  capital,  witli 
an  aj^j^rc^'atc  production  of  56,607,71 1.  In  1H70  tlicrL- wen- Init 
ci^'iity-ninc  rctiirni'd  (principally  in  ('onnc(  ticiit,  New  N'ork,  and 
New  Jersey),  enipioyin^^  6,(^)49  hands  and  56,231,130  ( apital,  witii  a  total 
l)io(hictiun  of  512,210,662.  It  was  (hiring  this  era  that  some  of  the  men 
iKiw  most  prominent  in  the  hiisiness  —  the  Dales,  the  lieldens,  and  odicrs  — 
i^labiished  themselves. 

Since  1870  tile  inchistry  has  develoi)ed  still  farther.  Onr  total  production 
has  increased  to  upwards  of  525,000,000  a  year.  I'Vom  1X50  to  1X60  our 
imports  of  silk-goods  averaged  527,000.000  a  year,  and  in  1S60  proKre»» 
anunmted  to  534.330,321.  During  the  next  decade,  owing  to  the  "'"ce  1870. 
high  tariff,  they  averaged  but  517,500,000  a  year;  but  in  1S71  they  rose  to 
533,899,710.  Since  then  they  have  steadily  fallen  of!'.  In  1.S75  they  aggre- 
gated but  523,168,1  I S,  and  in  1877  about  521,000.000.  Thus  it  will  be  seen 
that  we  arc  gradually  driving  the  foreign  product  from  our  markets.  More 
than  that,  wc  are  now  exporting  nearly  5ioo,ooo  worth  cjf  sewing-silk  a 
year.  ( )ur  products  have  taken  many  premiums,  and  received  high  en- 
comiums from  the  juries  of  fairs,  —  local,  state,  national,  and  internationiil. — ■ 
within  the  past  {<i\\'  \ears ;  and,  except  in  the  (piality  of  a  i^iw  dress-silks  and 
iclvets,  tiiey  ecpial  any  thing  produced  in  other  (piarters  of  the  globe. 


^It 


■r'"'5g 


m 


'-'■^  ili 


Il     i 


,11' 


444 


INDUSTRIAL    IIISTORY 


CHAPTER   VII. 

SHOE    AXD    LEATHER    MANUFACTURES. 

WHEN  one  realizes  that  more  persons  are  employed  in  the  United  Stntes 
in  preparing  and  manufacluring  leather  than  are  engaged  in  making' 
cotton,  linen,  anil  woollen  goods,  and  that  the  total  value  of  the  former  prod- 
Magnitudeof  ucts  cxceeds  the  latter,  he  appreciates  more  fully  than  before  the 
the  industry,  importance  of  this  class  of  industries.  The  census-returns  of  i,S;o 
set  down  the  number  of  persons  engageil  in  tanning,  dressing  skins,  and  mak- 
ing boots  and  shoes,  saddles  and 
harnesses,  trunks,  valises,  sat(  heis, 
pocketd)ooks,  gloves,  belting,  \\\\A 
hose,  at  over  202,000.  To  these 
should  be  added  at  least  30,001) 
cobblers  and  small  shoemakers,  wiio 
are  excluded  from  the  abo\-e  figures  ; 
and  an  allowance  should  be  made 
also  for  those  who  use  leather  in 
l)uokd)inding,  carriage-biiilihiiv.  ;r,iil 
making  "cards"  for  textile  libres. 
The  total  value  of  the  direct  lealher- 
producls  above  enumerated  \\as 
S,3.S6.ooo.ooo  ;  and  $64,000,000 
would  not  be  an  extravagant  I'sti- 
mate  of  the  \alue  of  the  leather 
element  in  the  goods  of  whi(  h  it 
forms  but  a  part.  The  same  census- 
returns  put  down  the  number  oi 
operatives  engaged  in  cottcjti,  liiuii, 
silk,    and    woollen    manuficlure,   at 


ni-:ATlNC.-()l'T   MACIMNE. 


about    2^0,000,   and 


tirodui  t- 


at  $V)o, 000,000.      Since   that    tiim' 
the  leather- industry  has,   if  any  thing,  gained  the  advantage  over  those  with 


1    .li! 


!1  .,!  ill 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


445 


which  we  here  make  comparison.  It  is  safe  to  say,  that,  in  point  of  vahie, 
it  copstitiites  over  one-tenth  of  the  wiioie  nianufacltiring-industry  of  the 
<  ountry,  and,  in  employment,  surpasses  tlie  comltined  manufacture  of  textile 
Cabncs. 

Unless  we  except  the  primitive  fig-leaf,  the   skins  of  wild  and   domestic 
auinials  may  be  said  to   have   constituted    the   earliest  clothing   of  mankind. 
The  spinning  and  weaving  of  flax  and  wool  was  of  later  date  than    skins  the 
the  first  use  of  skins.     Egyptian  i)ictorial  inscri|)tions  of  an  age   earliest  kind 
anterior  to  the  Jewisli  captivity  show  the  familiarity  of  the  ilenizens   °  "^  °*  '"^" 
of  the  Nile  country  with  tanning  and  the  uses  of  leather.     The  art  of  making 
"  ranis' skins  dyed  red,"  with  which  the   mosaic  tahernacle  was  covered,  was 
<loul)tless   learned   in    lOgypt.     It    is   an   interesting   fact,  that  bronze  leather- 
.slicers,   similar  to  those  of  the   ancient   lOgyptians,   have   been  found  ir  old 
Mexican  sepulchres,  indicating  that  the  arts  oi  making  and  using  leather  were 
understood  by  the  founders  of  the  early  civilization  of  that  country. 

The  aborigines  of  the  United  States  whom  the  Europeans  found  here, 
doubtless  of  a  later  stock  than  the  ancient  '1  oltecs  and  Aztecs,  understood  the 
art  of  dressing  the  skins  of  buffalo,  elk,  deer,  moose,  and  other    ....    , 

°  )  .  1  »  Aboriginal 

wild  animals.     They  emjjloyed    smoke    in  their  curing-processes,   mode  of 
but  evidently   lid  not  understand  the  properties  of  oak  and  hem-    ^"""smR 
lock  bark.     The   moccasons,  le'-jings,   and  hunting-shirts  of  the 
Indians  were  generally  well  curried,   and   sometimes  well  dyed  ;    and   these, 
as  well  as  their  robes,  were  often  adorned  with  ])ictorial  and  symbolical  de- 
.signs  of  considerable  intricacy,  if  not  beauty. 

before  the   early  settlers  could   do  any  thing  of  consetiuence  in  the  way 
of  making  leather,   it  was  necessaiy  tiiat   their  stock  of   imported   domestic 
catllc  should  increase  ;    which  it  did  rapidly.     .Accordingly,  as  early  as  1620, 
a  li.,t  eninnerating  the  kinds  of  tradesmen   needed  in  die  colony  of  Virginia 
contained    tanners,  leather-dressers,  and    shoemakers.      We   hear 
little   of  a<:tual    shoemaking,   however,  before    1649,  when   Capt.   ^j  industry 
Matthews,   an   old  settler,  received  legislative  commendation   for   among  the 
the   \arious    industries   he    had    inaugurated.     Among    his   other   '^^'^'.^ 

=*  "  settlers. 

a(  hievi/'UMils  were  the  erection  of  a  tan-house,  the  manufacture 
oi  leather,  and  tl;e  employment  of  eight  shoemakers.  The  production  of 
Icallicr  and  shoes  was  very  slight,  tliough,  for  many  years  ;  and,  individual 
enterprise  not  being  alone  sufficient  to  develop  the  business,  resort  was  had 
1)  legislative  encouragement.  In  1662  the  Virginia  .Assembly  required  that 
t  Ill-houses  be  erecteil  in  every  county  at  the  county  charge  ,  and  provision 
was  to  be  made  for  the  employment  of  tanners,  currier'-',  and  shoemakers. 
All  allowance  was  to  be  made  every  one  for  dry  hides  at  the  rale  of  two 
Iiomids  of  tobacco  for  every  jjound  of  hide,  and  shoes  were  to  be  sold  for 
thirty  and  thirty-five  i)Ounds  of  tobacco  ])er  pair  for  the  1  -rgest  sixes.  The 
exi  ortation  (jf  hides  was   prohibited   under  penalty  of  a  iiue  of  a  th(jusand 


i  -AH 


-J  a 


tmm 

.,'    i'i    'il:  '  '-,''1 


which  cattle  were  treated  made  suiiie  steps 
for  their  protection  ahiiost  necessary,  fi^t 
how  effectual  these  enactments  in  Vir^iiiii 
were  does  not  appear;  l)ut  they  were  lol 
lowed  in  Maryland,  in  i6<Si,with  similar 
ones  as  regards  exporting  hides.  lievcrly. 
writing  a  few  years  afterwards,  sa)s  that 
a  icw  hides  were,  "with  much  ado,  tanned 
and  made  into  servants'  shoes,  hut  at  so 
careless  a  rate,  that  the  planters  dou'i  rare 
to  try  them  if  they  can  get  oIIkis;  and 
sometimes  a  better  manager  than  ordinary 
will  vouchsafe  to  make  a  pair  of  breeches 
of  a  deer-skin."  Henc  e  it  would  appear, 
that,  until  some  time  in  the  eigluecnth 
(  entury,  Virginia  and  Maryland  imported 
most  of  their  shoes,  of  all  grades,  from 
lairope. 

New    England,    however,    engaged    in 

till'    shoe    and    leather    business    at    thai 

early  day  more  extensively.     Cattle  were 

extensively  bred  there  between   1620  and 

1649  '"'■  food,  and  for  the  exportation  of  meat  and  live-stock.     In  the  last- 

_       ,.    ,        named    vear  the   stoppage  of   emigrotion    greatlv  dei)ressed   the 

Growth  of  ■'  1  1     CI  o  s  ,  i 

industry  in  cattlc-markct ;  yet  stock  was  always  plenty,  and  tolerably  well 
cared  for.  As  early  as  1630  Mr.  Higginson  mentions  the  almn- 
dance  of  ''  snmacke-trees,  good  for  dying  and  tanning  leather," 
near  Salem.  The  first  tannery  in  New  England,  however,  was  at  the  \ilhigc 
of  Swam])scott,  in  the  town  of  Lynn,  destined  from  ^hat  time  on  to  be  famous 
for  its  shoe-factories.  It  was  built  by  Francis  Ingalls  on  Humphrey's  lirook, 
Francis  and  his  brother  lulmund  l)eing  among  the  first  settlers  in  the  town. 
The  first  shoemaker  in  Lynn  was  Philip  Kertla'^d,  who  came  there  from  Fng- 
land  in  i6j;5  :  and  Jcdm  Herbert,  another  shoemaker,  settled  in  Salem  the 
same  year.  In  1629  the  company's  letter  to  the  Clovernor  of  Massachusetts 
(Jolony  commends  to  him  a  shoemaker  named  Thomas  Leard,  who  was  sent 
out  to  be  maintained  at  the  c(don)-'s  expense,  and  work  under  the  governor's 
direction.  .\  supply  of  hides  accompanied  him  on  ''The  Mayflower,"  on 
which  he  was  to  pay  freight  at  the  rate  of  four  pounds  per  ton.  It  was 
ordered  that  fifty  acres  of  land  be  allotted  him  ;  but  it  does  not  appear  where 
he  located.  Records  exist  of  other  indiviiluals  who  were  either  tanner^-  or 
shoemakers  in  Massachusetts  prior  to  1640.     In  that  year  a  law  was  passetl 


I'OWIJIC    SOI.li-MOei.DKK. 


New  Eng- 
land. 


hetor 

of 

n])on 

sent 

I've 

were 

<  aps. 

was 

SufR 

maki 

in  W 


OF    THE     UNITED    STATES. 


447 


ptini'shing  such  persons  as  slaughtered  cattle  and  neglected  to  save  the  hides 
jnd  send  iheni  to  be  tanned  ;  from  which  it  is  probable  that  all  the  towns  then 
orcani/.ed  had  tanneries.  Searchers  and  sealers  of  leather  had  already  been 
ajjpointed  in  ceruiin  towns;  but  in  1642  a  general  law  was  passed  regulating 
the  niarnifacture  of  leather  more  particularly.  Ilutchers,  curriers,  and  shoe- 
makers were  forbidden  to  tan,  it  being  regarded  desirable  to  make  tanning  a 
distinct  occu[)ation.  No  one  was  allowed  to  buy 
a  hitle  but  a  tanner.  Tanners  were  recjuired  to 
avoid  hot  ••moors,"  or  processes  that  would  burn 
or  scald  their  leather.  They  were  punishable 
also  for  selling  imperfectlv-tanned  leather.  Cur- 
riers wcri'  minutelv  instructed  what  jjreparations 
tlie\-  should  use  and  should  not  use.  Sealers 
were  to  mark  good  leather  upon  examination, 
ami  onh  sealed  leather  should  be  used  by  shoe- 
makers. The  exportation  of  raw  hides  or  un- 
wrought  leather  was  prohibited  in  1646.  In 
164S  the  shoemakers  had  so  increased  in  num- 
ber, that  they  were  incorporated  as  a  guild  by 
the  legislature.  These  were  more  numerous  at 
l.\iin  that)  elsewhere. 

Says  Bishop,  "The  fisheries  of  New  England 
furnished  abundance  of  oil  at  a  cheap  rate  for  ^J 
the  leather-manufacture.  From  the  coasts  of 
Labrador  and  Newfoundland  were  also  obtained, 
before  the  Revolution,  considerable  quantities 
of  seal-skins.  ( )n  account  of  the  high  duty 
upon  them  in  lOngland,  many  which  would  otherwise  have  gone  there  were 
sent  to  New  I'higlantl,  where  they  were  tanned,  and  made  into  shoes,  boots, 
&c..  and  returned  to  supply  the  llshermen  on  the  north-east  coast.  Others 
were  dressed  in  the  hair,  and  were  variously  employed  in  making  trunks, 
( aps.  coats,  iV'c-.  'I'he  manufacture  of  leather  in  Massachusetts  in  early  times 
was  chiefly  confined  to  the  old  maritime  counties  —  Essex,  Middlesex,  and 
Suffolk  —  around  Iloston  Bay.  Since  the  Revolution,  tanning,  like  .shoe- 
making,  for  which  Massachusetts  has  become  famous,  has  developed  largely 
in  Worcester  County." 

It  should  be  remarked  in  this  connection,  that  the  shoes  most  wo;n  by  the 
ladies  were  stuff  shoes  :    the  gentlemen  wore   leather  boots  and  shoes,  few  if 
■my  of  wliich  were  made  of  calf-skin  until   after  the  Revolution.    Description 
(  ow-hide    was    usetl    almost    exclusively   fcr    foot-gear,    although   of  shoes 
l'U(  k-skins  were  largely  wrouglit  up  into  servants'  clothing,    (ilovers   ^°''"' 
and  furriers  are  enumerated  among  the  artisans  of  1651.     We  find  further  but 
'111 important  legislation  in  Massachusetts  relative  to  shoe  L;nd  leather  ])roduction 
'n])se(]uent  to  that  just  mentioned. 


FOOT-rOWER    SOLE-.MOULDER. 


r 

i 

1 
I'  li 

■'»*    fliiliJ 


1  I 


m 


q 


i^    r 


m} 


I    Ji^.'^F    ,  


448 


INDUSTRIAL    JJIHTOKY 


Connecticut  was  a  decidedly  agricultural  colony,  and  cattle  were  ex- 
tensively raised  in  its  earliest  days;  and  we  find  between  1640  and  1656 
Earl  le  is-  ^'^'"^y  uuich  the  sauic  legislation  there  as  had  been  enacted  in 
lation  on  the  Massachusetts  relative  to  the  preservation,  tanning,  and  exporta- 
subject.  j^j^j^  ^j-  IjjJl's,  and  the  separation  of  the  tanner's  from  tlie  currier's, 

butcher's,  and  shoemaker's  trade.  We  also  find  the  (iencral  Assenilily  fixing 
the  i)rices  of  different-sized  shoes,  and  ordering  size-;,ticks  to  be  made  as  a 
standard  in  the  colony,  Rhode  Island,  anil  that  part  of  Massachusetts  which 
was  subseijuently  set  off  as  Maine,  had  tanneries  before  the  close  of  the 
century ;  but  nearly  a  hundred  years  more  elapsed  before  New  Hampshire  did 
any  tanning. 

Cattle  were  imported  into  the  Dutch  colony  of  New  Netherlands  in  1625. 
The  first  tanner  in  the  province  was  one  of  four  brothers  named  I'lvertsen,  wiio 
Industry  in  Settled  either  at  Pavonia  or  Manhattan  in  1638.  Tanners  soon 
New  York,  became  numerous  anil  prosperous  in  and  about  the  city  of  New 
York,  and,  despite  the  laws,  combined  the  shoemaker's  trade  with  their  other. 
A  large  tract  of  land  on  the  west  side  of  Broad  Street,  above  Ik'aver,  became 
conspicuous  for  its  tanneries  as  early  as  1653.     The  English  governor  Andrus 

and  his  council  were  very  strict 
in  their  exclusion  of  tanners  from 
the  city  in  1676,  granting  a  mo- 
nopoly to  only  two.  A  number 
of  wealthy  and  prominent  I'.ng- 
lish  and  Dutch  tanners,  therefore, 
moved  outside  the  city  walls  to 
a  region  east  of  ISroadwav,  and 
between  Maiden  Lane  and  Ami 
Street,  where  th"y  settled,  'lliey 
called  the  place  *'  Shoemakers' 
Land,"  Subsequently  they  were 
forced  still  farther  uj)  town,  —  to 
the  borders  of  Fresh-water  I'ond 
and  IJeekman's  S^wamp  ;  and  in 
that  locality,  known  a.;  "The 
Swamp,"  many  of  the  craft  linger  to  the  present  day. 

New  Jersey  received  her  first  tanner  in  1660,  he  locating  at  Eli/aL)ethtown ; 
and   her  first  shoemaker  located  there  in  1C76.     Stock-raising  for  the  New- 
York  markets  gave  her  plenty  of  hides.    Tan-bark  abounded  in  the 
colony;  and   judicious  legislation   so   develo])ed  the  ])ro(liice  ni 
L-Taer  tliere,  that  New  York  was  obliged  to  buy  of  her  for  a  long  time.     \\"c^t 
I'ennsyi-         Jcrscy  and  Pennsylvania  were  even  more  tan'y  in  developing  the 
"'^-  tanning  and  shoemaking  industries.     In  the  early  par*,  of  the  cigli- 

teenth  century,  ho\vever,  we  find  tanning  extensively  carried  on  in  Pennsylvania; 


l-OUT-l'OWEU   STKIIM'KH. 


New  Jersey, 


II 

\\\ 

ill) 

as 
hef 

ani( 
In- 
sear 
arm 
ter. 

<  ((I! 

The 

teiii 

eno! 

that 

Onl 


01'     THE    Ui\lTEJ>    STATES. 


440 


Anil 
They 
makcr^i' 
icy  Nv^'"-' 
n.  — i'> 
tcr  I'onil 
and  in 
'•The 


ihtown ; 

c  Ni-'W- 
c(l  in  \\\'- 

(hu'c  oi 
c.     Wc^t 


)pu\U 


Uu 


the  cigh- 
,s)lvaniii ; 


and  leather  was  exported  thence  to  lMiro|)e  in  17;;!.  In  that  colony,  too, 
nimh  was  made  of  deer-skin  for  clothing;  and  Logan,  thL'  famous  Mingo 
chief  was  long  actively  engaged  in  dressing  them  for  sale  to  the  whites. 
Down  '"n  the  Carolinas  and  (leorgia  cattle  were  exceedingly  abundant, 
especially  a  small  breed  which  were  allowed  to  run  wild.  lUit  little  attempt 
was  made  to  utilize  their  hides.  Live  cattle  were  shipped  to  the  West  Indie:: 
and  to  Pennsylvania :  raw  hides  were  likewise  sent.  Until  very  near  the  time 
of  the  Revolution  few  attempts  were  made  to  manufacture  shoes,  a  pair  of 
which  were  worth  as  much  as  an  ox.  .\  little  Icatlier  was  made  in  the  coast- 
r'jgi(jn  ;  but  it  v/as  exported.  In  Iced,  from  1745  to  17O0,  the  two  Carolinas 
exported  quite  a  large  amount  of  tanned  leather  and  dressed  deer-skins.  In 
the  br.ck  country,  where  tan-bark  was  pk'ity  and  imported  goods  rare,  the 
colonists  made  some  few  shoes  for  themselves.  The  greater  number  of  the 
inJKibitants  of  those  colonies  obtained  their  shoes  cither  from  those  fixrther 
north  and  east,  or  from  (ireat  Britain. 

Toward  the  middle  of  tiie  eighteentli  century,  north  of  Virginia,  every  new 
luv  1  \\"\  its  tannery  almost  immediately  after  the  first  settlement ;  and  shoe- 
inak  rs  and  saddlers  soon  followed.     In  1731,  when,  at  the  solicita- 
tions A  jealous  London  manufacturers  antl  merchants,  Parliament   in°d"usJ°  by 
ordered  the  British  Board  of  Trade  to  in(|uive  .'nto  the  condition   middle  of 
of  manufacturers  in  this  country,  they  found  the  Americans  almost   ^'g*^'""**^ 

■' '  ^  century. 

completely  supplied  with  shoes  of  their  own  manufactiire.  The 
loc.'l  shoemakers  in  most  towns  did  something  toward  meeting  the  home 
<lcniand.  Itinerant  shoeai.''kers  sometimes  went  from  house  to  house,  working 
up  into  shoes  the  family  stock  of  leather  that  >ad  been  tanned  by  the  local 
tanner.  Itinerant  cobblers  also  went  Irom  house  ."  li  ise.  Massachusetts 
manulactured  a  surplus  of  shoes,  which  weiit  to  the  other  colonies  and  to  the 
West  Indies.  When,  in  1764,  Englan  attempted  to  levy  duties  on  American 
imports,  and  the  colonists  resented  ii  refusing  to  buy  British  goods  as  far 
as  i)ossible,  a  special  stimulus  was  gi\  to  .shoe  and  leather  production  where 
before  less  attention  had  been  given  dureto. 

During  the  Revolution  the  sui>  of  hides  was  greatly  reduced,  and  the 
amount  of  labor  that  was  free  to  tar  tiem  and  make  shoes  was  also  lessened 
liy  the   demands   of  the    militai  vice:    consetiuently  a  great   Effect  of 

scarcity  of  both  leather  and  shoes  characterized  that  period.  The  Revolution. 
army  suffered  great  privations.  When  the  British  forces  landed  at  West  Ches- 
ter. \.Y.,  in  October  of  1776,  the  Colonial  C.ovcrnment  caused  such  hides  as 
< oiild  be  collected  to  be  removed  to  places  of  concealment  in  the  Highlands. 
The  (ommissary  department  of  the  Continental  army,  i\artly  from  incom])e- 
leiK  e  and  partly  from  limited  resources,  found  it  impossible  to  obtain  shoes 
enough  for  the  soldiers.  It  was  si^'cd  to  Congress,  in  December  of  1776. 
that  one-third  of  the  army  at  Ticondcroga  had  to  ])crform  duty  without  shoes. 
<>nly  nine  hundred  ])airs  were  sent  thither  on  a  re([uisition  to  sui)i)ly  o\er  twelve 


\  \\ 


'mm3 


(I  ■  M 


^H'h 


mM 


'■%!  J  i 


11 


')':'        '  I 


*f  ! 


450 


IXDCSTRIAL    HISTORY 


Principal 
seats  of 
industry 
during  the 
last  century 


m\. 


thousantl  men.  TIic  army  was  then  authorized  to  impress  shoes  and  other 
supplies  where  they  coukl  be  found.  During  the  operations  in  New  Jersey 
that  winter,  many  of  our  solcUers  "  were  without  shoes,  marching  over  frozen 
ground,  which  so  gashed  their  naked  feet,  tliat  each  step  was  marked  wiUi 
blood."  'I"he  following  autumn  it  was  discovered,  that  near  Lancaster,  I'cnu., 
greater  (juantities  of  leather  than  were  ever  before  known  there  were  in  store. 
Much  leather  was  to  be  had  at  \'orktown  in  exchange  for  green  hides  ;  but 
shoemakers  to  manufacture  it  were  exceedingly  scarce. 

On  the  restoration  of  peace,  tanning  and  shoemaking  rapidly  revived  ;  but 
Effect  of  '•'^*'"  ''i^'"'-'<'''^te  inllux  of  foreign  goods  soon  depressed  them  again 
peace  in  re-  until  a  tariff  could  be  imposed.  Virginia  resorted  to  such  protec- 
stonngthe      ^j^j^  j,^   i  788,  and  I'ougress,  under  the  ucw  ( "oustitutioii,  ill  I  78(1. 

industry.  .      '  .  •  ■>  1     > 

The  principal  seats  of  siioe  and  leather  manufacture,  says  liishop. 
in  the  last  century  and  l)eginning  of  this,  were  in  Massachusetts,  Connecticut, 
New  Jersey,  and  Pennsylvania,  though  Maryland  and  Delaware 
also  made  a  considerable  amount.  South  Carolina  had  tanned 
some  excellent  leadier  before  the  Revolution  ;  but  after  the  war 
the  Southern  States  gave  little  altenti(jn  thereto,  or  to  sh()enlakilll,^ 
buying  from  the  North.  As  the  Western  country  was  gradually 
settled,  cattle-raising,  tanning,  and  a  small  amount  of  shoemaking.  kept  pa(  e 
witli  the  movement  ;  and  though  that  section  has  been  dependent  on  New 
England  and  the  Middle  States,  to  some  extent,  for  shoes,  it  has  not  called  for 
more  unmanufactured  leather  than  it  could  itself  produce,  inasmuch  as  catlle- 
raising  has  been  a  prominent  industrv  of  that  section. 

It  is  asserted  that  Morocco  leather  of  fair  quality  was  made  in  Charles- 
town,  Mass.,  as  early  as  ryyo.  by  the  subse(|uently  famous  Lord  'I'imothy 
Manufacture  Dexter  and  others  ;  and  the  manufacture  was  resumed  there  in 
of  morocco.  1756.  The  art  of  making  {'urkey  and  Morocco  leathers  from  goat 
and  sheep  skins  was  not  understood  in  London  until  about  1  7CS3,  —  the  year 
of  peace.  The  Pennsylvania  Societ\'  for  the  Lncouragement  of  Manufactures 
and  irseful  Arts  instituted  an  inquiry  in  1787,  and  found  that  two  persons  in 
Philadeli)hia  had  attemi)ted  the  imitation  with  tolerable  success.  Sheep-skins 
have  been  rendered  less  valuable  for  the  past  fifty  years  by  the  introduction  of 
merino  breeds,  in  which  improved  fleeces  are  offset  by  poorer  pelts.  The 
morocco-business,  however,  has  been  a  specialty  of  the  Philadeli)hia  leather- 
business  to  a  greater  extent  than  it  has  in  any  other  part  of  the  Union.  In 
i860  it  employed  over  thirty  large  factories.  1.600  hands,  and  more  than 
^500,000  of  capital,  with  sales  to  the  amount  of  i>2, 000,000.  These  figures 
might  now  be  safely  increased  fifty  per  cent.  Indeed,  our  exports  alone  of 
this  class  of  leather  exceed  Si. 000, 000  annually. 

\\'ithin  the  present  century,  too.  calf  or  kip  skins  have  come 
into  general  use  ;   whereas  in  Revolutionary  and  pre-Revolutionary 
days  they  were  unknown  on  this  side  of  the  Atlantic. 


Calf-skins. 


kim 

the 

.111(1 


iN()o. 


ffc. 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


451 


'If! 

Hi 

A 

m's 

i  1 ' 

n^ 

■''4i 

iar 

i 

ll:'i' 

lark's- 
unthy 
iv  in 
11  goat 
year 
Ictuvcs 
)iis  in 
|i--knis 
)n  i)t 
The 
latlK-r- 
11.     In 
than 

ne  ol" 

conic 
lioniiry 


Soon  after  the  Revohition,  our  ilomcstic  supply  of  hides  proved  iiisuffieient 
for  our  tanners'  needs,  and  importation  began  (  hietly  tVoni  South  America  and 
the  British  Ivist  Indies.  'The  immense  development  of  cattle-  importatioa 
breeding  in  this  country,  and  the  annexation  of  Texas,  have  not  °^  hides, 
kept  pace  with  our  demands ;  and  the  imi)ortation  of  hides  has  steadily  in- 
creased, with  but  slight  tluctuations.  In  1S5S  we  im[)orted  $9,719,083  worth, 
or  about  1,075,000  hides.  In  1877  our 
iui])ortations,  exceeding  those  of  the  pre- 
vi'  is  year  by  a  half,  amoimted  to  over 
^.000,000  hides,  valued  at  about  $18,000,- 
000.  Thirty  years  ago,  when  the  I'lrie  Rail- 
road was  o[)ened,  most  of  these  hides  came 
to  \ew-York  City,  and  were  sent  out  along 
the  southern  tier  of  counties  in  that  State 
for  tanning ;  then  they  came  back  in  the 
form  of  leather,  and  were  mostly  sent  to 
New  i'aigland. 

I'he  imported  hides,  it  will  be  borne  in 
niiml.  form  only  a  portion  ,~.  Mie  whole 
Icathcr-proiUu't.  Thus,  in  1 '' ;  y,  when 
3.4(>:;,')ii  sides  or  half  hide?  »,-ere  tanned 
's  solf  leather,  and  ^^,78r,868  skins  were 
laiUK'tl  and  curried  for  upper  lealhcr,  our 
importation  was  jtrobably  less  than  i.(K)o,- 
000  sides  and  skins.  In  1870  there  were 
''"'■7''''''^>75-  bides  (17.577.404  side>)  and 
').664.i48  skins  tanned,  ol"  which  less  than 
j;, 000. 000  hides  and  skins  were  imported. 
I'he  tbilowing  table  will  gi\-e  some  idea  (jf 
the  ^;rowtli  of  the  leather-producing  indtistry  \\\  the  l/nited  States  of  late  years-. 
It  will  be  observed  that  there  has  been  a  tendency  toward  centiMli/ing  the 
business,  the  big  establishments  dri\-ing  the  little  ones  out  of  business  as  the 
ini|)r(nements  in  the  art  increased.  It  should  be  noted,  also,  that  certain 
kinds  of  leather  are  estimated  twice  over  in  the  census-returns,  from  which 
the  tbilowing  figures  are  taken.  The  dressers  of  skins,  the  morocc  "-makers, 
"  and  the  manufacturers  of  patent-leather,  arc  included  in  the  table. 


i-(i(ir-ini-;  MACiiiNii. 


YliAH. 


N(1.  OF 
ESTATES. 


NO.  OF  HANDS 
EMIUJVKI). 


CAIMTM. 
INVESllil). 


I^40. 
1S5O. 
I  S()0  , 
IS70. 


8,2:19 

6,686 
5,188 
7.569 


25.595 
26,246 

35.-43 


515,650,929 

•=2.774.795 
3(),02  5.620 

61,124,812 


VAl IK  OF 
I'K()Ull.TION. 


$20,919,110 

43,457-'^,»S 

75,698.747 

'57,237.597 


Ktmm\ 


'h 


VM 


^ss^ii^ 


mm 


''■•'Mi 


':«':r.> 


45-' 


/A7J  US  TKIA  I.    If  IS  TOK  Y 


'I'lu'  ii)i|)r()vt'infnts  in  the  nianuf.icttire  of  Icatlu-r,  says  Uishop,  have  Ir'i'ii 

very  numerous,  and  mostly  orij^inated  within  the  j)resent  century.     'I"lie\'  ha\i' 

been  both  mechanical  and  chemical,  of  foreiijfn  and  native  oriuin. 

Improve-  "  'i^'"- 

ments  in  I  1k  ir  adojjtion  has  been  attended  by  a  marked  influence  in  the  pro- 

manufacture    „rt^.ssive  improvement  of  the  iiualitv  and  (luantitv  of  the  iiroduf  t 

of  leather.  ^  '  .        ' 

in  the  enlargement  of  the  operations  intlividually  and  in  the  aggre- 
gate, and  in  a  proportionate  increase  in  the  jirofits  ;  while  the  price  of  leather. 
compared  with  the  raw  material,  has  been  reduced.  The  principal  of  these 
are  the  several  mechanical  appliances  for  softening,  fulling,  rolling,  aid  split- 
ting^ skins  and  hides,  and  for  grinding  bark  (some  of  whii  h  were  \er\- early 
introduced),  and  others  for  washing,  glazing,  and  fmishing  leather,  'i'he  appli- 
cation of  water-power,  and  especially  of  steam,  in  many  of  the  ojjerations,  and 
of  hot  water  in  others  ;  the  extraction  antl  application  of  tannin  in  cone  en- 
trated  solutions  and  by  hydraulic  ])ressure  ;  the  greater  subdixision  of  labor  in 
large  establishments,  attended  by  more  skilful  manipulation  in  the  processes  of 
tanning,  currying,  and  fmishing  leather,  —  have  all  greatly  iiMluenced  the  eiono- 
my  of  leather-manufacture.  Il^  ])rofits  have  been  much  augmented  bv  the 
'' sweating  "  and  other  oj)erations,  whereby  the  gelatine  and  muscular  fibre 
of  the  skin  is  more  com])letely  exposed  to  the  tannic  acid,  and  the  weight  of 
leather  increased,  and  also  by  the  \arious  utilizing  in\'entions  which  have 
a])[)ro|)riated  all  the  refuse  materials  to  some  useful  i)urpose  in  the  arts. 

The  manutaclures  of  articles  iVoni  leather  in  this  country,  iiK  ludiiig  boots 
and  shoes,  saddlery  and  b.arness.  trunks.  \alisLs,  and  satchels,  belling  and  hose, 
„  ,       ,         gloves   and   pocket-l)0(jks,   and    omitting  whiijs,   carriages,   cards. 

Value  of  f^  '  i-i  1  c<      • 

manufac-  and  book-biiidlng,  aggregated  over  $2,30,000,000  ;  and  of  thai 
amount  $181,644,090  represents  the  boot  and  shoe  industry,  and 
5.32,709,981  the  saddlery  and  harness  business.  Thus  it  will  he 
seen  that  more  than  three-fourtns  of  the  leather-manut'at  ture  is  in  bo()t>  .uid 
shoes. 

As  we  have  already  jjointed  out.  and  as  tiie  reader  is  aware,  the  knight  of 
St.  Crispin  who  makes  boots  and  sh(jes  for  hnal  custom,  antl  who  generally 
Knights  of  combines  with  that  Ijranch  of  the  trade  the  more  ignoble  de])art- 
st.  Crispin,  nieiit  of  repairing,  is  to  be  found  in  nearly  every  town  and  village 
in  the  c:ountry.  More  fretiuently  than  not,  his  establishment  is  combined  with 
a  shop  for  the  sale  of  shoes  ])m'chase(l  ready  made  from  some  large  niami- 
fai  turer.  This  class  of  shoemakers  retjuire  no  f\irther  mention.  Our  chiel  , 
interest  centres  in  the  wholesale  manufacturers.  The  census-return  of  23.42S 
establishments  and  5181,644,090  of  products  in  1870  includes  some  ot  the 
little  establishments.  'I'hose  making  over  55,000  worth  of  goods  apiece  are 
set  (U)wn  as  3,151,  and  producing  5146,704,000  worth  of  boots  and  shoes.  It 
is  with  them  that  we  are  concerned  chietly. 

Krom  the  very  first,  IMassachusetts  has  had  the  lead  in  this  great  industn. 

•  Thick  hill'-:  ;ire  soinutiincs  >plit  into  as  many  as  five  layers,  each  of  which  is  dressed  for  upper  leailiei 


tured 
articles 


ar 

Sll 

1)11 


01 

I 

uei 

stn 

the 

iiiii 

de, 

li.a- 

'4.< 

SllK 

Ihe 

1h)() 
has 

led 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


453 


1(1  village 
iiicd  Willi 
ro  niami- 
)ur  ( lii^'l  . 
if  23.4-^ 
ic  oi  iIh' 
)iccc  av^' 
,hocs.     It 

industry- 

ici  le.ulioi. 


Tiic  towns  in  the  neighborhood  of  Boston  attracted  masons,  caqjenters,  and 
other   workmen,    in    the  winter-season,   when  work   was    dull,  to   ., 

Massachu- 

inirsiie  shoemaking,   which   was    always  a  resource.     As  early  as   setts  leads 
1635  Lynn  had  a  shoemaker.     Fifteen  years  later  she  made  more   t'^'" '"<i"»- 
shoes  than  any  other  town  in  the  colony,  or  even  in  the  country. 
She  made  a  specialty  of  women's  shoes,  most  of  which  were  made  of  cloth  ; 
hut,  in  all  the  kinds  manufactured,  the  work  was  ([uite  rude  for  a  hundred  years 
or  more.     Shoemakers  were  ([uite  unskilled,  and   had  little  capital  or  general 
knowledge.     In  the  early  jxart  of  the  eighteenth  century  they  would  send  to 
JMigland  for  well-made  shoes,  and  take  them  apart  to  study  the  nice  hanisin. 
iSy  1750  there  was  a  surplus  for  ex- 
|H)rtation.     New  I'aigland  was  sup- 
plied chiefly  from  this  one  (  entre  ; 
and  shoes  were    also   sent   to   New 
N'ork.  Philadelphia,  and  even  farther 
South.      In   the  year  just  named,  a 
Welsh  shoemaker,  named  John  .\dam 
Dagyr,  settled  in   Lynn,  and  by  his 
superior  skill    soon    became    known 
throughout  the  surrounding  country 
as  the  celebrated  shoemaker  of  l^ssex 
(County).     Many  persons  in   I,ynn 
and  the  neighboring  towns  accptired 
from  him  a  better  knowledge  of  the 
art,    and    obtained    the    reward    oi 
superiority  in   the    increase  of  their       ; 
business.     A    ISoston   correspondent 
of    "The     London    Chronicle,"    in 
1 764,  wrote   that   shoes  for  women  r.n ikk. 

were   made  at   Lynn    exceeding   in 

strength  and  beauty  any  that  were  usually  imported  from  London.  During 
ilie  Revolution  the  towns  of  Lastern  ^Lissachusetts  provided  the  army  with 
iiio-,t  of  its  shoes.  Lnmediately  after  the  war  ended,  the  business  ra])idly 
ikvL-Ioped.  \\\  1 78S  Lynn  alone  exported  100.000  jiairs  of  shoes;  in  1795 
lur  export  was  300,000  jiairs.  Li  i<S77  her  jiroduct  was  not  less  than 
i  4.000.000  pairs  of  boots  and  shoes.  'I'he  wonderful  facility  with  which  shoes 
were  turned  out  in  those  early  days  led  to  the  legend,  that  the  materials,  being 
-tu(  k  to  the  wall  by  an  awl.  were  combined  in  the  jjroper  manne'-  by  a  blow  of 
the  lapstone  skilfully  aimed  at  them.  There  were  those  who  asserted  tliat 
lio(jts  and  shoes  grew  there  spontaneously.  Thus,  for  over  two  cMituries,  Lynn 
has  had  the  ascendency  in  the  American  shoe-manufacture. 

Marblehead.  which  makes,  ])erhaps,  four  million  pairs  of  shoes  yearly,  wa^ 
led   into   the   business,  after  the    Revolution,  by  the  decline   of  her  fisheries. 


i 

H 

! 
> 

'  UvMol 

1 1 

Wk 

(1  '  ■■>}! 


*'^:!I 


454 


IND  US  TK/A  I.    HIS  TON  Y 


Marblehead, 


Danvers,  Haverhill,  and  other  places  in  Essex,  were  early  engaged  in  the 
nianuracture  of  women's  shoes;  and  there  was  in  lyS.S  a  con- 
siderable manufacture  of  men's  shoes  at  Rea(hng,  near  Lynn. 
Boston,  (^tiincy,  and  many  other  towns  in  the  vicinity,  engaged  in  tlie  shoe- 
manufacture  after  tlie  Revolution,  as  (hi  also  Worcester  and  (Jtlier  towns  of 
that  county. 

i'hiladel])hia  and  New-York  cities  have  also  been  famous  for  nearly  a 
century  for  the  (juality  of  their  shoes,  and  the  States  of  which  they  are  ihu 
Phiiadei-  business  capitals  have  also  developed  the  wholesale  manufacture 
J^^'^'  in  other  towns.     'Hie  following  table  gives  the  distribution  of  the 

industry,  showing  only  establishments  whose  annual  product  exceeds  fi\i' 
thousand  dollars,  and  only  those  States  being  named  j)articularly  whi(  h  have 
over  a  hundred  such  establishments  :  — 


STATE. 

NIIMP.ICK   (>!■■ 

NIMUKK   OF 

CAni  AT. 

VAI.l'l':  f>F 

ESTATES. 

IIANIJS. 

INVKSTEU. 

I'KDDlcnoN. 

Massachusetts  .... 

1.123 

51,167 

5i9.M^.f>45 

5.S6,565,4i5 

N'-w  ^'l)rk        .... 

341 

11,409 

4,^72,966 

i7,Si;„04S 

I'ciiiisvlvania    .... 

335 

^.330 

4.240,523 

ii,oo2,i;S; 

New  llamp.sliire 

7.S 

2,777 

919.435 

4,7,Sc,oJO 

Maine 

«.S 

2,105 

677,300 

3.15    221 

New  Jersey      .... 

67 

1,990 

777,900 

2,,S;,0,.122 

Ohio 

164 

2,026 

790,025 

2,S()(),So3 

Missouri 

1S2 

960 

505,2(i0 

2,;,6;„70i 

Illinois      ..... 

ss 

1,274 

1,527,44s 

2,21)^,  I  j6 

Other  States     .... 

6vSS 

9.664 
91.702 

4.05').577 
?37.5i9.oi'i 

i3,02S,7i7 

Total          .... 

3.' 5' 

?i46,704,o.X) 

It  might  be  added  to  this,  that  Connecticut  with  only  thirty  eight  eslaMish- 
c  nnecticut  ii''<-'ii^^'  '^'if^  Maryland  with  sixty-eight,  each  i)rod\iced  very  nearly 
and  other  $2,000,000  in  i.^^jo;  ("alifornia  produced  over  Si, 500,000  ;  and 
tales.  Wisconsin  and  Indiana,  each  a  trille  over  $1,000,000. 

Thirty  years  ago  the  sales  of  Massachusetts'  enormous  surplus  to  the 
other  sections  of  the  Union  and  for  the  ft)reign  trade  were  mostly  in  the 
,.    ,     ,  hands  of  New-^'ork  merchants,  to  whom  the  Ncw-l-lngland    jiro- 

Mode  of  ' 

manufactur-    (lucers    either    sold    or    consigned    their    goods.      (Iradually    this 
ingand  svstem  changed,  pardy  owinu;  to  a  chanLa>  in  the  svstem  of  niaiiu- 

selling.  •  o  1  y  ,-.  o  '         r  1  I 

facture.  'I'he  muiiber  of  skilled  workmen  that  came  from  abroad 
became  so  great  as  to  fill  most  of  the  (le])artments  into  which  the  boot-trade 
became  divided,  —  as  crimi)ing,  bottoming,  heeling,  and  finishing;  and  the 
])ay  of  the  work-peo])le  by  the  piece  or  the  pair  enal)les  each  to  control  his 
own  time,  working  when  he  ])leases.  These  sometimes  club  their  work,  and 
appoint  an   agent  to  sell  :    others,  by  .    onomy,  save  their  pay,  and  emplo)  a 


noii 
and 

w; 

year 

qui( 

]"•<)) 

this 

in 


OF    THE    ViVlTKD    STATES. 


455 


few  men  whose  work  they  direr.t.  These,  in  tlie  cities,  are  called  "garret 
liosses."  When  they  succx-ed  in  estahlisiiing  a  trade,  they  conduct  the  nianti- 
factory  by  a  foreman,  and  open  an  office  in  the  city,  where  they  sell  their 
wares,  and  purchase  stuck  for  manui.icture.  'I'he  materials  are  in  this  luanner 
better  ])iirchased  ;  and  as  the  seller  i.s  iiimself  the  manufacturer,  cominj^  in 
<()ntact  with  buyers  from  all  secli(»ns,  he  becomes  conversant  with  the  styles 
adajjted  to  all  lo*  alities,  and  the  manufacture  is  by  far  the  better  conducted 
iiir  it.  The  advantages  of  tins  systi  ni  have  made  Boston,  of  late  years,  the 
grand  centre  of  such  operations,  and  havt'  drawn  thither  the  jobbers  fn^m 
New  York,  Philadelphia,  Haltimore,  C'incumati,  St.  Louis,  i^c.,  until  ISoston 
has  become  the  lar_;est  siioe-markct  of  the  world. 

We  have  alrt.idy  spoken  of  the  impr.  i\cmentji  in  the  beauty  and  other 
(|ualitie-;  of  America  shoes  about  tlic  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century. 
Thev  continueil  to  be  manifest  from  tliat  time  on.  .ind  were,  in    , 

Improve- 
later  years,  due  to  Yankee  ingenuity  and  taste,  and  not  to  mere    ments  in 

iuutation.     A  few  lane  v  boots  are  evei\  vet  imported  from  Paris,   "yieofman- 

•  ufacture. 

and  our  exports  are  chiefly  of  the  ))iainer  gr.adcs  ;  yet  as  dainty 
and  durable  a  boot  can  be  made  in  this  country  as  anywhere  on  the  glol)e. 
The  improvement  it.   the  (lualily  of  oiu-  shoes  is  in  a  large  measure  <lui'  to 
\\v  new  methods  of  sjilitting  and  ( nrrying  leatlvr,  thus  affording  softer  and 
I'mer  material  for  uppers. 

Fully  as  marked  as  die  advanc  c  in  the  (luality  of  our  work  is  the  startling 
progress  maile  in  the  methods  of  manulacturc.  .11  the  old  days  the  shoes 
were  sewed,  and  bv  hand, — a  slow  and  lal)orious  i)ro(  ess.     but  in    „ 

'  '  Progress  in 

iSi.S    a   Yankee,    named    b)se])h    Walker,    of    llopkinton,    Mass..    mode  of 
invented  the  shoe-i)eg.     This  wrought  (laite   a   revolution  in  the    '"''""- 

*     ^  01  (acture. 

iiusiness.  At  first  the  i)egs  were  worked  out  l)y  hand  ;  but  when 
they  were  found  efticacious,  and  cheaper  than  sewing,  machines  were  invented 
for  their  manufacture,  and  they  were  sold  in  larger  or  smaller  <iuantities  to 
shoemakers  all  over  the  country.  'J'here  are  now  some  thirty  establishments 
whose  exclusive  business  it  is  to  make  shoe-jjcgs.  The  tradition  is  current 
in  New  lOngland,  that  at  ov  time  shoe-pegs  became  so  plenty  and  cheap, 
that  artful  speculator^  tried  U)  sell  them  to  farmers  as  a  new  variety  of  large 
oats  for  seed. 

lUit  two  more  important  strides  were  to  be  taken  in  the  art.  Probably 
none  ot"  our  inchistries  has  been  more  cxtcnsiNcIv  (le\elo])e(l  than  the  boot 
and  shoe  business  bv  the  aiM)lication  of  labor-savinii  ukk  liinerv.    ,     ,.    ,. 

'  '  n  .,       Application 

A\  hen  the  sewing-machine  was  reduced   to   ])racti(e  some   thirty    of  labor- 
vears    ago,    the    utilization    of    the     levice    for    shoemaking    was    saving 

■      •    ,  ,        ,  machinery. 

quickh  thought  of.     It  was  several   years,  however,  before  it  was 
properly  adapted  to  this  use.     Now,  however,  machines  made  expressly  for 
this  industry  (quite  different  in  details  from  those  used  on  cloth),  and  operated 
in  large  numbers  by  steam  like  the  looms  of  a  woollen-mill,  are  in  use  in  about 


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Hiotographic 

Sciences 
Corporation 


23  WEST  MAIN  STREET 

WEBSTER,  N.Y.  14580 

(716)  872-4503 


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I'dWKK-KOI.l.KK, 


half  the  large  shoc-fartories  of  the  country.     In  the  other  half  the  shoes  are 
pegged  by  machinery.      There  are.  however,  some  establishments  which  use 

both  kinds  of  niaciiinery  ;  Init  the 
business  is  so  divided  up,  that 
most  manufacturers  make  either  one 
kind  or  the  other  exclusively.  It  is 
almost  incredible,  to  one  who  has 
not  seen  it  done,  that  shoes  can  be 
sewed  by  machines  ;  but  tlie  idea  of 
a  machine  which  both  makes  and 
drives  pegs  instantaneously,  and  so 
rapidly  that  a  whole  shoe  can  be 
])egged  inside  of  ten  seconds,  is 
still  more  marvellous.  The  idea  has 
been  realized,  nevertheless,  and  has 
been  in  successful  operation  for  some 
fifteen  or  twenty  years.  Tiie  charac- 
teristic feature  of  it  is  a  narrow  rib- 
bon of  white  wood,  a  hundred  or 
more  feet  long,  reeled  upon  the 
machine.  This  ribbon  is  of  the  thickness  of  a  peg  :  its  width  is  just  the 
length  of  a  peg.  One  edge  has,  by  machinery,  been  pared  sharp  ;  and 
the  grain  of  the  wood  runs  straight  across  the  ribbon.  The  operator  of  the 
l)egging-machine  has  a  basketful  of  shoes  or  boots  brought  him,  each  with  the 
uppers  and  soles  properly  adjusted,  and  tacked  to  a  last.  Upon  applying 
them,  one  at  a  time,  to  the  machine,  he  causes  a  strong  awl,  kept  just  so 
far  from  the  c.lge  of  the  sole  by  an  adjustable  gauge,  to  pierce  a  sci'ies  of 
holes  in  tlv"  leather :  simultaneously  a  sharp  knife  splits  enough  wood  from 
the  end  of  the  ribbon  for  a  peg ;  the  point  of  the  peg  is  guided  to  the  hole 
just  made  by  th.e  awl ;  and,  while  that  instrument  is  making  its  next  punc- 
ture, the  new-made  peg  l)eside  it  is  forced  (low,  into  place.  Uoth  operations 
go  on  with  the  rai)idity  of  a  sewing-machine  needle,  and  the  shoe  has  only 
to  be  guided  and  turned  while  the  process  goes  on. 

Machines  have  been  in\ente(l  for  smoothing  the  rough  soles  after  pegging, 
for  making  lasts,  and  for  other  departments  of  the  shoe-manufacture,  doing 
away  with  the  necessity  of  any  particular  skill  on  the  part  of  the  workmen, 
lessening  the  cost  of  labor,  but  immensely  magnifying  the  total  pro(hu:tion. 
That  our  shoe-manufactures  have  increased  from  $54,000,000  in  1850  to 
:<!92,ooo,ooo  in  i860,  and  $181,000,000  in  1870,  is  chiefly  attributable  to  the 
api)lication  of  new  labor-saving  machinery  to  the  business.  It  should  be  re- 
membered too,  that,  owing  to  the  lessened  cost  of  production,  some  kinds  of 
shoes  are  now  even  cheaper  than  before  the  war,  and  that  the  increase  in 
quantity  since  1S50  is  quite  projjortionate  to  the  total  values  above  expressed. 


th  the 

;)|)lyin;4 

ust   so 

ries  of 

ocl  from 

K'  hole 

punc- 

rations 

as  only 

)egging, 
,  doing 
rkmtMi, 
uc.tion. 
850  to 
to  the 
be  re- 
nds of 
.■ase  in 
(•essed. 


OF    THE    UNITED   STATES. 


457 


CHAPTER  VIII. 


PAPER   AND    PAPER-HANGINGS. 

THE  philosophers  and  historians  of  Europe  have  been  accustomed  to  claim 
that  all  the  progress  of  the  modern  world  is  due  to  the  races  which  have 
had  white  skins.     They  take  the  world  as  they  find  it  to-day,  or  as 
it  was  in  the  days  of  the  Greeks,  and  point  to  the  difference  in   n,ak!nK  first 
greatness  in  war,  science,  industry,  art,  and  business,  between  the   practised  by 

the  Moors  of 


Spain. 


races  of  Europe  and  those  of  Asia  and  Africa  ;  the  one  (juarter  of 
the  world  being  progressive  in  all  things,  the  other  passive  or 
retrogressive.  Heeren  tries  to  account  for  this  difference  by  calling  attention 
to  the  fact  upon  which  he  says  physiology  throws  no  light,  and  which  philoso- 
phy scarce  dares  to  touch ;  namely,  that  the  great  races  of  the  modern  world 
have  fair  skins,  and  the  backward  nations  dark  skins.  He  intimates  that 
herein  is  to  be  found  the  cause,  or  a  part  of  the  cause,  of  the  difference  in  the 
development  of  the  two  great  branches  of  the  family.  The  assertion  is  flat- 
tering to  Anglo-Saxons ;  but  Heeren  seems  to  have  overlooked  the  Moors  of 
Spain  and  the  ancient  Hindoos  of  India,  to  whom  the  modern  world  is 
in(lel)ted  for  nearly  all  of  its  great  arts  and  industries.  The  working  of  iron, 
the  spinning  and  weaving  of  cotton,  silk,  and  wool,  the  practice  of  decoration 
and  of  graving,  and  many  other  important  occupations,  took  their  rise  among 
those  two  peoples  ;  and  Si)ain  gained  all  its  early  reputation  for  industry  from 
the  swarthy  race  which  planted  the  arts  and  sciences  on  her  soil,  and  left  them 
there  to  flourish  after  it  had  itself  been  driven  back  to  Africa.  The  Moors 
and  Hindoos  may  have  lacked  the  vigor  in  politics  and  affairs  which  the 
European  races  have  ever  shown  ;  but.  at  any  rate,  they  are  the  authors  of  the 
arts  which  have  ameliorated  society,  and  made  the  world  a  comfortable  abiding- 
])Iace  for  man.  Paper-making  is  one  of  these  arts.  It  took  its  rise  among  the 
Moors  of  Spain  ;  and  though  it  spread  from  S|)ain  to  Italy,  and  to  I'rance, 
Holland,  iMig'and,  and  Germany,  and,  in  the  end,  attained  greater  eminence 
in  those  countries  than  in  Spain,  there  is  no  doubt  about  its  birthplace  and  tiie 
people  to  whom  the  world  is  indebted  for  its  invention.  The  Egyptians  made 
paper  from  the  papyrus-plant  in  early  times ;  but  the  product  was  not  paper 


!i 


458 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


in  the  modern  sense  of  the  term.  The  modern  article  was  first  made  by  the 
Moors  in  Spain  about  eight  huntlred  years  ago.  Paper-mills  were  in  operation 
at  Toledo  as  early  as  1085. 

The  manufiicture  of  paper  was  introduced  into  France  about  1314.  It 
Introduction  was  begun  in  Italy  about  1367,  and  in  (lermany  in  1390.  The 
Into  France,    fj^jj^  paper-mill  in  England  was  started  in  Hertfordshire  in  1496. 

The  invention  of  modern  j)apcr  antedated  the  printing-press  by  about  four 
hundred  years.  It  was  not  un  1455  that  (lutenberg  and  Faust  began  print- 
invention  o(  "^8  ^'^^  Bibles  and  i'salters  which  initiated  the  era  of  printing. 
modern  while   paper  had  been  made   from    1085.     The  consumption   of 

paper.  paper  was  small  until  tiic  printing-press  was  introcluccd,  and  even 

then  books  were  too  costly  and  rare  to  create  much  of  a  demand  for  tlie 
material.  The  real  growth  of  the  industry  began  about  simultaneously  with 
the  planting  of  the  English  colonies  in  America.  In  1622  the  first  newspaper 
was  printed  in  l-aigland ;  and  this  ai)iilit:ation  of  the  art  of  printing  gave  a 
spur  to  thought  and  tlie  em|)loyment  of  the  pen,  so  that  paper  came  into 
demand,  and  the  world  was  soon  filled  with  a  flood  of  newspapers,  pamphlets, 
and  books,  as  a  conse(iuence  of  it.  Pai)er-mills  started  up  everywhere  in 
Europe,  and  the  manufacture  soon  became  very  large. 

Vegetable  fibre  was  first  used  for  the  manufacture  of  ])aper  by  the  early 
makers,  direct  from  the  plant ;  and  a  wide  variety  of  fibres  was  used,  diat 
Use  of  vege-  of  flax  l)eing  preferred.  Along  in  the  fourteenth  century  linen  rags 
table  fibres,  came  into  vogue  for  paper-making,  as  being  just  as  good,  and  much 
cheaper.  The  clothing  worn  in  Italy,  Spain,  Portugal,  and  France,  was  largely 
composed  of  linen,  esi)ecially  among  the  j^easantry,  who  wore  scarcely  any 
thing  else.  There  was  in  all  those  countries,  therefore,  an  immense  supply  of 
cast-off  clothing  which  might  be  utilized  in  paper-making,  if  engines  could  be 
made  to  reduce  the  cloth  to  fibre.  Such  engines  were  invented ;  and  after 
1600  Spain,  Italy,  France,  and  Holland  employed  rags  only,  and  attained 
a  great  reputation  for  their  linen  papers.  The  first  three  of  the  countries 
named  produced  fine  papers.  The  linen  rags  of  Hollantl  were  coarser  and 
darker,  and  the  paper  correspondingly  coarse.  In  making  the  ])aper  it  was 
customary  at  first  to  i)ile  the  rags  in  large  stone  vats,  and  allow  them  to  fer- 
ment and  soften  in  water.  They  were  then  reduced  to  i)ulp  by  stamping,  were 
bleached,  washed,  and  felted  into  paper.  In  Holland  the  process  was  im- 
proved, at  least  in  rapidity,  by  employing  a  machine  which  beat  the  rags  witii 
long  steel  knives,  and  reduced  them  to  fibre  with  great  celerity.  The  machine 
took  the  name  of  the  Hollander,  and  has  alwavs  retained  it.  When  cotton- 
clothing  came  into  use.  cotton-rags  were  employed  for  pa])er.  They  have 
since  nearly  superseded  linen-rags,  just  as  cotton-cloth  has  linen. 

The  English  colonies  in  .America  were  large  consumers  of  paper  from  the 
beginning  of  their  career.  "Oiled  ])aper  for  the  windows  "  was  one  of  the 
first  things  the  emigrants  were  exhorted  to  bring  with  them  here  by  those  who 


;    "i  h 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


459 


had  preceded  them  to  the  new  continent.  Printing  was  introduced  at  a  very 
early  date ;  and  newspapers,  pamjihlets,  sermons,  hooks,  and  Uibles  were 
brought  out  on  a  large  scale.  Franklin's  first  work  was  a  pamphlet,  consump- 
and  for  a  long  time  the  product  of  his  i)resses  belonged  chiefly  tion  of  j.aper 
to  that  class  of  publications.  Sermons  were  extensively  printed  '" '=°'°"'"- 
at  that  day :  the  prominence  they  occupied  among  early  American  publica- 
tions can  easily  be  recognized  by  any  one  who  chooses  to  rummage  in  the 
garret  where  the  relics  of  the  early  days  of  his  family  are  stored  away.  After 
1 704  newspapers  were  started  in  all  the  cities  of  the  different  colonies,  and 
l)aper  became  one  of  the  regular  and  profitable  commodities  in  which  every 
importer  to  this  country  traded. 

The  Parliament  of  I'higland  did  not  care  to  see  paper  manufactured  in  the 
colonies  :    enactments  were  accordingly  made  against  it.     I'asteboard  for  the 
l)ressing  of  cloth  was  alone  permittetl.     Iicvertheless,  a  paper-mill 
was  started  among  the  Americans  as-  early  as  1693  in  a  little  village   oppo"^'"(, 
near  Philadeljjhia   named    Roxborough,  where    writing,  printing,   manufacture 
and  wrapping  papers  were   prosperously  made,  until  an  untimely   °'P"P"!" 
freshet  broke  loose  one  day,  and  executed  the  will  of  Parliament 
in  a  summary  manner  by  carrying  away  the  mill,  rags,  vats,  machinery,  and 
all.     In  the  next  generation  after  the  starting  of  this  original  mill   orowth  of 
three  other  factories  were   put  up,  —  one  near  lioston,  one  upon   industry  in 
C'liestcr  Creek  in  Delaware  County,  Penn.,  and  the  third  in  Kli;:a-   ''^^"'o"'"- 
bethtown,  N.J.     The   newspaper  printers  of  the   colonies   were    very  much 
interested  in  the  growth  of  this  industry.     They  were  good  custo  ners  of  the 
mills,  and  an  amjile  supply  of  paper  at   low  prices  was    essen'ial   to  their 
l)rosperity.     Pmidford,  the  fomous   printer  at  New  York,  owne('   the  mill  at 
Klizabethcown  himself;  and  Franklin  assisted  to  build  no  less  than  eighteen 
others  in   the  course  of   his   life.     By    1 769   there  were  forty  paper-making 
estal)lishnients  in   Pennsylvania,  New  Jersey,  and  Delaware.     The  pajier  was 
iiKulc  by  these  early  makers  from  rags  of  cotton  or  linen.     The  pulp  when 
obtained  was  taken  by  ladling  or  dipping  into  a  hand-sieve  or  mould  made 
suitable  to  the  purpose,  and  by  a  rapid  shaking  motion  s])read  evenly  over  the 
whole  bottom  of  the  sieve.     The  water  <lraining  through   the  cloth   left  the 
pulj)  in  a  sheet,  which  was  then  removed,  and  pressed  in  a  pile  with  other 
sheets  (a  piece  of  felt  lying  between   each  sheet),  dried,  and  finished.     The 
process  was  slow,  and  the  product  of  each  mill  small.     After  the  Revolution- 
ary war  broke  out.  the   imjiortations  of  pa])er  stopped,  and   the   Effect  of 
number  of  mills  in  the  colonies,  and  the  variety  of  their  product,   Revoiution- 
inc Teased.     Mr.  Willcox  on  Chester  Creek,  Penn.,  made  the  paper  ^^^  ^^^' 
lor  the  Continental   money  issued  by  Congress.     Py  1787  there  were  sixty- 
three  mills  in  the  States,  forty-eight  being  in  Pennsylvania;  and  in  1791  Alex- 
ander Hamilton  reported  the  business  as  being  among  the  "  considerable  " 
manufactures  of   the  period.     The   qualities    made   were   printing,   writing, 


460 


IND  US  Th'IA  r.    HIS  TOR  Y 


sheathing,  and  wrapping  paper,  pasteboard,  fuller's  or  press  pai)er,  and  iiapci 
for  hangings.  Tongress  did  what  it  could  for  the  manufacture  by  lading  a 
duty  of  seven  and  a  half  per  cent  on  paper  in  i  789,  and  making  rags  free. 
It  has  never  changed  this  policy,  c.xce])t  at  different  times,  when,  to  give  the 
finished  product  more  protection,  it  raised  the  duty.  The  duty  has  at  times 
been  as  high  as  thirty-five  per  cent,  and  is  still  at  that  rate. 

The  principal  hinderance  of  the  early  American  manufiirture  was  the  short 
supply  o>"  the  raw  material.  'I'he  makers  could,  of  course,  have  used  raw  <  otton 
Lack  of  raw  and  raw  flax,  both  of  which  were  al)undant,  and  would  have  made 
material.  remarkably  good  papers,  owing  to  the  length  of  the  fibres;  but 
the  excessive  price  of  the  paper  would  either  have  caused  a  literary  famine  in  the 
land,  or  given  the  luiropeans  absolute  control  of  our  markets.  Shortly  after  the 
panic  of  1837,  when  prices  were  down  and  the  cotton-crop  large,  the  raw  fibre 
of  cotton  was  used  to  some  extent,  but  not  much  ;  and  manufacturers  have 
never,  as  a  rule,  considered  bale  cotton  one  of  their  available  resources  for  raw 
material.  Their  main  dependence  has  always  been  upon  cotton  and  linen 
rags.  In  1804,  in  order  to  encourage  invention  to  pay  some  attention  to  the 
subject  of  raw  fibres  suitable  for  paper-making,  the  American  Comj)any  of 
Booksellers  offered  gold  and  silver  medals  for  the  greatest  (|uantities  and  best 
(jualities  of  paper  made  from  materials  other  than  cotton  and  linen  rags  ;  but  at 
the  same  time  the  comi)any  used  its  best  eflbrts  to  promote  the  saving  of  rags 
among  the  families  of  the  country,  as  being  more  likely  to  be  productive  of 
good.  The  newspapers  seconded  the  effort  to  induce  people  to  save  rags  by 
frecpient  agitation  of  the  subject.  The  Yankee  peddler  did  more 
in  this  direction,  however,  than  all  other  agencies  combined,  by 
carrying  about  the  country  in  his  big  wagon  a  tempting  array  of  bright  new 
tinware,  new  l)rooms,  (Sic,  antl  offering  to  exchange  them  for  good  rags,  whic  h 
he,  on  the  return  from  his  expedition,  sold  for  cash  to  the  i)aper-manutacturers. 
In  the  very  large  cities  the  demand  for  paper  material  afterwards  gave  rise  to  a 
distinct  race  of  people  called  rag-women  and  rag-men.  who  went  about  the 
streets  from  early  dawn  to  sunset  with  iron  hooks,  collecting  all  the  rags  and 
scraps  of  papers  they  could  find  in  the  ash-barrels  and  gutters,  and  selling  tlieni 
to  paper-makers.  The  ready  market  for  rags  soon  led  every  i)rudent  housewite 
to  keep  a  rag-bag,  into  which  all  the  chippings  and  worn-out  cottons  and  linens 
might  go ;  and  the  system  of  collecting  the  rags  was  soon  well  organized. 
Notwithstanding  all  this,  the  consumption  of  paper  in  the  United  States  was 
enormously  in  excess  of  the  production  of  rags,  and  always  has  been.  The  war 
of  1 86 1  promoted  the  consumption  enormously.  The  consequence  has  been, 
that  the  United  States  has  always  had  to  import  rags.  In  1845  the  importa- 
tion had  grown  to  9,000,000  pounds  a  year  ;  in  1855  it  was  40,000,000  pounils  ; 
in  1872  it  was  over  150.000,000  pounds.  It  is  only  since  1873  that  the  im])or- 
tation  has  begun  to  fall  off.  owing  to  the  discovery  of  other  raw  materials ; 
but  the  (quantity  of  foreign  rags  consumed  is  still  75,000,000  pounds  a  year. 


Rag-saving. 


Oh    THE    UMTED    STATES, 


4(^1 


<  I 


terials 
rags. 


The  imported  rags  come   mainly  from   Italy.     Tiie  governments  in  the 
north   of  Muroiic  do  not  favor  the  exportation  of  rags,  especially  those   of 
linen.     At  various  times,   France,   Holland,  Spain,   Portugal,  and    importation 
Belgium  have  absolutely  prohibited  it.     Those  from  the  south  of  °'  '"b*' 
Jlurope  have  been  held  to  be  the  best,  however,  being  whiter  and  finer. 

The  great  scarcity  and  growing  price  of  rags  have  led  to  numerous  experi- 
ments during  the  last  hundred  and  fifty  years,  with  a  view  to  utilizing  other 
raw  materials.     Just  before  our  Revolutionary  war  there  was  great   „  ^  ,.,  .. 

■'  •  "  Substitution 

anxiety  in  Ihirope  in  respect  to  the  supply  of  rags;  and  nearly  of  otht  a- 
every  grass,  i)lant,  and  tree,  which  showed  its  head  above  the  sur- 
fa(  e  of  the  earth,  was  made  a  subject  of  the  devouring  attention 
of  naturalists  and  manufacturers,  with  a  view  to  ascertaining  its  capabilities  lv>r 
jiaper-making.  In  1772  a  book  was  printed  in  (lermany  containing  leaves  of 
jK'per  made  out  of  sixty  different  materials,  among  which  were  shavings,  saw- 
dust, thistles,  cabbage-stalks,  nettles,  the  cones  of  jMne-trees,  and  the  bark  of 
several  trees.  About  i  7.S0  paper  was  made  from  wood  in  (lermany.  None 
of  the  vegetable  fibres  of  Kun  pe  were,  however,  found  to  be  available,  —  either 
because  of  their  scarcity,  or  the  lack  of  a  jiroper  knowledge  of  how  to  reduce 
tiiem, —  except  the  esjjarto-grass  of  Spain.  This  grass,  so  fibrous  as  to  be 
available  for  other  purposes  than  paper-making,  produced  an  excellent  pulp, 
and  was  easily  reduced.  It  became  a  valuable  addition  to  the  resources  of  the 
industry.  Its  ([uantity  being  limited,  experiments  continued  with  other  libres. 
.Straw  was  tried,  and  wood  again;  and  at  length,  in  1854,  .Mellier  invented  a 
plan  for  treating  straw,  under  a  pressure  of  eighty  degrees,  with  caustic  alkali, 
which  cleared  the  fibre  of  silica  and  gum,  and  brought  it  into  the  industry  as 
an  available  material  for  the  cheaper  tpialities  of  news  and  printing  paper.  A 
chemical  process  for  treating  wood  made  dut  material  available  the  same  year. 

The  manufacture  of  paper  from  wood,  stn>  and  hemi),  began  in  the  United 
Stales,  in  conse(iuence  of  these  discoveries,  about  the  year  1861,  at  San 
Lorenzo,  Cal.,  and  in  1S65  at  Manayunk,  IVnn.  The  three  materials  are 
now  very  largely  used,  straw  most  of  all.  It  may  be  mentioned  as  a  curious 
t:ircumstance,  that,  about  fifty  years  ago,  the  idea  was  started  of  using  the 
( otton  or  linen  wrappers  for  paper-making  in  which  the  mummie.>5  of  Egypt 
are  swathed.  The  export  of  these  cloths  actually  began  for  this  purpose, 
and  would  have  continued,  except  that  Mehemet  Ali  wished  to  monopolize 
them  for  his  own  use  in  paper-making  in  I'^gypt. 

A  great  change  has  been  wrought  in  '.he  manufacture  of  i)aper  by  the 
employment  of  machinery  in  place  of  the  old  hand-processes.  The  ])rincipal 
machine  now  used  in  paper-making  is  the  Kourdrinicr  invention,   improve- 

The  world  is  indebted  to  Louis  Robert  of  France  for  this  remarka-   mem  of  ma- 
ble    apparatus.      It  was    brought   into   use  in    1 799,  and  Robert   making 
received  both  a  patent  and  a  jiremium  of  eight  thousand  francs   paper. 
Irom  the  French  (Government..     Leger  Ditlot  carried  it  to  England  in   1802, 


462 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


and  the  Founlrinicrs  perfected  it.  After  1S20  some  of  these  machines 
were  brought  to  the  United  States;  and  about  1S30  I'heljjs  &  Hpofford  of 
Windham,  Conn.,  I»egan  to  make  a  rival  machine,  called  the  "Cylinder 
Machine,"  for  the  trade.  N(;t  long  afterward.  Howe  i\:  (loddard  of  Worcester, 
Mass.,  began  to  make  the  Kourdrinier  machine.  The  aj^jlicalion  of  |h  .ver  to 
the  manufacture  was  a  welcome  idea  to  .Americans.  Labor  was  high  lure,  and 
the  cost  of  hand-moulded  paper  excessive.  'Hie  idea  of  emi)loying  mac  hines 
was  taken  up  joyfully.  The  ma(  hinists  perfected  the  cylinder  and  I'ourdrinicr 
inventi(Mis,  and  contrived  a  large  variety  of  other  mechanical  ex|)edienls  for 
use  in  the  mills;  and  the  improved  processes  made  more  rapid  progress  here 
than  they  did  in  eitiierT-" ranee  or  I'lngland,  which  originated  them.  While 
those  two  countries  continued  to  use  the  hand-moulds  on  an  immense  sc  ale, 
and  still  do  employ  them,  the  L'nited  States  directed  their  whole  effort  to  devel- 
oping machinery  which  should  make  the  best  ipialities  of  paper  automatically 
as  well  as  they  were  made  in  luuope  by  the  other  pro(  (.ss.  The  greatest 
strides  have  Ih'imi  made  since  iiS6i.  Tlie  success  has  been  so  great,  that 
American  machine-made  papers  are  competing  successfully  at  home  and 
abroad  with  those  cast  in  the  hand-moulds. 

Under  the  old  system,  a  pile  of  a  hundred  and  twenty  sheets  of  pa])er. 
formed  by  hand,  consumed  two  weeks  in  the  making  and  fmishing :  now 
Paper-  ^'^'^'  ^^'•^'•'k  is  all  (lone  in  less  than  tour  minutes.     'I'he  milky  pulii. 

making  ()repared  by  grinding,  l)leaching.  and  washing,  flows  from  a  <  is- 

described.  .1  1        r  1  1  •  .      .    1  • 

tern  down  upon  one  end  of  a  long  machine  stretc  lung  across 
a  large  room,  which  is  a  combination  of  endless  aprons,  gangs  of  hea\y 
rollers  arranged  perpendicularly  one  o\er  tiie  other,  cog-wheels,  and  steam 
heating-pii)es.  The  pulp  falls  upon  a  leatiier  apron,  and  flows  in  a  liitK 
cascade  upon  an  endless  wire-cloth,  over  which  the  web  of  paper  is  formed. 
'I'iie  size  of  the  stream  is  regulated  according  to  the  thickness  of  the  paper. 
The  wire-cloth  is  constantly  vibrating  from  side  to  side.  The  motion  spreads 
the  pulp  evenly  over  the  cloth  as  it  would  be  done  by  the  shaking  motion  in 
the  hanil-process  :  it  also  aids  the  felting  of  the  i)arti(  les  of  flbre.  and  the 
drainage  of  the  water  through  the  wire-cloth.  The  greater  part  of  the  water 
having  (hsappeared,  and  left  a  moist  web  on  the  cloth  as  it  slowly  travels 
away  from  the  leather  apron,  the  web  is  tak'.'u  up  through  a  pair  of  rollers 
covered  with  flannel,  which  give  it  a  slight  pressure,  scpieezing  out  some  of 
the  remaining  moisture,  and  condensing  the  web.  The  web  goes  through 
between  a  second  pair  of  wet  press-rolls,  and  is  then  taken  up  l)y  an  endless 
felt  apron,  which  carries  it  to  a  fresh  set  of  rolls,  which  scpieeze  it  more 
severely,  and  leave  the  paper  stron^j  and  dry  enough  to  go  on  without  the 
support  of  the  aprons.  It  travels  along  now  between  pressing-njlls  anfl  over 
the  surface  of  steel  cylinders  heated  by  steam,  anil,  after  ])assing  over  about 
thirty  or  forty  feet  of  heated  surface,  reaches  the  end  of  its  journey,  and  is 
wound  up  tightly  on  a  large  roller,  —  an  endless  sheet  of  paper.     The  machine 


■:■■■  <n\  V 

llil„i' 


0/'     THE    UNITED    STATES. 


463 


moves  at  the  rate  of  from  twenty-five  to  forty  feet  a  mir.i'tc.  The  paper  is 
made  at  tlie  rate  of  from  tliree  to  five  miles  a  day.  From  tiie  paper-making 
mat  liine  the  roll  j;oes  to  the  ealenderin)^  and  tutting  machinery;  though 
sometimes  the  ( utting  is  done  at  the  enil  of  the  first  process  by  the  action 
of  a  pair  of  shears,  the  paper  coming  from  the  I'ourdrinier  mac  hine  in  sheets 
instead  of  in  a  web.  Calendering  is  done  by  passing  the  paper  between  two 
nillers,  one  of  polished  ; opper,  the  (jther  covered  with  paper.  Ihe  pressure 
of  the  rolls  is  enormous,  an.i  the  paper  comes  from  between  them  < ompacted 
and  with  a  beautiful  surface.  I.etler-|)aper  receives  its  power  to  take  ink 
without  blotting,  not  only  by  good  ( alendering,  but  by  sizing  the  pa|)er,  the 
latter  being  the  more  essential. 


HDl.YOkli    lAll-.U    LiiMlANV,    llOI.Vi  IKI.,    MASS. 

Ever  since  the  application  of  machinery,  about  the  year  1X30,  the  impor- 
tation of  foreign  pajjers  t(/  the  United  Slates  has  fallen  off.  The  importations 
i)revious   to  that  ilate  were  hea\v,  and  were  carried   to  such  an   ^ 

'  •  Decrease  in 

extent,  that,  for  a  long  time  jjrevious  to   1.S25,  the  United-.States   importation 

Senate  actually  used  paper  which  was  not  only  of  foreign  manu-    °'  foreign 

^  '     '  y  o  papers. 

taclure,  but  which  bore  the  water-mark  (remarkably  out  of  j)lace 

in  a  republic  like  this)  of  "Napoleon,  l-aiipereur  et  R(ji,  i<Si3."  During  the 
late  war,  and  for  a  few  years  afterwards,  the  amount  of  the  imjwrtations  was 
from  one  to  three  million  dollars'  worth  a  year.  'I'his  was  an  ajjparent  in- 
( rease ;  but  it  only  took  place  because  there  was  a  demand  for  elegant  writing- 
papers   consequent  upon   the   demands  of  fashion,  and   the  percentage  of 


464 


IND  US  TRIA  L    IHS  TON  Y 


\ 

,    rf  ,;         ,r 

.      i          1' 

'     '  '■            '  *  ■ 

>l  1            '  '  J 

■  '  ,          , 

K,_: 


N 


foreign  jjapcrs  to  the  total  amount  ronsiiined  was  really  smaller  than  ever. 
Tne  importations  soon  fell  away  again,  lielgium  (eased  to  send  us  her  cheap 
news  and  book  papers,  wliic  h  had  been  consumed  in  New  Wnk  to  a  large 
extent.  The  orders  for  the  I'Venc  h  and  Mnglisii  writing,  ledger,  fancy,  and 
tissue  i)apers,  began  to  stop  ;  and  after  1871,  the  year  of  greatest  im|)ortation, 
consumption  of  foreign  papers  dwindled  rapidly  away,  until  it  rea(  hed  tlu' 
very  insignificant  figure  of  511,17813  in  the  whole  year  of  1S77,  the 
total  production  of  this  country  being  about  j»6o,ooo,ooo  worth  a  year. 
One  London  house,  which  ten  years  ago  sent  ^'30,000  worth  of  paper 
to  this  country,  had  ceased  to  pay  any  attention  to  this  trade.  While  this 
extraordinary  change  was  taking  place,  an  export  of  .American  papers  sprang 
up,  Hefore  the  war  there  had  been  an  exjjort  to  South  .\merica ;  but 
it  was  discontinued  in  18O1.  It  was  resumed  after  the  war.  It  grew  so 
Exportation  fast,  that  it  rose  from  53.777  '"  ^^^9  *"  593.S,ooo  in  1877. 
of  paper.  Ameriiaii  manufacturers  discovered  in  i86y,  wiiat  they  had  not 
really  l)een  consc'iously  aware  of  before,  that  their  machine-made  papers 
were  of  as  good  a  ([uality  as  the  foreign  hand-made,  and  that  they  could 
comi)ete  in  foreign  markets  for  their  sale.  They  organized  in  1877  for  (oii- 
certed  action  in  pushing  the  export  of  paper.  Forty-one  firms  unileil  in  a 
movement  to  send  agents  to  England  and  to  South  .Amer'ca  to  see  what  ( ould 
he  done;  and  they  succeeded,  not  only  in  selling  their  |)apers  of  all  kinds  in 
South  America,  but  also  in  England,  in  competition  wiih  the  local  manufac- 
turers of  that  kingdom.  Their  writing-papers  were  fcund  to  withstand  th<: 
moist  climate  of  England  better  than  the  ICnglish-made,  American  bank-note, 
bond,  news,  book,  and  writing  papers  now  go  to  South  America  freely.  Tlie 
writing,  ledger,  and  plate  papers  go  to  England.  The  thin  manilas  gc;  all 
over  the  world.  Wrapping-papers  go  to  the  West  Indies.  The  range  and 
amount  of  the  sales  is  rapidly  increasing,  and  the  United  States  is  now  fairly 
in  the  field  for  producing  a  part  of  the  world's  supply  of  paper. 

In  1872  there  were  812  paper-mills  in  the  United  States,  principally  in 
Massachusetts,  New  York,  and  Pennsylvania.  They  employed  22,000  jx'oplc. 
Number  of  and  produced  317,637  tons  of  paper,  or  a  little  over  1,000  tons  a 
mills.  ^\^y^  ([•^Q  value  of  the  same  being  $66,500,000.     Of  the  total  ])io(l- 

uct  Massachusetts  made  one-third.  Since  1872  about  eighty  mills  have  been 
added.  It  is  believed  that  there  are  now  no  hand-made  paper  establishments 
in  the  country.  Machinery  drove  them  all  out  of  existence.  Two  lingered 
along  until  within  a  very  few  years,  —  one  in  Massachusetts,  and  one  in  Penn- 
sylvania,—  when  they,  too,  "folded  their  tents,  and  silently  stole  away." 
E  1  use  f  Paper-hangings  were  first  offered  for  sale  in  America  in  1737  ; 
paper-hang-  but  they  were  little  used,  except  in  families  of  wealth,  before  1 750. 
Their  use  was  regarded  as  sinful  luxury  and  ostentation.  White- 
washed walls  began  to  be  regarded  as  something  less  than  of  the 
highest  beauty  and  moral  worth  only  about  the  time  of  the  Revolution  :  those 


ings  in  the 
colonies. 


OF  T/fE   UNITED  STATES. 


4^>5 


who  could  afford  them  then  bought  the  Knglisli  and  French  hangings,  and  put 
them  in  their  houses.     'I'hey  were  so  costly,  that  they  were  not  pasted  upon 
the  walls,  hut  were  merely  hung  upon  them,  or  placed  against  them,  attacheil 
to   frames.      Ihey  were   fre(|uently  moved  from  house  to  house,    imported 
'I'heir   manufacture  was  begun  upon  a  small  scale  in  1763;  and   from 
by  17.S7   there  were  small   factories   in    Moston,    New  Jersey,  and      "«'■»• 
JVnnsylvania.     'I'he   paper   for  ihcm  was   fabric.ited   from   the  coarsest  and 
iheapest  rags,  and  even   from  woollen  stuff.      It  was  made  in  sheets  thirty 
inches   long,  which   were   pasted    together   neatly  in  strips  lont:   ^. 

•^  10  J  \  f^     First  manu- 

cnough  to  reach  from  tloortcxeiling  ;  and  the  pattern  was  stamped   facturet  in 
ui)on  them  with  wooden  blocks  bv  hand.      In  17X0   lohnCarncs    'J""*'' 
ol  Delaware,  who  had  been  consul  at  Lyons,  resolved  to  enter  upon 
the  manufacture  of  paper-hangings  on  a  larger  scale  than  had  been  conunon  in 
the  ' oimtry.     lie  associated  himself  with  Hurrell  C'arnes  and  two  French  work- 
men by  the  names  of  Le  CoUay  and  Chardon,  and  they  went  into  business  at 
riiiladelphia  extensively.     The  hangings  prochu  ed  by  these  early  makers  were 
of  a  very  (heap  description  ;  but  they  sufficed  to  introduce  color  and  form 
into  tile  decoration  of  houses,  and  were  very  extensively  bought  by  the  peo|)le. 
Hoston  was  producing  24,000  pieces  yearly  by  1794.     I5y  1810  four  establish- 
ments  in  the  vicinity  of  I'hilad'lphia  were   producing  140,000  pieces  yearly, 
worth  ^97,41  7  ;  and  Providence    as  making  8,000  jjieces,  worth  S8,ooo,  yearly. 
The   best  papers  were,  of  course,   imported  from    France  and    Fngland, 
where  the  arts  of  design  and  decoration  found  rich  i)atrons,  and  had  been 
practised  for  generations.     People  of  fashion  we;e  in  the  habit  of  import,, 
putting  none  except  French  and  Fnglish  i)apers  on  their  walls,  at   tions 
least  in  their  best  rooms.     The  American   makers,  for  fifty  years 
after  the   Revolution,  aspired  to  do  little   excejit  to  suj)ply  the  mass  of  the 
people  with  cheap  hangings.     The  prettiest  of  the  jjapers  they  made  were  in 
imitation  of  the  foreign  styles  ;  but  a  part  of  their  goods  were  in  original  styles, 
and  were  frecpiently  extremely  imi(iue.     The  writer  has  a  sample  of  a  ])a])er 
made  at  Albany  in  18 12  by  Barnard  &  Steele,  which  was  called   ..The  battle 
"the  battle  of  Lake  l^rie  "  paper.     It  had  pictures  in  black  and  of  r.aice 
gray,  on  a  white  ground,  representing  in  a  vague  and  ideal  sort  of     ""    p^p""' 
way  three  scenes  in  that  Himous  naval  conflict.     The  pi  :tures  were  about  two 
feet  apart,  and  a  wall  papered  with  the  hanging  must  have  been  a  bewildering 
object  to  look  at.     Patriotic  scenes  were  common,  the  pattern  deriving  its 
interest  solely  from   association  of  ideas,   and  not  from  its  material  beauty. 
Another  cjueer  paper  much  in  use  in  those  early  days  was   the    "  rainbow 
paper,"  invented  about  1830  by  the  sons  of  John  15.  Howell  at  Philadelphia. 
Fnormous  fern-leaves  covered  the  surfiicc  of  the  jiaper,  the  hues  of  which 
shaded  from  dark  brown  at  one  end  to  light  yellow  at  the  other,  wiiile  the 
grounds  shaded  from  light  blue  to  dark  blue.     This  shading  of  grounds  and 
l)atterns  soon  became  verv  common. 


continued. 


466 


tND  VS  TUFA  I.    /lis  TO  A'  Y 


All  the  printing  was  done  by  hand,  with  a  wooden  Mork  twenty  inrhcs 
«f|uari'  anil  three  in(  hes  thi(  k.  'I'hc  ( olor  was  first  spread  upon  a  blanket. 
M>  de  of  1  lie  hlurk  was  laid  on  the   blanket  to  receive   its  < olor,  and  wan 

printing.  ^|^^.n  applied  to  the  strip  of  wall-paper,  metal  i)ins  at  the  <  orner 
markinj;  places  on  the  strip  to  guide  the  printer  in  applying  future  colors. 
Pressure  was  applied  to  the  block  by  a  treadle  operated  by  the  printer's  foot. 
After  each  impression  the  strip  of  paper  was  pushed  along,  and  a  new  impres- 
sion made,  until  the  hanging  had  receivcil  its  piinting  from  one  end  to  the 
other.  If  the  pattern  was  in  more  than  one  color,  the  paper  was  htmg  up  to 
<iry  after  receiving  each  color,  and  then  taken  down  and  subjected  to  the  same 
pri)cess,  each  tint  being  put  on  separately  and  by  a  different  block.  This  was 
a  tedious  process,  and  one  man  and  one  boy  could  print  only  a  hundred  rolls 
of  one-colored  paper  a  day.  If  six  colors  had  to  go  on,  it  would  take  a  week. 
The  process  was  identical  with  that  for  printing  calicoes  and  dress-goods. 
The  ground-:  of  these  old  papers  were  generally  white,  and  in  the  patterns  a 
great  deal  of  red,  yellow,  and  brown  was  used.  The  fashionable  l'"rench 
papers  were  generally  horrible  combinations  of  yellow,  gilt,  brown,  and  white, 
the  floral  and  leaf  patterns  being  of  enormous  si/e,  and  the  borders  twelve  or 
eighteen  inches  wiile.  Oftentimes,  however,  the  imported  papers  represented 
scenes  in  a  garden,  classic  legends,  iS:c.,  the  room  i)apered  with  them  resem- 
bling a  panorama.  A  paper  exhibited  at  one  of  the  world's  fairs,  representing 
a  chase  in  the  forest,  recpiired  the  aid  of  twelve  thousand  blocks  in  the  print- 
ing.    In  1824  glazed  grounds  began  to  be  introduced. 

After  1820  the  business  grew  very  rapidly.  The  Fourdrinier  paper-machine 
enabled  the  material  for  the  hanging  to  be  produced  in  rolls,  obviating  the 
Growth  of  costly  old  process  of  j)asting  the  thirty-inch  sheets  together  by 
business  hand,  and  cheapening  the  expense  of  the  finished  hangings  im- 
«fter  1  20.  menscly.  Then  in  1S43  a  machine  for  printing  two  colors  was 
introduced  into  the  business,  and,  within  ten  years  afterwards,  one  which  would 
print  in  six  colors.  This  machine  soon  superseded  all  the  hand-printing  of 
ordinary  papers  in  this  country.  This  still  further  cheapened  the  cost,  and 
increased  the  sale  of  hangings.  Other  machinery  was  soon  invented.  For- 
merly, whenever  the  ground  of  the  hanging  was  colored,  the  stain  was  laid  on 
by  hand.  A  machine  was  now  constructed  to  brush  on  the  color  automatically. 
Others  were  contrived  for  cutting  up  the  long  rolls  of  jjaper  into  strips  of 
proper  length  for  sale,  for  rolling  up  the  strips,  for  brushing  the  jinper  to 
produce  the  satin  finish,  for  embossing  the  paper,  and  for  other  purposes. 
The  printing-machine  was  still  further  improved.  The  manufacturers  did  not 
stop  with  six  colors,  but  put  roller  after  roller  into  the  machine  until  its 
capacity  had  been  increased  to  twenty  colors.  Each  color  was  laid  on  by  a 
separate  roller,  and  the  long  wcl)  of  paper  passed  from  one  to  the  other  until 
it  had  taken  them  all ;  and  it  then  passed  off  to  a  frame,  which  caught  it  up  in 
a  succession  of  long  folds,  and  carried  it  slowly  across  the  foom  to  dry.     One 


OF    THE    UNITED   STATES. 


467 


1  not 

nil  its 

1  by  ^ 

ier  until 

t  up  in 

One 


roll  applied  varnish  to  the  paper,  and  to  this  K'Idin;,'  was  afterwards  applicji  l>y 
dii'^ting  it  on.  I(y  our  present  pro(  ess  cnc  n)a«  iiine  can  tui'n  unt  in  one  day 
troni  three  thousand  to  live  thousand  rolls  of  hanj{inns  printed  in  any  number 
of  color-,  from  one  to  twenty  :  by  tl-.e  old  |>ro«  ess  this  work  would  have  em- 
ployed a  man  and  a  boy  for  a  year  and  a  half,  'i'he  beauty  of  the  papers  and 
their  ( heapness  continually  im|)rovi;d  with  this  application  of  machinery. 
Colored  j^rounds  were  (generally  introduced  in  place  of  tla-  (old  white  grounds, 
and  richer,  darker,  and  prettier  patterns.  Some  hand  printing,'  of  the  more 
costly  pa|)ers  has  still  continued  to  be  done  ;  but  Aineric  an  machinery  is 
steadily  enc  roac  hinj^  on  the  territory  of  hand-work,  and,  for  all  except  the 
papers  costing  from  three  dollars  to  eight  dollars  a  roll,  the  work  is  so  well 
done,  that  experienced  judges  cannot  tell  which  is  machine-made  and  which 
hand-made.  In  l""rancc  and  Kngland  the  manufacturers  ding  to  the  hand- 
])roc  esses ;  they  regard  the  product  as  clearer  in  print.  Yet,  within  the  last 
three  yeai"s,  .American  makers  have  taken  English  patterns  and  printed  them 
by  machine,  and  sent  the  papers  bac  k  to  I'ingland,  where  they  defied  dis- 
crimination from  the  others  by  the  most  experienced  eye. 

The  fact  that  the  large  cities  of  the  United  States  are  the  best  customers 
of  the  paper-hanging  makers  has  led  them  to  assemble  their  factories  of  late 
years  near  those  centres  of  population.  Formerly  the  factories  Location  of 
were  scattered  through  New  Mngland  and  the  Middle  States  in  '•<='<"'«»• 
the  rural  cities  and  villages,  where  water-power  was  plenty,  or  taxes  light : 
now  the  concern  of  J.  R.  liigelow  &  Company  at  iJoslon  is  the  only  one  in 
New  I'jigland  ;  and  the  most  prosperous  and  largcs*  concerns  in  addition  to 
I'.igelow's  are  centred  in  New  York,  llrooklyn,  and  riiiladelphia.  One  advan- 
tage of  having  large  fac;tories  in  a  city  is,  that  the  jieople  of  the  place  can  go 
to  the  factory,  select  a  pattern,  and  have  enough  of  the  hanging  made  in  any 
si)ecial  c:olor  or  tone  to  match  their  carpets  and  furniture.  In  i860  there 
were  twenty-six  paper-hanging  factories  in  the  United  States,  making  $1,037,- 
600  worth  of  hangings  a  year.  The  business  has  increased  in  amomit ;  but 
the  number  of  factories  has  dec  rcased.  There  were  in  1S70  only  fifteen  fac- 
tories ;  but  they  produced  J"2, 200,000  wortli  of  hangings :  since  then  the 
l)ro(luction  has  increased  nearly  $1,000,000  worth. 

There  is  in  paper-hangings,  as  in  silver  and  gokl  ware,  architecture,  and 
decoration  generally,  a  need  of  distinctive  American  styles.  American  flowers 
and  leaves  are  largely  used  in  the  c:lieaper  paper ;  but  in  the  costly  style  in 
kinds,  by  which  the  art  of  decorating  i)aper-hangings  must  be  pap*"- 
judged,  there  is  still  the  same  imitation  of  foreign  patterns  which  was  common 
a  iumdred  years  ago.  Manufacturers  copy  the  French  and  l^nglish  ideas 
habitually.  Two  manufacturers  in  New  York  are  trying  to  introduce  their  own 
designs  in  expensive  paper;  but  their  inspiration  is  still  the  fo. cign  decora- 
tions. One  concern,  that  of  Leissner  &  Louis,  devotes  itself  largely  to  making 
patterns  in  the  anticjue  styles,  producing  papers  in  the   Egyptian,   Persian, 


''■  '    •:%», 


468 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


Greek,  Pompeiian,  or  any  other  style  to  order.  There  is  great  need  of  eman- 
cipation from  the  influence  of  the  ideas  ot  the  Old  World,  and  the  con- 
trivance of  designs  in  a  pure  American  spirit. 

Not  only  are  the  styles  of  pajjcr  constantly  changing,  but  the  tastes  of 
people  also  change  concerning  their  use.  Only  a  few  years  ago  it  was  gener- 
ally believed  that  many  kinds  of  wall-paper  were  unhealthy,  because  of  the 
Painted  vs.  poisouous  ingredients  put  into  the  coloring-materials ;  while  the 
paper  waUs.  paste  ustd  in  sticking  papers  to  the  wall  attracted  moisture,  making 
rooms  damper  than  ihey  would  otherwise  be.  Accordingly,  a  perioil  of  gen- 
eral wall-scraping  was  inaugurated.  Having  been  thoroughly  cleaned  of  old 
paper  and  paste,  walls  were  painted  ;  it  being  everywhere  admitted  that  the 
colors  adopted  were  healthy,  as  well  as  more  pleasing  to  the  eye.  But,  now 
taste  is  setting  once  more  in  the  opposite  direction,  colored  walls  are  being 
re-covered  witli  paper,  the  most  stylish  mode  of  putting  it  on  being  to  use 
three  shades,  —  the  lightest  shade  for  the  middle  or  body  of  the  wall,  a  darker 
shade  for  the  top,  and  a  still  darker  for  the  bottom.  By  and  by  we  shall 
doubtless  hear  of  another  change,  made  as  suddenly  as  this ;  and  perhaps 
wall-papers  may  be  discarded  altogether. 

The  importation  of  foreign  hangmgs  has  been  at  times  very  large,  but 
never  so  large  as  since  the  war.  In  iSj/  it  amounted  to  $982,000  worth  : 
since  then  it  has  fallen  to  almost  nothing.  A  large  export  has  sprung  up  in 
its  place,  especially  to  South  America,  Canada,  and  the  West  In<Jies. 


'^^ 


%^.. 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


469 


v\ 


Dupont. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

GUNPOWDER   AND    FIREWORKS. 

WHEN  old  Putnam  stormed  and  fumed  about  the  earthworks  on  the 
hills  overlooking  Boston,  and  cried,  "  Powder,  powder  !   O  ye  gods, 
give  us  powder  !  "  the  quality  of  the  article  he  then  sighed  for  so  ardently  was 
extremely  poor.     This  inflammable  material  had  been  in  use  for  four  hundred 
years ;  but  the  smoke,  flame,  and  ashes  it  made  were  out  of  all  proper  propor- 
tion to  its  power.     The  quantity  then  made  in  tht  United  States 
was  not  so  large  per  annum  as  would  be  consumed  in  one   of  works  during 
our  modern   mining-regions   in  a  week,  or  in   one  lively  battle.   *^"  Revoiu- 
The  government  started  pnwder-works  during  the  Revolution  to 
insure  a  supply  of  that  necessary  munition  of  war;  but  it  was  not  until  1802 

—  when    a   Frenchman   by  the   name   of  Eleuthere   Irene   Du- 
pont started  a  factory  on  the  Brandywine,  near  Wilmington,  Del. 

—  that  powder  of  any  great  excellence  was  made  upon  our  soil.  Dupont 
had  had  a  chemical  education,  and,  noticing  the  poor  cjuality  of  American 
powder,  resolved  to  supply  the  rising  young  republic  with  an  article  which 
would  obviate  the  inconveniences  of  an  explosive  which  fouled  the  musket 
badly,  and  which  would  make  the  country  more  formidable  in  war  and  peace. 
The  demands  of  the  i)eoi)le  of  the  several  States  for  sporting-powder  and  for 
military  powder  with  which  to  fight  Indians,  and  the  hostilities  with  England 
which  began  in  181 2,  gave  Dupont  all  he  could  do  in  the  way  of  manufacture. 
He  repeatedly  enlarged  his  factory  ;  and  when  he  died,  in  1834,  his  c^^n^lish- 
ment  was  the  largest  of  the  kind  in  the  country :  it  has  since  then  become 
the  largest  in  the  world.  The  war  of  181 2  led  to  the  establishment  of  other 
factories  of  powder,  especially  in  Pennsylvania,  which  has  always  been  a  large 
consumer  of  powder,  and,  by  all  odds,  the  largest  manufacturer.  The  factories 
were  generally  small,  and  were  located  in  ijlaces  remote  from  other 

.  ,  ,  ,-r  1  •     ,    ,  ■,  ,       Manufacture 

property,  m  order  not  to  endanger  life  and  capital  by  a  possible   of  powder 
explosion.      During  the   war  of    1861  the  (luantities  of  powder  duringrecent 
consumed  in  the  United  States  we  e  enormous.     The  resources  of 
the  existing  factories  were  taxed  to  supply  the  market  which  was  so  suddenly 


470 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


i/>liU 

■•1 

ral 

'J  . 
it  1 

^H  s 

1 

■Hif  li 

:ii 

HBlii  1- 

B 

^^nfllli 

II 

1  1 

1  f 

i  i 

i 

if-- 

1 

1 

and  unexpectedly  created.  It  was  necessary  to  start  new  factories  to  meet  the 
requirements  of  the  times.  By  1870  there  were  thirty-three  powder-factories 
in  full  operation  in  the  United  States,  fifteen  of  them  being  in  Pennsylvania, 
Factories  f've  in  New  York,  three  in  C.'ahfornia,  two  in  Connecticut,  and  two 
In  1870.  jn  Ohio.     One  of  those  in  Connecticut  was  that  of  the  Hazard 

Powder  Company  of  Hazardville,  a  celebrated  concern :  another  was  the 
Laflin  &  Rand  concern  of  New-York  City. 

In  a  country  like  the  United  States  there  must  always  be  a  great  demand 
for  powerful  explosives.  We  have  few  -)r  no  wars  of  jealousy  and  concpiest 
Need  of  to  fight ;  but  we  have  a  million  railroads,  canals,  and  streets  which 

powder.  must  be  laid  out  on  direct  and  level  routes,  regardless  of  rocks 

and  mountains ;  and  they  could  never  be  laid  out  and  built,  with  any  regard 
to  levels  and  straight  lines,  without  the  aid  of  powerful  explosives  to  shatter 
the  rocks,  and  remove  them  from  the  way.  We  have  a  million  mines  of 
gold,  silver,  copper,  and  iron,  and  quarries  of  stone,  to  work,  whose  treasures 
would  be  almost  inaccessible,  except  for  the  agency  of  gunpowder  and  nitro- 
glycerine. There  are  reefs  and  rocks  to  be  cleared  out  of  the  harbors  ;  there 
are  guns  to  be  fired  on  occasions  of  public  holiday ;  there  are  fireworks  to 
be  burned  at  festivals,  and  rockets  and  mortars  to  be  fired  by  life-saving  crews. 
Leaving  aside  the  whole  subject  of  the  demands  of  the  army  and  navy  of 
the  United  States,  and  of  the  militia  regiments  of  the  several  States,  the 
legitimate  demands  of  the  engineering  works,  the  mines,  and  amusements  of 
our  people,  are  still  sufficient  of  themselves  to  create  a  necessity  for  a  large 
manufacture  of  gunpowder  and  explosives.  Not  long  since,  a  blast  was  fired 
in  a  limestone  quarry  of  the  Glendon  Iron  Company,  at  I'^aston,  Penn.,  which 
contained  a  charge  of  twelve  thousand  pounds  of  mortar-powder,  displacing 
sixty  thousand  tons  of  rock.  The  legiti.iiate  demands  of  the  United  States 
now  amount  to  over  twenty  million  pounds  of  powder  annually.  The  manu- 
facture is  larger  than  that,  however,  because  there  is  an  export  of  gun- 
powder to  Europe  and  South  America  constantly,  both  in  the  form  of 
cartridges,  and  loose  in  kegs.  The  export  trade  is  irregular,  and  depends 
largely  on  the  progress  of  hostilities  abroad  :  but,  whenever  there  is  war,  there 
is  always  a  demand  for  American  powder ;  and,  as  the  monarchies  of  Europe 
or  the  nations  of  Asia  are  in  a  quarrel  about  half  of  the  time,  there  is  very 
seldom  a  year  in  which  more  or  less  of  our  powder  does  not  go  abroad. 
About  half  the  powder  used  in  the  Crimean  war  is  said  to  have  been 
bought  in  America :  a  great  deal  of  that  which  the  Turks  used  in  the  late 
war  was  certainly  bought  here. 

Crunpowder  is  made  of  three  ingredients, — charcoal,  nitre,  and  sulphur, — 
Powder,  in  proportions  which  vary  slightly,  according  to  the  use  to  which 
how  made,  jj^g  powder  is  to  be  devoted.  The  ingredients  are  combined  by 
weight.  The  following  are  four  of  thv.  more  common  proportions,  the  recipes 
being  for  a  hundred  pounds  of  powder  each  :  — 


OF   THE    UNITED    STATES. 


47» 


Atomic  theory 
United-States  military 
Sporting  . 
Blasting  . 


NITRB. 

CHARCOAL. 

SULPHUR. 

74.64 

ns^ 

11.85 

76 

14 

10 

78 

12 

10 

62 

18 

20 

The  nitre  is  reduced  in  quantity  for  blasting-powder  in  order  to  cheapen 
the  cost  and  lessen  the  rapidity  of  combustion.  For  most  purposes  of  blast- 
ing, a  sustained  and  increasing  push  is  better  than  a  sudden  and  terrific  shock, 
A  strong  and  cheap  blasting-powder  is  also  made  by  using  nitrate  of  soda 
instead  of  nitrate  of  potassa  or  nitre.  The  ingredients  are  mixed  in  the 
very  highest  state  of  purity.  The  sulphur  and  nitre  are  carefully  and  ^on- 
scientiously  refined  before  the  mixing  takes  place.  It  is  desired  that  the 
powder  shall  burn  away  completely,  without  rcsidiumi  or  ash ;  and  it  will  not 
do  this  if  impurities  are  present.  The  charcoal  is  obtained  from  slender 
willow-shoots,  or  from  poplar,  in  the  United  States.  The  trees  are  generally 
cultivated  by  the  owners  of  the  factories.  In  Europe  the  alder  is  used,  and 
in  Russia  the  white-birch.  The  wood  is  charred  in  red-hot  iron  cylinders, 
and  ground  when  cold  by  rolling  in  a  barrel  with  zinc  balls.  The  ingredients 
are  all  reduced  to  powder :  they  are  then  mixed  in  the  proper  quantities, 
and  sent  to  the  grinding-mill  in  quantities  of  about  fifty  pounds  at  a  time. 
The  incorporation  of  the  ingredients  is  a  very  important  matter,  and  the 
grinding,  is  therefore,  very  carefully  attended  to.  It  takes  place  in  a  circular 
trough  of  cast-iron,'  in  which  cast-irqn  wheels  of  three  or  four  tons'  weight 
follow  each  other  slowly  around  in  a  circle,  crushing  the  powder  under  them 
as  they  pass  along.  The  powder  is  kept  moistened  throughout  the  operation. 
After  grinding,  the  powder  is  subjected  to  heavy  pressure  between  copper 
plates,  and  is  thus  reduced  to  a  cake.  It  is  then  broken  up  into  grains,  either 
by  mallets  or  toothed  rollers,  glazed  by  rolling  in  barrels  so  as  to  enable  the 
grains  the  better  to  resist  moisture,  dried,  sifted,  and  cleaned  of  dust. 

The   relative   proportion   of  the  ingredients  causes  the  powder  to  burn 
slowly  or  rapidly.     This  idea  was  taken  advantage   of  by  Gen.   j    ^j^^  ^j 
Rodman,  U.S.A.,  in   1856,  in  order  to  produce  a  powder  suited  powder, 
to  large  cannon.     He  conducted  a  series  of  experiments  with  "^ow  deter- 
powders,  and  was  the  first  in  the  world  to  produce  an  explosive 
suited  to  modern  artillery.     His  powders  were  made  in  two  forms.     One, 
called  the  "  mammoth,"  was  in  irregular  grains,  from  six-tenths  to 

Rodman. 

nuie-tenths  of  an  inch  m  diameter :    the  other,  called  the  "  per- 
forated cake,"  was  in  hexagonal  or  cylindrical  grains,  perforated  with  six  or 
ten  holes.     Gen,  Rodman  gained  slow  combustion  by  these  varieties  of  pow- 
der, and  consequently  greater  initial  velocity  at  the  mouth  of  the  gun,  with 


472 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


l(iuiji;i;-iixi'i.osioN, 


OF  THE    UNITED    STATES. 


473 


less  recoil.  The  heavy  guns  used  in  the  war  of  1861  were  supplied  with 
the  Rodman  powder.  It  is  related,  that  in  many  cases,  when  light  bat- 
teries or  infantry  regiments  were  deployed  in  front  of  the  heavy  guns,  on 
lower  ground,  but  close  to  them,  the  men  of  the  latter  were  sometimes 
hit  and  wounded  with  kernels  of  the  powder  which  had  not  been  burned. 
Rodman's  idea  was  adopted  in  Europe  as  soon  as  it  became  known.  The 
English  pebble  and  pellet  powders,  and  the  Russian  prismatic,  are  the  out- 
growth of  it. 

The  power  of  gunpowder  is  enormous.  Water  expands  seventeen  hundred 
times  in  becoming  steam  ;  but  gunpowder  expands  into  a  greater  volume  of 
gases,  and  \ts  tension  is  enormously  promoted  by  the  heat  gener-  Power  of 
ated  in  combustion.  One  early  experimenter  in  this  country  con-  gunpowder, 
fined  twenty-eight  grains  of  powder  in  a  cylindrical  space  which  it  exactly 
filled  :  when  fired,  it  burst  a  piece  of  iron  which  would  have  resisted  a  strain 
of  four  hundred  thousand  pounds.  A  mortar  loaded  with  one-twentieth  of  an 
ounce  of  powder,  and  having  a  twenty-four-pounder  cannon  laid  on  top  of  it, 
was  burst  by  the  explosion,  and  the  cannon  lifted.  Various  experimenters  have 
arrived  at  different  results  in  testing  the  pressure  of  gunpowder  before  being 
relieved  by  expansion,  the  product  of  force  ranging  from  seven  to  662  tons' 
pressure  to  the  square  inch.  The  average  force  of  gunpowder  is  rated  at  forty 
tons  to  the  square  inch. 

Within  the  last  sixty  years  a  number  of  other  explosives  have  been  added 
to  the  list  with  gunpowder,  some  of  which  have  been  extremely  useful  in 
engineering.  The  first  was  discovered  in  1832  in  Euroi)e  by  other  expio- 
Braconnet,  who  found  that  starch  dissolved  in  nitric  acid,  and  pre-  ^'^'*- 
cipitated  with  water,  becomes  explosive  by  concussion.  Braconnet  called  his 
new  powder  xyloidine.  Shortly  afterward  Pclouse  treated  paper  and  cotton 
and  linen  fabrics  with  nitric  acid,  and  got  an  equally  explosive  product,  which 
he  called  pyroxyline.  The  new  substance  was  so  destructive,  that 
a  peaceful  old  stocking  treated  with  nitric  acid  became  so  incen- 
diary and  energetic  as  to  be  able  to  blow  up  a  house.  In  1846  Schonbein 
made  gun-cotton  by  the  use  of  nitric  and  sulphuric  acid,  and  great  attention 
was  paid  to  the  new  product  all  over  the  world.  (lun-cotton  has  since  been 
made  to  some  extent  in  two  forms.     In  one,  long-staple  cotton  is 

.  '  Gun-cotton. 

subjected  to  the  action  of  one  part  of  nitric  and  three  of  sulphuric 
acid,  and  put  through  a  long  series  of  washings  in  water  and  dryings,  and  ])oil- 
ing  in  alkaline  solutions.  The  staple  is  twisted  into  ropes,  or  woven  into  cloth, 
for  use.  In  the  other,  or  English  process,  the  staple  is  beaten  into  pulp,  as  in 
paper-making,  after  being  treated  with  nitric  and  sulphuric  acids,  and  is  com- 
pressed into  small  white  cubes  or  cylinders,  while  moist,  under  a  pressure  of 
four  or  five  tons.  Gun-cotton  for  experimental  purposes  has  been  made  on 
a  very  small  scale  in  this  country.  It  was  tried  at  the  government  engineer- 
ing-works at  Hell  Gate,  in  New- York  harbor,  previous  to  the  demolition  of  the 


Pyroxyline. 


474 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


Dynamite. 


reef  there  ;  but  it  has  always  been  found  too  violent  and  uncertain  in  its  action, 
and  too  expensive,  for  practical  use. 

A  whole  world  of  explosives  has  grown  out  of  the  discovery  of  gun-cotton. 
Schultze-powder  was  soon  invented ;  which  was  nothing  more  than  wood 
Nitro-  reduced  to  large  grains,  and  treated  with  acids.     Nitro-glycerine 

glycerine.  ^^g  discovered  in  1847,  and  first  applied  to  engineering  in  1864, 
in  Sweden.  The  simplicity  of  manufacture  and  extraordinary  power  of  this 
agent  soon  made  it  popular.  It  is  prepared  by  introducing  glycerine,  drop  by 
drop,  into  nitric  and  sulphuric  acids.  It  is  a  terrible  explosive,  producing 
three  and  a  half  times  as  much  gas,  and  twice  as  much  heat,  as  gunpowder,  and 
is  never  safe  to  handle  except  when  frozen.  It  congeals  at  forty  or  forty- five 
degrees,  and  is  then  perfectly  safe ;  but,  when  liquid,  it  explodes  with  slight 
concussion  ;  and  its  power  is  so  great,  that  a  can  which  has  contained  it,  but 
has  been  emptied,  will,  when  thrown  on  the  ground,  explode  with  violence 
sufficient  to  destroy  life.  When  not  confined,  it  burns  with  difficulty  on  the 
application  of  a  match.  Since  1865  it  has  been  extensively  used  in  the  United 
States  for  blasting  in  the  excavation  of  railroad  tunnels,  reefs,  &c.  It  is  easily 
made  in  the  vicinity  of  the  works.  Dynamite,  or  giant-powder, 
dualine,  Vulcan-powder,  lithofractem,  and  other  explosives,  are 
produced  by  causing  nitro-glycerine  to  be  absorbed  by  some  inert  and  porous 
solid.  The  silicious  infusorial  earth  found  in  Hanover,  called  "  kieselguhr," 
is  the  best  which  has  been  found  for  the  purpose.  It  is  not  so  dangerous  to 
handle  in  this  form,  and  is  yet  slightly  slower  in  combustion,  and  hence  more 
serviceable.  Nitro-glycerine  and  all  of  its  compounds  are  exj^loded  in  blasting 
by  a  fulminate  of  mercury  contained  in  a  copper  capsule,  and  usually  ignited  , 
by  an  electric  spark  from  a  battery  at  a  safe  distance  from  the  mine.  One  of 
the  explosives  with  which  the  United-States  engineers  experimented  at  Hell 
Gate  was  called  "  vigorite."  It  was  made  of  coal-tar  by  the  action  of  nitric 
and  sulphuric  acids.  The  idea  was  to  get  a  cheaper  explosive  than  nitro- 
glycerine, if  possible ;  the  cost  of  blowing  up  the  reef  there  being  large,  and 
a  reduction  of  expense  being  desirable.  The  engineers  had  to  fall  back, 
however,  on  nitro-glycerine  —  that  is  to  say,  its  compounds  —  at  last,  as  being, 
all  things  considered,  preferable  to  all  other  agents.  Twenty-six  tons  of 
the  material  were  used,  distributed  in  cartridges  in  4,462  holes  in  the  rock. 
Dynamite  was  principally  used ;  but  some  of  the  cartridges  were  of  dualine 
and  Vulcan-powder  also. 

The  brilliant  effects  produced  by  the  burning  of  gunpowder  at  night,  es- 
pecially in  conjunction  with  the  metals,  and  other  substances  having  a  colored 
Fireworks      flame,  caused  the  new  combustible  to  be  seized  upon  at  once  in 
and  colored     Europe  to  add  to  the  attractions  of  the  royal  fetes.     In  Portugal, 
'"^  **■  France,  Spain,  Italy,  and   England,  in  the  ages  succeeding  the 

invention  of  gunpowder,  public  carnivals  for  the  entertainment  of  the  people, 
or  royal  festivities  in  honor  of  distinguished  guests,  were  extremely  common, 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


475 


and  were  of  the  most  extraordinary  description.  The  travels  of  the  kings 
through  their  own  realms  were  also  attended  by  public  displays,  and  a  regular 
feature  of  the  night  performances  soon  came  to  be  the  burning  of  fireworks  and 
colored  lights.  In  America,  cannon-firing,  bonfires,  the  ringing  of  the  bells,  and 
public  parades  and  speeches,  were,  for  a  long  time,  the  sole  elements  of  a  public 
festival,  especially  of  those  of  a  political  character.  John  Adams  predicted 
that  the  Fourth  of  July  would  always  be  celebrated  with  demonstrations  of  that 
character.  Fireworks  were  not  greatly  used  in  the  republic  for  some  time 
after  the  Fourth-of-July  celebrations  began.  Ship-masters  disliked  to  take 
them  on  shipboard  in  Europe  and  bring  them  here,  owing  to  their  dangerous 
character ;  and  they  were  too  costly,  and  in  too  little  demand,  to  be  manu- 
factured here.  After  1816  they  were  manufactured  on  a  small  scale;  and 
they  are  now  made  in  moderate  ciuantities  every  year,  as  Fourth  of  July 
approaches,  in  response  to  the  demand  for  them  for  the  festivities  on  that 
occasion.  Their  public  use  is  confined  entirely  to  that  anniversary,  the  custom 
being  to  have  the  display  on  the  night  of  July  3  along  with  the  bonfires,  the 
parades  and  speeches  coming  on  the  day  after.  Fifty  years  ago,  when  fire- 
works were  first  coming  into  general  use,  the  displays  were  conducted  by 
private  enterprise.  They  were  ei^ier  the  patriotic  demonstration  of  private 
citizens,  or  were  the  speculation  of  some  ingenious  business-man,  who  would 
put  up  a  high  board  fence  around  the  garden  adjoining  his  public-house,  and 
exhibit  his  wheels  and  snakes  and  Roman  candles  and  rockets  to  the  admir- 
ing gaze  of  the  people  at  a  shilling  or  twenty-five  cents  a  head.  As  the  cities 
of  the  country  have  grown  in  size,  it  has  been  deemed  fit  that  the  celebration 
of  so  important  an  event  as  the  anniversary  of  national  independence  should  in 
all  respects  be  carried  on  by  the  community  at  large.  So,  for  twenty  years  or 
more,  the  annual  displays  of  fireworks  have  taken  place  at  the  public  expense 
in  the  various  cities  of  the  country,  except  here  and  there  where  demagogues 
and  two-cent  politicians  in  the  city  councils  have  refused  to  vote  the  necessary 
funds  on  the  plea  of  economy  for  the  sake  of  the  dear  people.  There  is  an 
obvious  propriety  in  having  the  displays  take  place  under  official  supervision. 
Not  only  are  they  likely  to  be  more  splendid,  but  they  are  certain  to  be  less 
productive  of  accident,  and  damage  to  property.  The  great  accumulations  of 
wealth  in  cities,  in  the  form  of  buildings,  have  made  caution  and  official  super- 
vision desirable. 

The  materials  used  in  pyrotechny  are  gunpowder  (or  various  mixtures  of 
nitre,  charcoal,  and  sulphur),  and  various  metals,  salts,  and  substances  for  pro- 
ducing brilliant  colors.  The  powder  used  is  of  a  low  grade  of  Manufacture 
explosive  power,  and  is  intended  merely  to  burn  with  brilliant  "'  fireworks, 
sparks,  instead  of  exploding.  In  rockets  alone  is  there  any  explosion.  In 
wheels,  rockets,  and  Roman  candles,  the  powder  is  so  confined  as  to  give 
propelling  power.  Rockets  were  originally  used  in  war.  The  Congreves 
formed  a  great  feature  at  the  siege  of  Copenhagen  in  1807,  and  at  the  battle 


476 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


of  Leipsic.     The  French  were  routed  on  the  latter  field  by  a  volley  of  Con- 
greves.     Rockets  are  now  used  on  the  sea  as  a  signal  of  distress,  and  a  heavy 

variety  is  employed  on  shore  to  carry  a  line 
to  a  stranded  ship.  'I'hey  are  good  for  a  dis- 
tance of  eigiu  hundrcil  yards,  or  nearly  half  a 
mile.  The  rockets  of  the  present  day  for  festival 
use  are  often  very  powerful,  and  ascend  in  the 
air  from  a  thousand  to  twelve  hundred  feet :  at 
their  highest  point  they  burst,  and  throw  out  a 
volley  of  colored  stars,  or  a  cluster  of  snakes. 
Within  two  or  three  years  the  parachute-rocket 
has  been  invented,  which  throws  out  one,  two, 
or  three  large  stars,  each  with  a  parachute, 
which  sustains  them  while  they  float  off  slowly 
on  the  breeze,  burning  red,  tlien  white,  then 
blue,  and  oftentimes  other  colors.  An  immense 
variety  of  wheels  is  made,  with  showers  of 
sparks  of  different  forms,  and  flames  of  the 
different  colors  of  the  rainbow  :  they  range  from 
the  little  whizzing  pin-wheel  three  inches  in 
diameter,  a  boy's  plaything,  up  to  the  huge 
wheel  six  feet  across,  which  flings  out  a  circle 
ROCKETS.  of  flame  and  scintillations  twenty 

feet  in  diameter.  Roman  can- 
dles have  been  in  use  from  the  beginning,  throwing  anywhere 
from  two  to  eight  balls,  one  after  the  other.  Within  the  last 
few  years  volcanoes  have  been  introduced,  shooting  out  a  tor- 
rent of  balls  for  several  seconds ;  and  quite  recently  the 
bomb,  which,  being  set  upon  the  ground,  throws  up  a  hollow 
ball  straight  into  the  air  to  the  height  of  five  hundred  feet, 
which,  exploding,  also  throws  out  a  shower  of  balls.  The  fire- 
cracker, the  delight  of  the  boys,  introduced  to  this  country 
from  China,  forms  no  part  of  the  public  displays ;  but  it  does 
form  a  considerable  feature  in  the  sales  of  the  dealers  in  fire- 
works. Its  use  has  been  regulated  by  law  since  the  disastrous 
Eviiconse-  ten-million-dollar  fire  at  Portland,  Me.,  and  the 
quences  of  large  number  of  small  fires,  which  resulted  from 
rewor  s.  j.|^^  careless  use  of  this  noisy  plaything.  Fourth 
of  July,  though,  is  a  hollow  mockery  to  the  boys  without  the 
fire-cracker ;  and  they  still  consume  it  enormously.  A  great 
feature  of  the  public  shows  is  the  set  pieces,  in  which  a  spread 
eagle,  or  a  portrait  of  W^ishington,  or  "  Independence,"  or  some  other  motto, 
is  depicted  in  lines  of  fire.     'I'he  fancy  of  the  makers  has  free  play  in  the  con- 


ROMAN   CANDLE. 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


477 


on- 
.'avy 
line 
<lis- 
If  a 
ival 
t  Ile- 
al 
It  a 

•CCS. 

kut 
two, 

Itf, 

)\vly 
hen 
•use 

of 

the 

rom 

in 


struction  of  these  pieces,  and  they  bear  names  of  the  most  poetical  descrip- 
tion. Among  those  pro<hiced  for  the  Centennial  displays  in  1876  were  the 
Star  of  America,  the  Yankee  Windmill,  tlie  Japanese  (Uory,  the  I'airics'  Frolic, 
the  Persian  Rose,  the  Date-Tree  of  the  Desert,  the  Scroll  (Jiiadrille,  the 
Kaleidoscope,  the  Star  of  Intlependence,  Washington,  the  'iVibute  to  Ceres, 
the  Polka  Dance,  the  Shield  of  the  Union,  the  iJald-headed  lOagle  of  ],iberty, 
the  Printing-Press,  and  the  Tribute  to  America.  Their  names  sufficiently 
describe  tliem. 

In  the  diversification  of  the  various  fires,  lampblack,  or  strontia  nitrate  or 
<:arl)onate,  is  used  to  i)roduce  a  very  r  !  color,  such  as  is  enipio\ed  in  the 
theatres  at  times,  or  for  a  simple  colored  fire  Different 
in  street-processions,  as  well  as  for  fireworks,  colors,  how 
A\'ith  nitre  in  excess,  these  substances  produce  •^'■°^"'=*''- 
a  pink.  Nitre  and  sulphur  make  a  white  fire.  Yellow 
can  be  made  by  common  salt,  resin,  or  amber.  A  violet 
is  produced  by  potassa  salts,  chlorate,  and  carbonate 
mixed ;  a  blue,  by  potassa  salts  and  ammonia,  copper 
}:ulphate  and  antimony  sulphide,  or  copper  carbonate  and 
alum ;  a  green-blue,  by  zinc-filings,  or  copper  suli)hatc 
and  sai-ammoniac.  .^  good  green  is  obtained  from  ba- 
rium carbonate,  or  verdigris  with  copper  sulphate  and 
sal-ammoniac.  Iron -filings  give  bright  sjjarks ;  and 
steel-filings  and  cast-iron-borings,  having  more  carbon, 
afford  a  more  l)rilliant  scintillation  with  wavy  radiations. 
Lycopodium  burns  with  a  rose-color  and  a  magnificent 
flame :  it  is,  therefore,  largely  used  for  flambeaux  in 
street-processions,  and  in  theatres  to  represent  lightning, 
or  flames  in  a  burning  building. 

Chemistry  has  thus  greatly  increased  the  resources  of 
the   pyrotechnic   art.      The    modern    fireworks   are   very 
much  more  brilliant  than  those  of  the  midiUe    ages ;    and    the   citizens   of 
republican  America  are  entertained  every  Fourth  of  July,  when  the   improve- 
cities   bestir  themselves,  with   more    beautifiil    displays  than  any  ment  in  fire- 
which  ever  glorified  the  pomps  of  the    kings  of   luirope.     The   ^°^  ^' 
brilliant    spectacles    of    the    late   war    during    the    night   bombardments    of 
Sumter   and    of  the   works    before    Richmond    and    I'etersburgh,  which  will 
never  be   forgotten   by  those  who  saw  them,   were   the   most   extraordinary 
scenes   ever   witnessed    upon   this   continent    at   the    time   they  took    ])lace. 
They  have  been  surpassed  since  the  war,  however,  just  as  the  royal  f(tcs  of 
lairope  in  the  middle  ages  have  been,  by  the  splendors  of  recent  jjyrotec hny. 
The  scene  in  the  city  of  New  York  at  night,  for  instance,  from  any  tower  which 
overlooks  that  vast  community,  spreading  over  the  country  for  miles,  —  into 
Long  Island  on  the  one  side,  and  New  Jersey  on  the  other,  —  during  the 


478 


INDUSTRIAL    II IS  TORY 


discharge  of  anniversary  fireworks,  is  something  which  surpasses  the  spec- 
tacular effects  of  the  late  war.  Tiie  thousands  of  rockets  ascending  into  the 
air  as  (ixr  js  the  eye  can  reach,  the  parachute-stars  floating  away  softly  on 
the  wings  of  the  breeze,  the  volleys  of  Roman  candle-balls  in  every  direction, 
the  flasli  of  colored  fires,  and  the  inevitable  conflagration  of  a  building  here 
and  there,  —  all  these,  outlined  against  the  night,  are  the  elements  of  a 
strange  and  impressive  picture. 


%^..^- 


OF   THE   UNITED   STATES. 


479 


CHAPTER  X. 

INDIA-RUBBER    MANUFACTURES. 

CAOUTCHOUC  appears  to  have  been  one  of  the  valuable  products  of  the 
East  Indies  which  the  ancients  entirely  overlooked.  It  was  not  until 
this  substance  was  discovered  in  practical  use  among  the  savages  of  the  conti- 
nent of  America  that  the  civilized  world  took  cognizance  of  it,  and  turned  to 
account  the  magnificent  rubber-trees  of  India.  Caoutchouc  was  unknown  to 
science  until  1735.  In  that  year  an  observing  Frenchman  who  had  just  come 
down  the  Amazon,  and  who  had  noticed  that  the  natives  were  Discovery  of 
making  boots,  bottles,  and  water-proof  cloth,  of  the  gum  of  a  "outchouc. 
strange  and  magnificent  tree,  related  the  facts  to  the  French  Academy  of 
Sciences.  The  natives  of  So-.ith  America  called  the  gum  cahuchu  ;  and  Con- 
dam  ine  brought  the  sound  of  the  name  to  France,  and  introduced  the  new 
gum  to  the  world  as  caoutchouc.  In  1751  Condamine  again  called  attention 
to  this  "elastic  resin,"  and  a  nounced  that  it  had  been  found  in  the  trees  of 
the  French  province  of  Cayenne.  Public  curiosity  was  then  excited  about  the 
new  substance.  Small  quantities  of  it  were  obtained  from  the  East  Indies  and 
South  America  ;  and  the  chemists,  wiio  alone  for  a  long  period  were  interested 
in  it,  began  a  series  of  experiments  to  find  out  what  it  could  be  made  useful 
for.  Herissant  and  Macquer  published  the  result  of  their  investigations  in 
1763  to  show  that  caoutchouc  could  be  dissolved.  Priestley  mentioned  the 
gum  in  1770  as  very  meritorious  for  the  purpose  of  erasing  lead-pencil  marks. 
A  cube  of  it  about  half  an  inch  on  the  side  cost  three  shillings  at  that  time,  or 
aliout  as  much  as  two  pounds  of  the  crude  gum  costs  now.  A  great  many 
exi)erimcnts  were  made  with  this  interesting  gum  during  the  next  fifty  years ; 
but  not  until  the  end  of  that  period  was  it  used  for  any  thing,  except  to  erase 
lead-pencil  marks.  In  1823  Mackintosh  made  the  first  practical  application 
of  it  to  industrial  objects  by  starting  a  factory  ai  Clasgow  for  the  water-proof- 
ing of  cloth  with  caoutchouc,  the  gum  being  dissolved  for  the  purpose  in  oil 
of  turpentine  and  alcohol,  or  coal-tar  naphtha. 

I'rom  this  small  beginning  caoutchouc  has  risen  in  fifty  years  to  occupy  a 
position  in  the  arts  second  hardly  to  that  of  rosin  and  of  glass.     It  is  now  so 


48u 


INP  C'S  TKIA I.    HIS  TOK  Y 


important,  that  it  seems  strarifje  how  the  world  < oiiltl  ever  have  jj;ot  alon^'  with- 
importance  out  it.  It  |K'rrorins  a  hiindrcij  oflii  es  \vlii«  h  no  oth<T  known  siil)- 
of  diicovery.  j^i;,im.  ,()iil,|  ('uliil.  Its  rla^ti(  iiv.  aillu'sivctiess,  and  inipcrviousness 
to  water,  are  al).-.oliitely  iinique.  Sm  li  are  its  »|nalities,  that  it  is  now  exten- 
sively woven  into  tapes  and  elastic  tissues.  It  is  applied  to  doth  as  a  water- 
proof varnish  ;    and  it  rements  any  number  of  pieces  of  cloth  toj;elher  into 

thi(  k  plates,  so  that 
it  can  he  used  for 
valves  of  piiin|)s 
and  steam-enj,Mnes, 
;ni<l  for  |)a(  kin^, 
liehiii;,',  fire-hose, 
tubing,  life-preserv- 
ers, overshoes, 
boots,  gas-bags, 
gloves,  and  scores 
of  otluT  kindrcii 
purjioses.  As  a 
marine  cement,  it 
joins  wood  so  tight- 
ly, tliat  a  mast  or 
yard  will  break  in 
a  new  jjlace  ratiier 
than  where  cement- 
ed. Such  are  its 
])owcrs  in  tiiis  di- 
rection, that  it  was 
once  ])ro))osed  to 
disi)ense  with  iron 
bolts,  and  use  this 
extraordinary  mate- 
rial for  fastenings  instead.  It  is  an  insulator  and  protector  of  telegrai)h-wire  : 
and  it  can  be  fashioned  into  light  and  serviceable  objects  for  every-day  use, 
such  as  inkstands,  buttons,  combs,  penholders,  rulers,  jewelry,  syringes,  canes, 
cups,  toys,  bottles,  iwils.Vvc.  A  ])atent  has  actually  been  taken  out  for  em- 
ploying this  substance  for  railroad-rails.  The  visitor  at  Thiladelphia  in  1876 
would  have  discovered  rails  of  this  description  on  exhibition  there  by  a  live 
Pennsylvanian,  who  was  expecting  to  make  his  many  millions  by  the  gen- 
eral adoption  of  his  ingenious  idea ;  the  merit  of  it  residing  in  the  fact,  that 
the  wheels  of  the  locomotive  will  not  slip  on  a  track  made  of  rubber, 
and  the  whole  power  of  the  engine  will  therefore  be  saved,  —  a  considera- 
tion of  immediate  importance  to  every  railroad-manager  in  the  world. 
The  fact   that   so   many  uses  could   ha\e   been   found  for  India-rubber  in 


Gim'A-l'ERClIA  TRBB. 


OF    THE    UMTED   STATES. 


481 


the  short  Sparc  of  fifiy  years  indicates  f(reat  possihilities  in  rcfi-rcnrc  to  its 
lutiiri'  appiuatiDH.  Uiun  the  <  heinistry  of  the  j^iini  is  belter  underslcxxl, 
it  is  believed  that  its  ap]jhcations  can  be  inure  tiun  doubled  in  number  and 
vahie. 

'I'iie  Iniha-rubber-tree  grows  only  in  the  hottest  regions  under  the  cciuator. 
Ill  India  it  is  called  tiie /'/(7/j  i/as/iia.  It  is  a  colossal  tree  in  that  country. 
In  Assam  there  is  a  forest  of  these  trees,  (ontainiiig  forty-tliree  india-rub- 
tiiousand  in  a  tract  thirty  miles  long  by  eight  broad.  The  diameter  ''«'-*'■««• 
of  one  tree  has  been  found  to  be  twenty-four  feet,  and  its  height  a  hundred 
feet.  The  tree  is  a  sort  of  banyan,  and  grows  by  the  rooting  of  the  b.anches. 
In  South  America  it  is  called  the  Sip/ionia  clastica^  or  Siphonia  cnhiic/iti.  It 
grows  in  the  provinces  of  I'ara  and  Amazonas  chiefly,  lying  along  the  Amazon, 
and  is  found  all  the  way  from  the  seaboard  to  a  point  nineteen  hundred  miles 
in  the  interior.  Its  regular  cultivation  has  not  yet  been  unilertaken.  The 
natives  merely  hunt  up  the  trees  where  they  happen  to  grow  in  the  forests, 
and  tap  them  at  the  proper  seasons.  The  extent  of  the  area  covered  by  these 
priceless  trees,  and  the  ready  response  the  soil  and  vegetation  of  Hrazil  make 
to  cultivators,  are  a  guaranty  that  the  supply  of  ru'jber  is  practically  inex- 
haustible. Nothing  except  some  such  extraordinary  demand  for  it  as  would 
l)e  created  by  its  general  introtluction  for  the  tracks  of  railroails  (should  such 
an  event  ever  take  place)  would  ever  severely  tax  the  resources  of  Brazil  for 
the  gum.  The  gum  is  taken  from  the  trees  in  the  Kast  Indies  by  making  a 
number  of  cuts  through  the  bark  to  the  wood  all  over  the  trunk  and  branches 
and  exposed  roots.  The  juice  is  richer  the  higher  the  cut.  A  thick  sap 
reseml)ling  cream  flows  from  the  wounds  of  the  tree,  and  in  twenty-four  hours 
about  forty  pounds  are  obtained.  The  tree  can  safely  be  tapped  once  a 
fortnight.  The  cold  season  is  usually  chosen  for  these  operations,  because 
the  juice  is  richer,  and  the  tree  less  liable  to  be  injured.  In  South  America 
the  natives  make  a  perpendicular  cut  in  the  bark  of  the  tree,  and  lateral 
cuts  leading  to  it.  The  thick,  white,  creamy  sap  flows  into  the  central  cut, 
and  at  the  bottom  of  it  is  conductetl  by  a  banana-leaf  into  a  vessel  placed  to 
receive  it. 

When  examined  under  the  microscope,  caoutchouc  is  seen  to  consist  of 
a  clear  hquid,  in  which  float  a  large  number  of  spherical  globules   Appearance 
of  from  ■rTyiiT(T  to  -,t)  iirff  of  an  inch  in  diameter.     A>'atcr  produces   under  the 
no  change  on  the  juice,  and  can  be  used  to  wash  it  without  dimin-   '""=''<'*'=°p'- 
ishing  its  volume.     Alcohol  does  not  change  the  globules,  but  causes  groups 
of  needle-shaped  crystals  to  appear.    The  juice  is  dried  by  the  natives  of 
South  America  over  a  fire,  when  it  becomes  black  with  the  smoke.   Process  of 
It  is  dried  on  moulds  of  clay,  in  the  sba]  e  of  boots  or  bottles,   couecting  it. 
on  wooden  lasts  (imported   for  the   purpose   from   the   United   Statfis,  and 
mounted  on  the  end  of  sticks),  and  on  paddles.     The  moulds,  or  paddles, 
are  dippped  into  the  juice  and  dried,  and  dipped  again  and  again,  until  the 


^J^ 


in  United 
States. 


482  INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 

required  thickness  is  obtained.  The  clay  mould  is  broken  or  washed  out 
after  use.  Sometimes  the  gum  is  coagulated  by  solar  heat.  A  film  forms 
over  the  surface,  which  is  removed  as  fast  as  it  forms,  until  the  whole  of  the 
juice  has  hartlened.  The  several  sheets  are  then  pressed  together  with  the 
hands  into  rolls  and  masses.  The  gum  is  then  light  colored.  In  Nicaragua 
the  caoutchouc  is  coagulated  with  the  juice  of  the  bejuca-vine.  The  mass 
is  pressed  into  cakes  by  hand,  and  rolled  into  a  sheet  with  a  wooden  roller. 
The  sheets  are  called '' tortillas,"  and  are  two  feet  wide  by  two  inches  thick. 
When  once  coagulated,  the  caoutchouc  can  nevi  r  be  restored  to  its  original 
condition  of  a  sap.  The  purest  rubber  of  commerce  comes  from  Para  and 
Amazonas.  It  is  in  bottles  and  thick  plates.  The  gum  from  Carthagena  is 
in  large  black  lumps  or  sheets  weighing  a  hundred  pounds.  The  MastTndia 
gum  is  in  light  and  dark  reddish  masses,  and  is  mingled  with  bits  of  wood 
and  bark,  leaves,  gravel,  &c. 

Inilia-rubber  was  first  brought  to  the  attention  of  the  people  of  the  I'nitrd 
States  in  the  form  of  erasers  of  pencil-marks  (brought  from  England),  and 
First  use  of  ^°°"  afterward  in  the  form  cf  clumsy  water-proof  shoes,  which  the 
India-rubber  traders  imported  from  Para  along  with  the  other  produce  of  that 
tropical  region.  These  shoes  continued  to  be  imported  down  to 
within  thirty  years  ago.  The  substance  ditl  not  foil  to  attract 
attention.  A  great  many  experiments  were  made  to  determine  what  could 
be  cione  with  it.  Shortly  after  Mackintosh  got  started  in  Scotland,  some 
water-proofing  of  cloth  was  done  here  with  rubber,  the  solvents  used  being 
turpentine,  naphtha,  benzole,  and  caoutchoucine  ;  the  latter  being  i)roduced 
by  evaporating  rubber  at  a  heat  of  600°,  and  condensing  the  vapor.  Means 
were  also  found  to  work  rubber  into  a  thread ;  in  which  form  it  was  spun 
into  tissues  of  extraordinary  elasticity  with  silk,  cotton,  wool,  pnd  flax,  and  be- 
came rapidly  the  universal  material  for  suspenders,  garters,  &c.  In  those  early 
years  of  the  manufacture,  however,  only  pure  rubber  was  used  ;  and  in  this 
form  the  material  was  found  liable  to  rapid  deterioration.  It  became  rigid 
and  inflexible  in  cold  weather,  and  soft  and  inert  in  hot  weather.  It  was 
very  soluble.  Whenever  it  was  touched  by  oil  or  grease  it  would  dissolve, 
and  it  could  not  even  resist  perspiration.  Though  useful  for  overshoes,  it 
was  so  soft  as  to  soon  wear  out.  It  lost  its  elasticity  by  use,  had  an  unpleas- 
ant odor,  and  was  so  adhesive,  that  two  surfaces  of  rubber  applied  to  each 
other  were  always  sure  to  stick.  Time  would  fail  to  tell  the  tribulations  which 
befell  the  early  manufacturers  of  India-rubber  in  the  United  States  in  their 
efforts  to  cure  the  defects  of  this  valuable  but  then  intractable  material. 
They  could  not  master  the  substance.  The  public  at  length  acquired  0 
distaste  for  its  use;  and  several  factories  which  had  been  stn.ted  in  Boston, 
South  Boston,  Chelsea,  Woburn,  and  Framingham,  Mass.,  and  on  Staten 
Island  and  at  Troy,  N.Y.,  with  capitals  of  fiity  thousand  dollars  to  five  hun- 
dred thousand  dollars,  failed  in  the  business.     In  1840  it  looked  decidedly 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


483 


as  though  the  applications  of  India-rubber  were  destined  to  be  confined  to 
water-proof  cloth  and  erasers.  The  exportation  of  the  gum  from  Para  at  that 
time  r.mounted  to  only  800,000  pounds  a  year,  owing  to  the  small  demand 
for  it ;  and  nearly  all  of  that  went  to  (Ireat  ISritain.  It  has  since  risen  to  about 
15,000,000  pounds  annually  from  Para  alone. 

Just  at  the  moment  of  supreme  despair  in  the  industry,  two  Americans 
hit  upon  separate  though  kindred  discoveries,  which  comjjletely  changed  the 
whole  aspect  of  affairs,  and  made  the  manufacture  of  India-rubber  one  of  the 
great  pursuits  of  the  age.  In  iH^.S  Charles  (loodye  :  of  Massa-  Goodyear 
chusetts  became  accpiainted  with  Nathaniel  Hayward,  who  had  and  Hay- 
been  the  foreman  of  the  Kagle  Comi)any  at  Woburn,  wliere  the  ^*' 
latter  had  made  use  of  sulphur  by  impregnating  the  solvent  with  it.  From 
him  Mr.  (ioodyear  first  became  acquainted  with  the  properties  of  sulphur  as 
a  drier  of  gum-clastic,  (loodyear  bought  Hay  ward's  claim  for  the  use  of 
sulphur,  and  made  it  the  basis  of  his  patent  of  Feb.  24,  1839,  by  which  he 
hoped  to  make  the  manuf;Tcture  of  rubber-goods  successful.  He  made  a  lot 
of  goods  with  sulphur,  but  found,  alas  !  that  they,  too,  soon  decomposed,  just 
as  all  the  manufactures  of  rubber  had  done  before  them.  Goodyear,  who  had 
spent  nearly  twenty  years  in  a  diligent  study  of  the  properties  of  rubber,  was 
at  his  wits'  end  to  know  what  to  do.  But  he  did  not  gi\'e  up  the  battle. 
While  experimenting  one  day,  the  idea  occurred  to  him  to  try  the  effect  of 
extreme  heat  upon  India-rubber.  The  stuff  would  melt  at  a  low  heat :  what 
would  it  do  at  a  high  heat?  He  touched  a  piece  of  it  containing  sulphur  to 
the  stove.  To  his  surprise,  he  found  that  it  charred  like  leather.  This  was. 
something  new.  He  tried  it  again,  with  the  same  result ;  and  the  inference 
came  like  a  Hash,  that,  if  the  heat  was  s  'pped  at  the  right  point,  the  rubber 
might  be  divested  of  its  adhesive  ([ualities,  and  liability  to  rapid  deterioration, 
and  made  hard  and  dry.  He  put  some  rubber  into  boiling  sulphur,  and  found 
that  it  did  not  melt,  as  it  would  have  done  when  exposed  to  a  low  heat,  but 
that  it  again  charred  like  leather.  On  heating  another  piece  before  the  fire, 
he  found,  between  the  part  which  charred  and  the  part  unaffected  by  the  fire, 
a  portion  which  was  hard,  but  not  charred.  Tlie  discovery  was  complete.  It 
only  remained  to  perfect  a  few  details  ;  and  Goodyear  soon  introduced  to 
the  public  his  elastic,  non-adhesive,  vulcanized  India-rubber,  —  a  substance  as 
different  from  the  pure  gum  as  gold  from  copper.  This  was  the  foundation  of 
the  modern  industry.  In  his  subsetiucnt  manufacture  Goodyear  soon  learned 
to  incorporate  a  variety  of  substances  .ith  his  raw  material  in  order  to  save 
the  latter  as  much  as  possiljle ;  and,  as  now  made,  his  rubber  is  prepared  with 
one  part  of  sulphur,  fourteen  of  whiting,  two  and  a  half  of  white-lead,  and 
two  of  litharge,  to  sixteen  of  rubber,  and  exposed  to  a  temperature  from  265° 
to  270°  Fahrenheit  for  several  hours. 

The  next  step  in  the  line  of  progress  was  the  invention  of  har«l  rubber,  or 
vulcanite.    There  is  some  dispute  about  priority  in  this  discovery  ;  but  Professor 


484 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


C.  F.  Chandler  awards  the  palm  to  Austin  G.  Day  of  Connecticut.  The  dis- 
invention  of  covery  is  claimed  by  Nelson  (ioodyear,  who  filed  a  caveat  Dec.  31, 
vulcanite.  1849,  and  obtained  a  patent  iMay  6,  185 1,  for  a  hard,  inflexible 
compound  composed  of  rubber,  sulphur,  magnesia,  &c.  The  material  obtained 
by  this  process  was  useful  for  certain  ])urposes ;  but  it  was  too  brittle  to  be  of 
great  value.  Day  obtained  his  patent,  Aug.  10, 1858,  for  a  compound  comjjosed 
of  two  parts  of  rubber  to  one  of  sulphur,  which,  when  heated  from  275°  to 
300°  Fahrenheit,  became  hard,  flexible,  and  elastic.  This  product  suj^erseded 
the  other,  and  is  the  vulcanite  of  commerce.  It  came  into  rapid  and  extensive 
use,  and  is  one  of  the  valuable  materials  of  the  modern  arts.  Day  afterwards 
invented  a  modification  of  vulcanite,  which  he  called  "  kesite,"  and  applied  it 
to  the  coating  of  telegraph-wires. 

These  discoveries  made  a  great  change  in  the  India-rubber  manufacture  of 
the  United  States.  It  having  become  apparent  that  there  was  now  some  hope 
Effect  of  •f°'"  ^^  industry.  Congress  took  cognizance  of  it  in  1842  for  tiie 
these  first  time,  and  gave  it  the  protection  of  a  thirty-per-cent  duty  on 

discoveries,  importations  of  manufactures  in  the  comprehensive  Clay  tariff.  A 
number  of  companies  were  soon  formed  under  (ioodyear's  patents  in  Con- 
necticut, New  York,  New  Jersey,  and  elsewhere.  The  progress  was  very  rapid, 
and  in  1850  rubber-goods  were  made  in  the  United  States  to  the  value  of 
^83,024,335.  In  i860  the  manufacture  had  become  centred  in  fewer  and 
larger  establishments,  and  the  product  was  $5,642,700,  In  1870  there  were 
fifty-six  factories  in  operation,  employing  6,025  people,  and  making  $14,566,- 
374  worth  of  goods  annually.  Of  the  fifty-six  factories,  ten  were  in  New  York, 
twelve  in  New  Jersey,  thirteen  in  Connecticut,  and  sixteen  in  Massachusetts. 
Since  that  time  there  has  been  a  large  increase.  The  extent  of  it  cannot  be 
accurately  stated ;  but  it  is  somewhere  about  fifty  per  cent.  The  import  of 
gum,  mostly  from  South  America,  is  now  from  10,000,000  to  12,000,000 
pounds  a  year.  The  ability  of  the  United  States  to  import  and  manufacture 
the  crude  article  seems  limited  only  by  the  capacity  of  the  natives  of  the 
Amazon  to  collect  and  export  it.  The  crude  gum  costs  us  at  this  time  forty 
cents  a  pound.  During  the  first  twenty  years  after  Goodyear's  discovery  the 
export  of  rubber-goods  from  the  United  States  was  considerable,  amounting  to 
$1,000,000  worth  a  year  on  the  average.  Since  i860  Europe  has  gone  into 
the  manufacture  very  largely  upon  (loodyear's  plan,  and  the  exportations  since 
then  have  only  been  $200,000  or  $300,000  worth  a  year.  If  the  exports  are 
ever  increased  again,  it  will  only  be  by  means  of  superior  and  cheaper  processes 
of  manufacture  and  new  inventions. 

The  processes  of  manufacture  are  peculiar.  The  gum  in  its  crude  state  is 
extraordinarily  elastic  and  tenacious  ;  and  it  can  only  be  worked,  therefore,  with 
the  most  powerful  machinery.  The  cakes  and  sheets  are  first  cleaned  by 
being  cut  up  in  a  mill  into  small  pieces,  under  water,  by  means  of  knives  and 
iron  teeth.     The  resistance  of  the  rubber  generates  heat  enough  to  make  the 


"'^■^■■'sUfl'^'' 


OF    THE    L'N/TED    STATES. 


485 


manuiac- 
turc. 


water  boil.  It  is  then  again  ground,  cut,  pressed,  and  treated  in  various 
ways,  and  finally  compressed  into  a  cake  by  being  subjected  to  process  of 
enormous  pressure  in  cast-iron  moulds  under  a  screw.  Its  adhe- 
siveness asserts  itself,  and  unites  the  mass  perfectly.  It  is  left  in 
the  mould  for  several  days.  In  some  mills  the  cleaned  pieces  of  gum  are  rolled 
by  machinery  into  sheets,  in  which  shape  the  gum  is  conveniently  adapted 
for  conversion  into  thread  for  weaving.  The  sheets  are  sliced  into  thread 
by  means  of  sharp  knives,  which  are  kept  constantly  wet  to  prevent  them 
from  sticking.  The  machine  for  this  purpose  was  invented  in  Kuropc  by 
Ratlier  in  1826.  The  fibres  of  thread,  as  they  are  reeled  off,  are  stretched 
to  six  or  eight  times  their  original  length  by  hand.  Being  moistened  and 
cooled  in  the  operation,  they  are  deprived  of  elasticity,  and  can  then  be 
woven  readily  into  webs  and  tissues  of  any  degree  of  fineness.  This  stretch- 
ing of  the  rubber-threads  has  been  carried  so  far,  that  they  have  been  elon- 
gated to  16.625  times  their  original  length.  A  pound  of  caoutchouc  makes 
from  eight  thousand  to  thirty-two  thousand  yards  of  thread.  When  the  woven 
tissue  is  finislicd  it  is  pressed  with  a  hot  iron,  and  the  rubber  immediately 
regains  its  elasticity.  Threads  are  sometimes  made  from  vulcanized  rubber. 
Th.ey  constitute  the  warp  of  the  tissue,  and  are  kept  stretched  by  weights. 
Sometimes  thread  is  made  by  reducing  the  gum  to  a  paste  by  maceration 
with  some  solvent,  and  by  forcing  it  through  a  line  of  small  holes.  The 
threads  are  carried  off  through  the  air  six  hundred  or  seven  hundred  feet  by 
a  web,  during  which  process  the  solvent  evaporates,  and  the  thread  becomes 
dry  and  hard.     The  threads  are  then  deposited  in  a  receiving-cup. 

The  thick  sheets  into  which  the  gum  is  rolled  after  the  process  of  cleansing 
are  usually  laid  away  in  the  warehouse  for  several  months  to  come.  Being 
then  brought  back  to  the  factory,  the  rubber  is  mixed  with  various  materials 
which  the  manufacturers  find  they  can  advantageously  incorporate  into  it. 
The  mixing-machines  are  very  powerful.  They  are  great  hollow  revolving 
cylinders  heated  by  steam.  The  sheets  are  rolled  slowly  between  them,  and, 
as  they  soften  with  the  heat,  are  supi)licd  with  the  white-lead,  sulphur,  and 
other  materials,  by  means  of  a  brush.  The  cylinders  knead  these  substances 
together,  the  rubber  giving  out  a  series  of  pistol-shot  explosions  meanwhile, 
owing  to  the  bursting-out  of  the  heated  air  confined  in  the  sheets.  Pieces  of 
refuse  rubber  or  of  fabrics  of  rubber  and  cloth  can  be  kneaded  into  the  mass 
during  this  process.  The  rubber  comes  from  this  machine  in  a  thick,  soft, 
sticky  sheet.  It  then  goes  to  the  calendering-machinc,  where  the  process  is 
substantially  repeated,  and  the  sheet  rolled  out  into  a  thin  mat.  The  mixture 
can  then  be  incorporated  into  cloth  or  canvas  by  rolling,  or  by  the  aid  of 
solvents.  In  the  manufacture  of  belting,  cotton-duck  of  double  strength  is 
impregnated  with  the  soft,  sticky  rubber  fresh  from  the  mixing-rolls,  and  is 
then  calendered  into  perfectly  smooth  sheets.  The  cloth  is  then  taken  to  the 
belting-room,  where  it  is  laid  out  on  tables,  and  cut  into  strips  of  the  proper 


486 


IND  US  TRIA  r.    HIS  TOR  Y 


widths.  If  extra  strength  is  desired,  two  or  more  strips  are  placed  together, 
and  united  by  rolhng.  The  belting  is  then  sent  to  be  steamed  in  a  chamber 
made  for  the  purpose,  and  in  eight  or  ten  hours  is  thoroughly  vulcanized. 
Belting  thus  made  has  greater  strength  than  leather,  and  adheres  to  the  drum 
with  a  tenacity  which  prevents  slip|)ing.  In  the  making  of  hose  a  different 
process  is  emi)loyed.  A  long  iron  tube  of  the  right  diameter  is  covered 
with  a  sheet  of  rubber :  this  is  then  covered  with  webs  of  stout  cloth  woven 
for  the  purpose.  When  a  sufficient  number  of  folds  have  been  applied,  an 
outside  covering  of  pure  rul)l)er  is  put  on,  cementing  the  whole  fiibric. 
The  pipes,  with  the  hose  still  on  them,  are  then  placed  in  the  steam-heater, 
and  the  hose  is  vulcanized.  Very  stout  hose  is  thus  made  :  it  is  far  supe- 
rior to  leather,  and  will  stand  a  pressure  from  three  hundred  and  seventy- 
five  pounds  to  four  hundred  and  thirty-five  pounds  to  the  square  inch. 
The  cloth  can  be  preserved  from  the  re-action  of  the  rubber  by  means  of 
carbolic  acid. 

In  the  making  of  overshoes  the  cloth  is  first  prepared  by  mixing,  rolling, 
and  calendering,  and  is  then  cut  up  and  fashioned  into  shoes  of  the  desired 
Overshoes,  patterns.  The  joints  are  united  by  means  of  rubber ;  and  the 
how  made.  sticky  shoe,  being  lined  with  flannel,  stamped,  and  otherwise 
finished,  is  then  sent  off  to  be  vulcanized.  The  manufacture  of  shoes  and 
boots  is  one  of  the  largest  branches  of  the  business. 

One  of  the  useful  applications  is  for  the  valves  of  steam-engines  and  for 
steam-packing.  Rubber  preserves  its  elasticity  when  exposed  to  steam,  and 
consequently  follows  the  expansion  and  contraction  of  the  cylinder 
and  metal  parts  of  the  engine  perfectly  ;  so  that  the  fitting  is  always 
exact.  Valves  of  five  feet  in  diameter  are  often  made  from  rubber. 
Car-springs,  and  springs  for  coaches  and  carriages,  are  now  made 
of  rubber  very  largely  indeed.  The  substance  never  loses  its  elas- 
ticity (thanks  to  Goodyear),  and  the  springs  last  a  long  time.  It  answers 
also  for  door-mats,  for  paving,  and  for  bed-springs. 

The  hardened  rubber,  or  vulcanite,  is  fast  supplanting  bone,  shell,  and 
_  ivory  for  its  greater  beauty,  .md  the  ease  with  which  it  can  be 

Supremacy  }  tn  j  i 

of  rubber  moulded  into  any  form.  Its  only  rival  is  gutta-percha,  a  kindred 
product  of  the  creamy  sap  of  another  tropical  tree.  This  latter 
substance  was  discovered  in  1842,  and  it  is  now  largely  imported 
from  South  America  and  other  tropical  regions  for  the  same  uses  to  which 
Gutta-  vulcanite    is   applied.       It  is  very  serviceal)le  for  speaking-tubes, 

percha.  fancy  articles,  dentists'  tools,  &c.,  and  for  the  insulation  of  tele- 

graph-wire. Gutta-percha  was  first  applied  to  the  purposes  of  insulation  by 
Samuel  J.  Armstong  of  New  York.  Machinery  was  built  to  coat  wires  with  it 
in  1848;  and  the  first  wire  in  the  world  thus  prepared  was  laid  across  the 
Hudson  River  in  1849,  at  Fort  Lee.  The  idea  was  carried  to  England,  and 
used  in  the  construction  of  the  Atlantic  cables.     It  is  said  that  this  original 


Application 
of  India-rub- 
ber to  valves 
of  steam- 
engines. 


over  bone, 
shell,  &c. 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


487 


machinery  was  also  carried  over  then.     Gutta-percha  and  vulcanite  are  both 
prepared  by  the  same  process  for  use  in  the  arts. 

There  has  been  a  vast  amount  of  litigation  among  the  inventors  and  manu- 
facturers of  India-rubber  and  gutta-percha.     An  invention  which  clearly  works 
for  the  good  of  mankind  is  eagerly  seized  upon  by  those  who  have   j^.  .  ^^j^^ 
capital,  as  likely  to  be  the  source  of  great  fortunes  to  those  who  over  india- 
employ  it  in  the  manufacture.     Those  who  have  experimented  in  a  ^^'^^"  '"■ 

'    .  -^  '^  ventions. 

certain  direction,  and  invested  their  all  in  mills,  machinery,  and 
goods,  are  strongly  temi'ted  to  the  piracy  of  inventions  when  they  observe  a 
more  fortunate  contemporary  hit  upon  a  better  way  than  that  they  have  them- 
selves followed ;  and  the  consetiuence  of  it  all  is,  that  a  lucky  inventor  often 
finds  himself  obliged  to  fight  long  and  hard  to  maintain  his  right  to  profit 
by  the  property  created  by  the  activity  and  ingenuity  of  his  own  brain.  Good- 
year was  one  of  these  men.  The  litigation  in  which  he  became  involved  was 
enormous.  It  is  gratifying  to  record  the  fact  that  the  inventor  of  this  priceless 
product  of  vulcanized  rubber  was  able  to  maintain  his  rights,  and  to  profit  by 
them ;  and  that  is  more  than  can  be  said  of  all  inventors. 


I  I 


488 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


to  manufac 
tures. 


CHAPTER  XI. 


CHEMICAL   MANUFACTURES. 

THE  mechanical  department  of  manufacture  is  the  one  which  alone 
catches  the  attention  of  the  untechnical  observer.  To  his  eye  ninety 
Application  "^^"^  hundredths  of  all  the  processes  of  industry  appear  to  be 
of  chemistry  the  mechanical  manipulation  of  raw  materials,  and  the  applica- 
tion of  heat  and  force  to  effect  changes  of  form  and  condition. 
But  furnaces  and  machinery  do  not  cover  the  ground  so  exclu- 
sively as  that.  Chemistry  plays  a  more  important  part  in  industry  than  ap- 
pears upon  the  surface  of  things.  It  is,  in  fact,  the  very  atmosphere  of  life  in 
which  industry  breathes  and  exists  :  it  is  at  least  the  twin-brother  of  machinery. 
Not  a  metal  in  the  bowels  of  the  earth,  not  a  mineral  (except  common  clay), 
not  a  textile  fibre,  and  scarce  a  vegetable  or  animal  substance,  which  is  fobri- 
cated  for  any  human  purpose,  reaches  its  final  state  of  a  perfected  protluct 
without  having  been  subjected  to  one  or  more  chemical  processes  which  are 
absolutely  necessary  for  its  manufacture.  Every  metal  must  be  prepared  for 
working  up  by  being  first  refined.  Cotton,  wool,  silk,  flax,  and  hemp  must  be 
bleached,  fermented,  purified,  or  stained,  or  subjected  to  all  four  processes. 
Leather,  rubber,  soap,  and  various  kinds  of  food,  must  be  deprived  of  the 
liability  to  decay.  Wooden  buildings,  ships,  carriages,  and  cars  must  be  pro- 
tected from  the  corrosion  of  the  elements.  Salt  and  sugar  must  be  purified. 
Sand  and  clay  are  required  to  be  converted  into  durable  and  serviceable  dishes. 
None  of  these  things  can  be  accomplished  by  mechanical  means  alone.  Chem- 
istry is  called  in  to  participate  in  the  achievement  of  them  all ;  and  crude  and 
barbaric  indeed  would  the  triumphs  of  man  over  the  forces  of  nature  still  be, 
were  it  not  for  the  help  of  this  powerful  art  to  second  his  efforts.  It  has  been 
well  said  that  to  take  away  chemistry  from  industry  would  be  like  taking  away 
gravitation  from  the  universe.     The  result  would  be  chaos. 

The  manufacture  of  chemicals  in  the  United  States  began  as  early  as  1 793, 
when  John  Harrison  started  his  factory  of  sulphuric  acid  and  lead-paint  in  the 
city  of  Philadelphia.  It  was  carried  on,  however,  to  a  very  limited  extent  in- 
deed, for  more  than  sixty  years.     The  genius  of  our  civilization  was  not  favor- 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


489 


Manufac- 
ture of  suU 
pKuric  acid 
byjohn  Har- 
rison. 


able  to  the  patient  study,  and  quiet,  persistent  experiment  in  the  laboratory, 
which  are  required  of  those  who  engage  in  this  department  of 
effort.  The  taste  of  Americans  was  for  mechanical  invention,  and 
for  the  bustle  and  excitement  of  active  pursuits.  Neither  science 
nor  literature  could  flourish  in  a  marked  degree  among  a  people 
with  such  propensities ;  and  accordingly,  during  the  last  and  for 
the  first  half  of  the  present  century,  tlie  chemical  industry  made  slow  progress. 
Lead  and  zinc  paints,  sulphuric  and  nitric  acids,  dyes  and  saleratus,  the  most 
ordinary  and  necessary  of  chemical  materials,  were  made  here  and  there  in 
P^astern  cities  on  a  small  scale  ;  and  they  comprised  about  all  the  manufactures 
of  this  class  which  were  produced.  Congress  endeavored  at  times  to  encour- 
age the  industry  by  imposing  a  duty  on  manufactured  chemicals,  and  by 
providing  that  the  raw  materials  —  sulphur,  nitrate  of  soda,  dye-woods,  crude 
saltpetre,  argols,  &c.  —  should  be  admitted  free.  The  professors  in  charge  of 
the  scientific  departments  at  Yale,  Harvard,  Columbia,  Hamilton,  and  other 
Eastern  colleges,  did  something  towards  turning  attention  to  the  matter  also 
by  their  researches  in  regard  to  the  minerals,  alkalies,  and  salts  progress 
of  the  different  portions  of  the  territory  of  the  United  States.  It  within 
has  only  been  within  the  last  thirty  years,  however,  that  the  manu-  "^  ^  years, 
facture  of  chemicals  can  be  said  to  have  attained  any  eminence  whatever  in 
the  United  States ;  and  probably  one-half,  if  not  more,  of  the  establishments 
now  in  existence,  or  at  least  of  the  branches  of  the  industry  now  pursued,  are 
the  creation  of  the  tariff  of  1S61. 

Industrial  chemistry  has  had  its  largest  development  in  France  and  Eng- 
land, where  general  manufacturing  has  also  attained  its  largest  growth  ;  and 
Germany  has  also  made  marvellous  strides  in  this  field  of  progress.    Develop- 
In  France  alone  the  annual   production    of  chemicals   has   now   '"•'"*  °''  •"- 

111  1  r     K  T-.1-1/-1-       dustrial 

reached  the  great  value  of  $250,000,000.  By  the  side  of  this  chemistry  in 
giant  development  the  chemical  manufacture  of  the  United  States  France  and 
seems  mere  boy's  play,  amounting,  as  it  did  in  1870,  only  to  "^  ^" 
$19,417,000  of  chemicals,  dyes,  and  drugs,  and  $5,800,000  of  fertilizers. 
Nevertheless,  the  progress  of  the  last  twenty  years  in  the  United  States  has 
been  striking.  The  manufacturers  have  ventured  to  undertake  something 
besides  the  staple  products  of  sulphuric  acid,  soda,  vegetable  dies,  and  medi- 
cines ;  and  they  have,  within  the  period  named,  entered  upon  the  production 
of  a  large  variety  of  the  rarer  chemicals,  and  have  evidently  planted  the  founda- 
tions of  a  great  industry.  In  1870  there  were  301  chemical  factories  in  the 
United  States,  concentrated  chiefly  in  the  vicinity  of  the  large  Eastern  cities, 
and  125  factories  of  fertilizers,  these  latter  being  largely  in  the  Southern  States. 
A  large  part  of  the  raw  materials  consumed  by  the  American  chemical 
factories  is  imported  from  Europe  and  South  America,  although  it  is  a  fact 
that  they  might  be  obtained  from  our  own  soil.  There  are  enormous  supplies 
of  alkalies,  for  instance,  on  the  plains  and  in  the  mountains  of  the  Far  West, 


490  INDUSTRIAL    mSTONY 

and  all  the  materials  that  a  chemist  coukl  wish  for  the  production  of  sul- 
importation  phuric  acid  (that  most  necessary  and  extensively  made  of  chemi- 
of  raw  cals)   in  the  valley  of  the  Mississippi.     Salt  and  lime  exist  in  the 

materia  s.  United  States  in  unparalleled  abundance  ;  sour  oranges  go  to  waste 
in  Florida  every  year  by  the  thousands  of  bushels  :  yet  the  crude  chemicals 
which  are  obtained  from  these  things,  and  large  quantities  of  the  manuliictured, 
as  well  as  a  great  quantity  of  these  very  raw  materials  besides,  are  imported 
yearly  from  abroad.  'I'he  extent  to  which  this  importation  has  grown  may  be 
seen  by  the  statistics  of  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  1877.  The  imports 
were  as  follows  :  — 

Argols,  Ihs 9,025,542 

Medicinal  barks,  lbs 1,976,016 

Camphor  (crude),  lbs 1,022,565 

Chloride  of  lime,  or  bleaching-powder,  lbs 47,642.133 

Cochineal,  lbs. 1,324,165 

Cutch  and  terra-japonica,  lbs. 22,992,973 

Dye-woods,  cwt 1,195,079 

Gums,  lbs 9.'^73i5i5 

Indigo,  lbs 1,504,783 

Madder,  lbs 3,178,988 

Sulphur  (crude),  tons 43.443 

"         (refined),  cwt -9>039 

Salt,  lbs 901,209,894 

Nitrate  of  potash  (saltpetre),  lbs 13,846,670 

Soda,  nitrate  of,  lbs 54,208,334 

"      bicarbonate,  lbs 4,298,906 

"      carbonate,  lbs 217,360,808 

"      caustic,  lbs 36,000,895 

"      other  salts  of,  lbs 507. 3^f 

Chemicals,  dyes,  drugs,  and  medicines,  n.  e.  s.,  dols.      .        .  8,816,804 

In  all,  our  purchases  amounted  to  about  $25,000,000  worth  of  drugs, 
dyes,  and  chemicals ;  and  yet  $20,000,000  could  have  been  produced  from 
the  materials  which  exist  in  unlimited  abundance  in  our  own  soil.  This  flict 
points  to  the  possibilities  of  the  increase  of  the  industry  in  the  United  States, 
when  the  manner  of  extracting  the  acids,  alkalies,  and  salts  of  commerce, 
from  American  minerals,  is  better  understood. 

The  most  important  of  the  products  of  the  Ciiemical  factories  is  sulphuric 
acid.  It  is  one  of  the  oldest  known  of  acids,  having  been  in  use  among 
Sulphuric  the  proto-chcmists  of  ancient  Arabia.  Professor  Chandler  calls 
^"^'''"  it  one  of  the  pillars  of  science,  on  account  of  the  number  and 

the  value  of  the  uses  to  which  it  is  now  applied.  It  is  used  to  convert  com- 
mon salt  into  soda,  and  hence  lies  at  the  foundation  of  the  glass  and  soap 
industries.  It  is  the  necessary  agent  by  means  of  which  nitric  and  hydro- 
chloric acids  are  obtained,  the  two  solvents  upon  which  the  refining  of  gold 
and  silver,  and  electro-plating  and  photography,  depend.     It  is  employed  in 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


491 


the  production  of  alum,  ammonia,  nearly  all  the  ven-etablc  acids  and  alkaloids, 
the  aniline  colors,  ultramarine,  the  chrome  compounds,  blea<:hing-i)o\vder, 
chloroform,  ether,  phosphorus,  and  fertilizers,  an<l  is  a  constant  resource  of 
the  laboratory ;  and  hence  is  truly  the  pillar  of  a  thousand  great  industries 
and  occupations.  This  substance  was  anciently  made  by  distilling  iron  sul- 
jjhate.  In  1720  Dr.  Roebuck  of  England  suggested  that  it  could  Dr. 
be  made  by  burning  sulphur,  either  in  the  form  of  pure  brim-  R°e''"<=ic. 
stone,  or  as  metallic  pyrites.  The  manufacture  has  ever  since  been  conducted 
upon  the  plan  thus  suggested.  In  the  United  States  brimstone  is  used.  The 
sulphur  is  burned  in  a  draught  of  air,  which  carries  the  fumes  into  a  large 
chamber  completely  lined  with  lead,  where  they  are  precipitated  by  a  pecul- 
iar process  in  the  form  of  acid.  The  acid  enters  the  chamber  in  the  form 
of  sulphurous  oxide  gas  :  it  is  there  mixed  with  steam  and  nitrous  fumes 
evolved  from  saltpetre  with  sulphuric  acid.  The  oxygen  of  the  nitrous  fumes 
combines  with  the  sulphurous  oxide  to  make  sulphuric  acid  ;  while  the  nitrous 
oxide  gas  left  in  the  air  absorbs  oxygen  afresh  from  the  atmosphere,  md  trans- 
mits it  again  to  the  sulphurous  oxide  in  a  process  of  unbroken  continuity.  A 
limited  quantity  of  the  nitrous  fumes  is  sufficient  to  keep  up  a  constant  pre- 
cipitation of  oil  of  vitroil  upon  the  leaden  sides  and  bottom,  of  the  chamber. 
The  acid,  being  diluted  with  water  from  the  steam  present  in  the  air,  must 
now  be  condensed.  This  is  done  by  boiling  in  lead  pans.  When  the  acid 
becomes  sufficiently  concentrated  to  attack  the  lead,  it  is  transferred  to 
platinum  stills,  and  there  given  a  final  condensation.  In  England  the  more 
common  raw  material  is  the  pyrites  of  iron  or  copper.  It  seems,  that,  in  1 838, 
the  King  of  Naples  gave  a  monopoly  of  the  sulphur-trade  to  Taix  iv  Com- 
pany of  Marseilles,  as  a  result  of  which  sulphur  rose  in  London  from  twenty- 
five  dollars  to  seventy  dollars  a  ton.  The  Plnglishmen  immediately  patented 
fifteen  different  processes  for  making  sulphuric  acid  from  pyrites  within  a  year 
afterward,  and  have  ever  since  largely  employed  the  material.  They  make 
over  a  hundred  thousand  tons  of  vitriol  a  year.  The  only  drawback  of  the 
acid  obtained  in  England  from  pyrites  is,  that  it  contains  arsenic,  and  is  con- 
sequently unfit  for  fertilizers,  the  making  of  which  is  one  of  its  most  extensive 
applications.  In  the  United  States  the  utilization  of  the  mineral  sulphides  has 
made  little  or  no  headway.  Professor  C'handler  has,  however,  called  attention 
to  the  fact  that  a  marked  feature  of  the  (juality  of  the  American  sulphides  is 
the  absence  of  arsenic  ;  and  he  has  declared  for  many  years,  that  the  highly  sul- 
phurous coal-seams  of  the  valley  of  the  Upper  Monongahela,  in  West  Virginia, 
alone  would  supply  the  whole  Mississippi  Valley  with  sulphuric  acid  for  agri- 
cultural purposes  for  centuries  to  come.  Professor  Sterry  Hunt  has  also  urged 
the  utilization  of  the  enormous  beds  of  pyrites  in  the  Carolinas  and  East 
Tennessee,  which  are  useless  for  any  other  purpose.  The  suggestions  of  these 
eminent  gentlemen  will  no  doubt  yet  be  heeded.  The  mechanical  power  c^f 
sulphuric  acid  as  a  solvent  and  re-agent  is  something  enormous,  and-  is  the 


'teK 


492 


IND  US  TRIA  I.    ins  TOR  Y 


muriatic 
acids. 


cause  of  its  great  value.  It  lias  a  great  appetite  for  water,  absorl)ing  it  rapidly 
from  the  air;  and  an  illustration  of  its  power  can  be  given  by  remarking  that 
tlv  acid  causes  the  water  which  is  jjoured  into  it  to  shrink  in  volume  from  iS 
to  11.4,  When  one  reflects  upon  tin;  tremendous  mechanical  force  which 
it  would  reciuire  to  compress  water  t(j  that  extent,  the  power  of  sulphuric 
acid  will   be  understood. 

Nitric  and  muriatic  or  hydrochloric  acids  are  made  with  the  aid  of  the 
sulphuric.  'Hie  former  is  niaile  by  distilling  saltpetre  with  sulphuric  a(  id. 
Nitric  and  ^  '^*-'  ^"^'^  \v^^(\  is  now,  liowever,  more  generally  nitrate  of  soda  from 
South  .America,  as  being  cheaper,  and  richer  in  nitre,  lliis  salt 
comes  chiefly  from  the  jjiovince  of  'Jarajxaca  in  Peru,  where  it 
exists  in  a  natural  state  in  beds  which  cover  hundreds  of  sciuare  miles  of 
ground.  It  is  by  some  misnomer  popularly  called  "(!liilian  saltpetre."  Hy- 
drochloric acid  is  made  by  treating  common  salt  (chloride  of  sodium)  with 
sulphuric  acid.  The  chloride  of  hydrogen  which  passes  off  is  conducted 
into  water,  where  it  is  eagerly  absorbed.  The  water  takes  up  460  limes  its 
own  volume  of  the  gas,  and  increases  one-third  in  bulk,  anil  seventy-five  per 
cent  in  weight,  in  the  operation.  Some  very  large  factories  of  these  acids  have 
been  established  in  Philadelphia  :  that  city  being,  by  the  way,  the  principal 
chemical  centre  of  the  country,  nanufacturing  nearly  half  of  the  dyes,  drugs, 
acids,  salts,  and  medicines  ])roducc(l  in  the  United  States. 

'ihe  different  manufactures  of  salts  of  soda  are  very  numerous,  but  not  so 
extensive  as  the  industrial  development  of  the  United  States  demands.  Nearly 
Salts  of  all  the  carbonate  of  soda,  for  instance,  —  a  material  used  in  L;lass- 

soda.  making,  in  the  production  of  caustic  soda  for  soap-nnking,  and 

for  other  purposes,  —  comes  from  l^igland.  It  is  easily  made  from  common 
salt  by  converting  the  latter  into  a  sulphate  with  sulphuric  acid,  and  then 
treating  it  in  a  furnace  with  charcoal  and  carbonate  of  lime,  which  produces 
carbonate  of  soda  mixed  with  sulphide  of  calcium,  the  former  being  then 
separated  from  the  ash  by  leaching  with  hot  water.  All  the  materials  exist 
in  unlimited  abundance  in  this  country  for  the  extensive  manufacture  of 
carbonate  of  soda ;  but  the  American  chemists  appear  to  have  been  afraid  to 
compete  with  the  cheap  labor  and  large  capital  of  ICngland  in  any  consid- 
erable production  of  it.  C'austic  soda  is  now  largely  made  at  Philadelphia 
and  elsewhere,  although  the  importation  is  still  very  large.  It  is  pre[)ared 
from  three  parts  of  the  crystallized  carbonate  of  soda,  dissolved  in  water,  and 
one  part  of  (piick-lime,  slaked,  and  mixed  with  water  to  the  consistency  of 
cream.  The  caustic  solution  is  then  decanted,  and  boiled  down  rapidly, 
melted,  cast  into  sticks,  and  preserved  in  bottles.  The  purest  caustic  soda  is 
dissolved  from  the  residue  obtained  by  boiling  down  with  alcohol,  the  latter 
being  then  driven  off  by  heat.  Soda  for  baking-powder  is  also  largely  made 
at  the  American  factories.  One  concern  in  California  has  been  making  it 
since  4875,  in  San  Francisco,  from  native  salts  obtained  at  the  warm  springs 


01'    THE    UiWITED    STATES. 


493 


;  it  rapidly 
irking  tjut 
If  from  1 8 
)rcc  wliidi 
sulphuric 

aid  of  the- 
uiric  ac  ill. 
soda  froiii 
This  sail 
,  wlicrc  it 
:  miles  of 
re."  Ily- 
liuni)  with 
conducted 
)  times  its 
ty-fivc  i)L'r 
acids  have 
:  principal 
yes,  druys, 

but  not  so 
Nearly 
1  in  glass- 
iking,  and 
1  common 
and  tlien 

produces 
eing  then 
rials  exist 
icture    of 

afraid  to 
y  consiil- 
iladelphia 

prepared 
k'aler,  and 
stency  of 
I  rapidly, 
ic  soda  is 
the  latter 
;ely  made 
naking  it 
n  si)rings 


in  Churchill  Comity,  Nevada.  This  factory  is  the  pioneer  in  the  attempt  to 
use  the  alkaline  treasures  of  the  I'ar  West ;  and  it  is  making  such  progri'ss  in 
the  production  of  carbonate,  bic  arbonate,  and  other  salts  of  soda,  that  prob- 
ably, in  a  few  years,  it  will  begin  to  supply  the  eastern  part  of  the  reiuiblic  with 
its  goods.  Soda  is  now  made  to  a  limited  e.xtent  in  Philadelphia  from  cryolite, 
—  a  mineral  foimd  in  (Greenland,  containing  sodiinn,  aluminum,  and  fluorine. 

One  of  the  new  manufactures  is  that  of  citric  acid,  —  a  chemical  used  by 
the  silk-dyers  to  heighten  the  colors  of  cochineal  and  safllower,  and  by  the 
<  alico-printers  to  discharge  mordants  fiom  the  cloth.  The  industry  i)egan  in 
Philadelphia  in  US74.  At  present  the  crude  material  is  obtained  from  abroad, 
mainly  from  Sicily.  It  consists  of  the  juice  of  limes,  lemons,  and  sour  oranges. 
The  sour  oranges  of  Florida  will,  in  the  future,  be  utilized  in  this  manufacture  ; 
but  they  do  not  yet  enter  into  it  largely,  'i'iie  acid  is  obtained  by  fermenting 
the  sour  juice,  ("halk  is  added,  and  citrate  of  lime  i)recipitated.  This  is 
treated  with  sulphuric  acid,  which  forms  sulphate  of  lime,  leaving  the  acid  in 
solution. 

One  of  the  large  features  of  the  imports  of  crude  materials  is  called  argols. 
This  substance  is  not  yet  produced  in  the  United  States  to  any  extent.  It  is 
the  salt  dei)osited  in  crystalline  crusts  on  the  sides  and  bottoms  of  importation 
wine-barrels.  Being  less  soluble  in  alcohol  than  in  water,  it  leaves  °^  argou. 
the  wine  as  the  proportion  of  alcohol  increases.  Chemically  this  deposit  con- 
sists of  potassic  bitartrate,  with  a  small  intermixture  of  calcic  tartrate  and  of 
coloring  and  mucilaginous  matters.  Commercially  it  is  of  the  highest  im- 
jjortance.  The  lees  of  the  wine  are  dissolved  in  hot  water,  and  clarified  by 
means  of  clay,  and  then  recrystallized.  The  process  is  rei)eated ;  and  the 
result  is  a  white  crystalline  substance  called  cream  of  tartar,  which  is  sold  with 
bicarbonate  of  soda  for  bread-making.  The  high  cost  of  the  article  has  led 
dealers  to  practise  the  most  shameful  adulteration  of  cream  of  tartar ;  and  half 
of  th.it  found  in  the  market  contains  flour,  gypsum,  &:c.,  exceeding  two-thirds 
of  its  bulk.  From  argols  are  also  made  Rochelle  salts,  tartaric  acid,  and 
salt  of  tartar.  The  wine-producing  regions  of  the  United  States  promise  in 
the  future  to  be  the  means  of  creating  a  partial  supply  of  argols  at  home. 

Among  the  very  recent  branches  of  chemical  manufacture  in  the  United 
States  is  that  of  the  aniline  colors.  The  discovery  of  these  intense  and  bril- 
liant dyes  has  completely  revolutionized  the  art  of  dyeing  and  print-  Aniline 
ing  textile  fabrics  within  the  short  space  of  twenty  years  :  it  has  '^°'°''s- 
increased  the  resources  of  the  dyer  immensely,  and  has  made  the  processes  of 
<lyeing  more  complicated  and  elaborate.  Aniline,  so  called  from  anil,  indigo, 
was  discovered  in  1826  by  a  German  chemist  by  the  name  of  Unverdorben, 
who  got  it  by  distilling  indigo.  It  crystallized  readily  ;  and  he  called  it,  accord- 
ingly, crystalline.  It  attracted  much  attention  in  laboratories.  A  great  deal 
of  study  was  given  to  it,  and  the  range  of  chemical  knowledge  greaUy  increased 
in  the  course  of  the  researches  of  those  interested  in  it.     No  commercial 


rM 


I  i^''  /% 


n 


494 


INDLHTKIAL    HISTOKY 


importanrc  was  attached  to  it  until  i«S56,  when  \V.  \\.  IVrkin  prochircd  from 
it  ihf  bfantiliil  imrplf  dye  tailed  niaiive.  'I'hat  set  dyers  and  »  heniisls  in  a 
flame,  and  llic  whole  series  of  remarkable  lints  which  aniline  is  tapahle  of 
produc  in^'  were  soon  discovered.  Ihe  presence  of  the  article  itself  was  also 
soon  detected  in  ollur  Uiings  than  indigo.  Aniline,  like  many  other  clKini(  al 
Maiiufac  prodncts  of  value,  is  obtained  conniiercially  from  refuse  or  wortli 
tureonduse.  j^.j^^  substaiKX's.  It  is  among  the  products  of  distillation  of  coal 
tar.  peat,  bones.  (\:c.  It  is  usually  made  for  the  trade  from  ben/oK-.  one  of  tlu- 
elements  of  coal-tar,  the  i)rocess  being  as  follows  :  lieii/ole  is  treati'd  with  nitric 
acid  to  form  nitrod)en/ok',  and  this  is  changed  by  the  a(  lion  of  ferrous  a(  et;itc 
(made  from  iron-filings  and  acetic  acid)  into  a  compound  from  wlii(  1,  impun- 
aniline  is  obtained  by  flisiillation.  .\  second  distillation,  with  a  slight  excess  of 
lime  or  soda,  gives  crude  aniline.  'The  product  is  a  colodess,  mobile,  oily,  and 
very  poisonous  liipiid,  boiling  at  182",  and  possessing  an  aromali(,  burning  taste. 
For  the  trade  it  is  generallv  converted  into  what  is  called  rosani- 

Rosanilme.  .  .       .         '. 

line.  wlii(  h  is  itself  a  dye.  and  from  whii  h  nearly  .ill  tlu'  oilier 
dyes  can  lie  made.  ( )ue  pari  of  aniline  oil  is  treated  with  one  and  a  half  parts 
of  a  sevenly-iive-per-cenl  arsenic  acid  in  a  closed  iron  still.  The  prodiu  I  is 
boiled  with  water,  and  filtered.  I'pon  adding  common  salt  in  excess,  <  rude 
hytlrochlorate  of  rosaniline  is  precipilale<l.  This  is  disscjlved  in  boiling  water, 
filtered,  and  allowed  to  crystalli/e  ;  and  the  j^all  thus  obtained  is  called  rosani- 
line. The  dye  is  also  prepared  in  other  ways,  by  treatment  and  distillation. 
It  varies  in  color  from  a  beautiful  cherry-red  to  a  rich  crimson.  Rosanaline  is 
known  by  the  names  of  aniline-red,  magenta,  solferino,  fuchsine.  roscme, 
azaleine,  ^:c. :  it  is  soluble  in  water  and  alcohol.  .\  great  deal  of  the  aniline 
in  the  general  market  appears  there  first  in  the  form  'if  this  salt.  In  the 
United  .States,  although  coal-tar  is  distilled  here,  and  benzole  is  one  of  the 
regular  articles  of  export,  all  the  crude  aniline  used  is  imported  :  the  article 
comes  principally  from  (lermany,  where  it  is  most  largely  manufactured.  Ro- 
saniline contains  thiee  atoms  of  replaceable  hydrogen,  liy  trealing  il  with 
iodide  of  methyl,  ethyl,  amyle,  and  other  radicals  of  alcohol,  and  recovering 
the  iodine  by  boiling  in  caustic  potash,  salts  are  precipitated,  ranging  in  color 
from  red,  violet,  and  |)urple  to  ihc  purest  blue,  according  to  the  amount  of 
hydrogen  which  has  been  rei)laced.  (jrays,  browns,  maroons,  blacks,  greens, 
and  yellows,  all  of  the  rarest  beauty  antl  greatest  intensity,  are  obtained  by 
different  ]:)rocesses.  The  manufacture  of  these  co'ors  is  carried  on  principally 
at  Philadelphia,  though  they  are  often  prepared  in  the  laboratories  of  the 
textile  factories  themselves.     Many  of  them  are  very  easily  prepared. 

Space  forbids  the  enumeration  of  all  the  i)roducts  of  the  .'Xmerican  labo- 
ratories ,  but  a  few  substances  may  be  referred  to  as  showing  what  jewels 
modern  science  finds  in  unattractive  quarters,  and  how  the  refuse 
of  our  cities  is  made  to  contribute  to  the  weltare  of  the  ]XH)ple. 
One  of  the  very  large  products  of  Cincinnati  and  Philadelphia  is  glycerine. 


Glycerine. 


OF    THE    VMTEl)    STATES. 


495 


I'his  article  is  obtained  from  the  refuse  of  candle-factorifs.  Another  is 
aiiimDiiii,  extracted  from  the  pas-li(|M()r  of  the  j,'as-vvorks.  Still  aiiollu'r  is 
hnmiiilo  of  potash,  wiiit  h  is  j^alhcrcd  from  the  refuse  of  salt-works.  It  has 
already  been  related  how  <  ream  of  tartar  is  made  from  the  lees  of  wine.  This 
invaluable  snbstanre  is  also  largely  produced  from  beef-bones,  whi(  h  a  few 
years  ago  were  thrown  away  as  useless. 

Chloride  of  lime,  though   in  immense  request  in  the   rotton  and  linen 
factories  and  other  textile  establisliuKiits  of  the  country,  is  made  in  tiie  United 


rii-i  s  s(iu.\-\v.\i i:k  iocntain. 


States  to  a  smaller  extent  than  the  niagnilude  of  the  consumption  of  the 
article  would  seem  to  recjuirc.  It  is  easily  prepared.  C'lilorine  gas  is  first 
produced  by  means  of  the  re-action  of  hydrochloric  ..cid  on  binoxide  of 
manganese,  —  a  mineral  abundanUy  supplied  in  all  parts  of  the  chloride  of 
workl,  and  always  eagerly  sought  after.  In  some  factories  the  '""^• 
gas  is  obtained  by  the  re-action  of  sul|)huric  acid  on  common  salt  ami  l)i- 
noxide  of  manganese.     By  whatever  process  it  is  made,  it  is  stored  away  in 


'  '^'t^4:«ii 


m 


',._j]4AKililu4»llMi» 


496 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


slaked  lime  by  the  simple  means  of  bringing  the  two  substances  together 
in  a  closed  chamber.  '1  he  lime  is  spread  about  seven  inches  deep  on  the 
floor,  and  the  gas  forced  in.  It  is  slowly  absorbed  by  the  lime,  the  process 
consuming  about  four  days. 

One  of  the  most  prominent  chemical  manufactures  in  this  country  is  soda- 
water,  so  called,  and  its  kindred  beverages,  —  pop-beer  and  artificial  mineral- 
Manufac.  water.  The  first-named  is  nothing  more  than  pure  water  impreg- 
tureofsoda-  natcd  with  carbonic-acid  gas.  \Mien  lemon,  ginger,  sarsaparilla, 
^^  ^'^'  or  other  flavoring-extracts,  are  added,  and  it  is  sold  in  bottles,  it  is 

known  as  pop-beer ;  and  when,  instead  of  such  sirups,  certain  mineral-salts 
aru  added  to  the  carbonic-acid  water,  corresponding  to  the  analysis  of  certain 
natural  mineral-waters,  they  are  sold  for  consumption  by  the  bottle,  or  for 
distribution  by  the  "  fountain."  The  idea  of  making  such  preparations,  espe- 
cially the  last-named  class,  originated  in  Germany  and  Sweden.  Experiments 
began  as  early  as  the  sixteenth  century ;  but  the  foundation-princii)les  were 
not  discovered  for  a  long  time  :  indeed,  it  is  only  within  sixty  years  that  the 
art  has  been  brought  to  perfection.  In  1810-20  Berzelius  founded  in  Stock- 
holm, and  Struve  in  Dresden,  artificial  spas.  Faraday  and  Liebig  pronounced 
the  latter's  imitations  of  mineral-waters  perfect,  and  equally  wholesome  with  the 
original.  The  apparatus  for  the  manufacture  consists  of  a  large  copper  gener- 
ator, in  which  the  gas  is  evolved  by  a  mixture  of  sulphuric  acid  and  carbonate 
of  lime,  certain  pipes  and  reservoirs  for  purifying  it,  a  receptacle  in  which  the 
gas  is  mingled  with  water  (fresh,  flavored,  or  impregnated  with  mineral-salts, 
as  the  case  may  be),  and  a  device  for  filling  bottles  or  larger  receivers  for 
"  fountains."  Valuable  improvements  have  been  made  by  Mr.  John  Matthews 
of  New  York  to  the  process.  One  consists  of  a  saiety-valve  to  iie  generator 
to  prevent  explosions,  and  another  is  the  practice  of  lining  the  fountains  and 
connections  with  block-tin  to  prevent  corrosion  and  poisoning.  There  art 
no  less  than  ten  thousand  of  his  fountains  in  use  in  this  country,  and  both  of 
his  devices  have  come  into  extensive  use  in  Europe. 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


497 


CHAPTER  XII. 

WOOD    AND    OTHER   MANUFACTURES. 

IT  is  now  proposed  to  consider  a  vaiiety  of  industries  which  have  grown  up 
in  the  United  States,  which  are  devoteil  to  the  manufacture  of  the  vegetable 
prockicts  of  the  soil  and  of  the  minerals.  Some  of  these,  which  General 
could  not  be  well  treated  with  brevity,  have  been  discussed  in  sketch, 
special  chapters.  In  the  majority  of  cases,  these  industries,  though  now 
severally  employing  millions  of  capital  and  supporting  hundreds  of  thou- 
sands of  people,  are  capable  of  being  treated  concisely  ;  and  they  are,  there- 
fore, grouped  as  miscellaneous  manufactures  in  the  present  chapter.  Some 
of  these  are  of  very  ancient  date,  taking  their  origin  as  far  b-i.ck  almost  as 
the  settlement  of  the  country :  some  are  of  very  recent  date,  many  having 
come  into  existence  within  the  last  forty  years.  Whether  old  or  young,  they 
are  all  profitable  to  the  country,  and  form  an  essential  part  of  its  stiength  and 
wealth.  The  United  States  have  not  always  manufactured  a  very  considerable 
part  of  the  raw  ^Toducts  of  her  soil  and  fields,  —  not  even  a  very  large  share 
of  that  portion  of  those  products  consumed  in  manufactured  form  by  her  own 
people.  In  the  early  ages  of  the  country  nearly  all  the  raw  materials  —  the 
hides,  the  grain,  the  bark,  the  tobacco,  the  cotton,  and  the  metals  —  were  sent 
abroad,  and  the  things  made  out  of  them  were  brought  back  again  from  the 
lands  to  which  the  original  products  were  sent.  Old  Beverly,  in  1705,  impa- 
tiently remarked  of  the  colonists  (a  hundred  years  after  the  first  settlement,  be 
it  noted),  "Nay,  they  are  such  abominable  ill  huajands,  that  though  their 
^  >untry  be  overrun  with  wood,  yet  they  have  all  their  wooden-ware  from 
England,  —  their  cabinets,  chairs,  tables,  stools,  chests,  boxes,  cart-wheels,  and 
all  other  things,  even  so  much  as  their  bowls  and  birchen  brooms, — to  the 
eternal  reproach  of  their  laziness."  It  was  not  to  be  expected,  however,  that 
so  free  and  active-minded  a  ""eople  as  the  Americans,  living  in  such  an  invigor- 
ating climate,  would  long  continue  to  send  their  raw  products  abroad  to  be 
mr.nufactured,  after  they  had  freed  themselves  from  that  great  obstacle  to 
industry,  a  tyrannical  government,  -aid  after  they  had  so  fairly  subjugated  the 
soil  as  to  have  an  abundance  of  food  ;    and  accordingly  we  find  that  they 


>  ■  i-  «4  . 


... .  J  i  i 


1  ; 


498 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


began  to  manufacture  their  raw  products  largely  lor  themselves  after  their 
independence,  and  "  the  eternal  reproach  "  was  quickly  wiped  out.  It  has 
already  been  related  what  the  Americans  have  done  in  manufacturing  their 
crude  metals.  The  history  of  manufacturing  the  more  important  vegetable  and 
mineral  products  of  the  United  States  has  been  nearly  completed.  A  few 
more  pages,  however,  are  needed  to  finish  this  portion  of  our  work.  While 
seeking  to  make  this  chapter  as  brief  and  at  the  same  time  as  complete  as 
possible,  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  no  important  fact  relating  to  the  development 
of  the  industries  herein  considered  has  been  omitted. 

LUMPIiK. 

The  business  of  lumbering  is  one  which  the  European  settlers  on  this 
continent  were  obliged  to  begin  before  any  other.  Two  necessities  faced 
Lumbering  ^^em  when  they  landed,  —  the  neen  of  shelter  from  the  weather, 
among  the  and  cleared  land  whereon  to  cultivate  food.  Nearly  the  whole 
CO  cms  s.  country  was  covered  with  vast  and  ancient  forests  :  these  yielded 
the  material  for  houses  and  barns,  but  rendered  the  work  of  preparing  the  soil 
for  tillage  highly  laborious.  But  there  were  energy,  courage,  and  enthusiasm  in 
the  hardy  Anglo-Saxon  stock  which  occupied  the  country  from  Nova  Scotia  to 
Florida,  and  scarcely  less  in  the  Dutchmen  and  Swedes  who  broke  the  line  of 
English  settlements  for  a  time  from  the  Hudson  to  the  1  )elaware  River ;  so 
that  the  axe  and  saw  were  ^'igorously  plied  from  the  very  first  occupation  of 
America.  The  early  dwellings  were  of  logs,  imitated  ever  since  by  pioneers  in 
new  sections  of  the  country ;  and  the  few  boards  and  shingles  used  were  hewn 
out  with  an  admirable  dexterity.  Forts  for  defence  against  the  hostile  Indians, 
bridges  across  the  streams  along  which  the  first  settlements  were  planted,  docks 
for  the  little  shipping  which  afforded  communication  with  the  Old  World,  logs 
for  corduroy  roads  over  poor  spots  in  the  needed  highways,  and  firewood  for 
cooking  and  comfort,  all  called  for  further  labor;  and  later  —  much  later  than 
should  have  been  the  case — there  was  some  demand  for  material  for  cattle- 
pens  and  barns. 

A  rare  and  timely  jnece  of  good  fortune  for  the  American  colonists  was  the 
invention  of  the  saw-mill,  which  first  made  its  appearance  in  this  coimtry  in 
1633,  or  shortly  before,  preceding  the  first  establishment  of  it  in 
the  mother-country  many  years.  Although  the  saw  was  known  in 
P^gypt  in  the  time  of  jNIoses,  yet  a  mill  in  which  it  was  ojjcrated  by  machine- 
ry was  scarcely  known  in  F,uro])e  before  the  discovery  of  America.  Germany 
had  saw-mills  in  the  fourth  century ;  the  Island  of  Madeira,  in  1420 ;  Nor- 
way, not  till  1530;  France,  as  early  as  1555  ;  and  iOnglanci,  not  until  1663. 
This  last-named  mill  was  torn  down  to  gratify  a  hostile  popular  prejudice. 
P'ears  of  like  demonstration  prevented  the  erection  of  another  in  1700,  and 
the  populace  destroyed  one  as  late  as  1767.     Prior  to  the  introduction  of  tlie 


Saw-mUl. 


li    I 


OF    rilK     UNITED    STATES. 


499 


;as  the 

itry  in 

)f  it  in 

own  in 

liinc- 

■iinany 

Xor- 

1663. 


saw-mill,  planks  were  hewed  out  or  sawed  by  hand  ;  which  explains  the  jjreva- 
lence  of  clay  floors  and  the  scarcity  of  plank  floors  in  ICurojJt'  in  tlie  olden 
time. 

Saw-mills  located  on  son\e  eligible  stream,  and  run  by  water-power,  were 
erected  at  a  very  early  date  \n  the  first  colonies,  and  thereafter  made  their 
appearance  in  each  new  colony  and  settlement  which  afforded  the  motive- 
power  :  indeed,  the  location  of  many  settlements  was  determined  by  the 
presence  of  a  good  mill-stream.  The  first  saw-mill  that  is  known  to  have 
been  erected  in  New  England  was  on  Salmon- Falls  River,  near  First  saw- 
the  present  city  of  Portsmui.t'\  N.Ii. ;  and  it  was  built  there  soon  '"'"• 
after  the  land  w.is  granted  in  1631  to  Mason  and  (lorges,  the  great  i)ro- 
prietarics  of  that  region.  It  is  known  to  have  been  in  operation  in  1635, 
and  might  have  been  up  a  year  or  two  at  that  time.  It  is  asserted  that  a 
saw-mill  was  in  existence  in  Massachusetts  as  early  as  1633  ;  but  no  evidenc:e 
of  it  exists,  although  one  was  proposed  for  the  colony  in  a  letter  of  instruc- 
tions sent  to  CjOv.  Kndicott  in  1629.  A  patent  for  an  improvement  in  saw- 
mills was  granted  Joseph  Jenks  of -Lynn  in  1648;  but  it  is  impossible  to 
find  any  recortl  of  a  saw-mrll  in  Massachusetts  before  the  one  built  in  Scituate 
in  1656,  and  burned  by  the  Indians  in  1676.  Another  existed,  near  Duxbury, 
as  early  as  1664.  Worcester  had  one  in  1684  ;  and  Groton,  in  Middlesex,  in 
1686.  Neither  Vermont  nor  Rhode  Island  appears  to  have  had  any  saw-mills 
before  the  Revolution.  The  younger  Winthroj),  afterwards  governor  of  Con- 
necticut, brought  a  millwright  to  New  London,  and  put  up  a  saw-mill  in  1651. 
The  superintendent,  John  Elderkin,  was  for  thirty-five  years  the  principal  con- 
tractor for  the  buikling  of  meeting-houses,  dwellings,  bridges,  ^;c.,  in  Eastern 
Connecticut.  Two  more  were  built  near  Hartford  in  167 1  an-.l  1680.  Several 
more  were  constructed  in  tiie  colony  within  the  next  'i^w  years.  Saw-mills 
operated  by  wind  instead  of  by  water  were  erected  by  the  Dutch  on  Manhat- 
t;i.!i  Island  as  early  as  1633.  These  were  the  first  on  this  continent,  but  were 
very  unprofitable,  according  to  provincial  documents.  Others  were  soon  built 
in  the  vicinity,  however,  and  up  the  river,  near  Albany.  The  Catskill  region, 
and  several  points  on  the  east  side  of  the  Hudson,  followed  these  examples. 
I'he  French  had  saw-mills  near  Ticonderoga  in  the  early  part  of  the  eighteenth 
century.  West  Jersey  led  the  eastern  side  in  the  erection  of  saw-mills.  The 
first  one  on  the  Delaware  was  put  up  in  1682.  .Amboy  built  her  first  ones  in 
1683.  They  rapidly  multiplied  in  that  colony,  however.  The  Dutch  and 
Swedes  anticipated  William  IVnn  in  this  direction.  Delaware  had  a  sawmill 
in  1658,  another  in  1662,  and  a  third  in  1O78.  IVnn  fotiiid  saw-mills  in 
Pennsylvania  in  1683  already  in  operation.  They  were  long  scarce  near 
Philadelphia,  however  ;  and  not  one  was  to  be  found  in  the  adjacent  county 
of  Hucks  as  late  as  1731.  Thev'multiplied  in  the  int  -ior,  though,  especiall)- 
where  the  Germans  settled.  There  is  no  record  of  Maryland's  first  ;,aw-mill  ; 
but  she  had  corn-mills  run  by  water  as  early  as  i'')39.     Virginia  made  \<r<:?\ 


If 


500 


IXD  US  TRIA  I.    HIS  TOR  Y 


i    ! 


I    i 


**W»j- 


'H^^i^ 


account  of  hewing  clapljoards  an(i  masts  in  her  very  earliest  days.  There  was 
talk  of  saw-mills  in  1620  ;  but  nothing  was  done  toward  their  erection  for  full 
thirty  years.  The  (,'arolinas  and  (leorgia  had  magnificent  pine-forests,  which 
one  would  think  would  have  early  invited  the  lumberman  ;  but,  in  pre- Revolu- 
tionary days,  saw-mills  were  scarce  in  that  region.  As  late  as  i<So.S  South 
Carolina  had  but  sixty-five,  and  (leorgia  but  one.  Within  the  present  century, 
though,  the  C.'arolinas  and  other  Southern  States  have  sent  some  fine  lumber 
North.     But  there  was  a  shocking  waste  in  North  ('arolina  after  the  \alue  of 

the  cotton-plant 
was  realized. 
Splendid  forests 
were  burned 
down  to  ( lear 
the  land,  and  the 
only  use  made 
of  tile  s(iuan- 
dered  material 
was  to  manufac- 
ture a  little  pot- 
ash out  of  the 
ashes,  'i'urpen- 
tine  and  resin 
have,  iiowever, 
since  l)een  ob- 
tained in  great 
(luantities  from 
that  section,  in 
addition  to  tiie 
lumber. 

From  these 
beginnings  the 
local  lumbering- 
business  devel- 
oped all  over  the 
country.  Mills  were  erected  wherever  the  settlers  located  near  good  streams. 
New  Hampsliire  and  Maine  went  into  the  business  more  largely  than  some  of 
the  other  colonies.  Hut  the  saw-mill  followed  the  pioneer  wherever  he  went  ; 
and  this  remark  holds  true  of  the  post-colonial  as  well  as  the  colonial  period 
of  our  history.  .As  the  Atlantic  States  filled  up,  and  the  Western  States  were 
occupied,  the  saw-mill  was  regarded  the  first  essential  of  civilization.  Thus 
we  finil  the  New  P^nglander  who  occupied  Ohio  building  a  saw-m'll  in  17S9 
on  Wolf  Creek,  sixteen  miles  from  Marietta.  The  fact  that  at  Canton  (Mass.) 
alone  from  a  hundred  and   fifty  to  two  himdred  saw-mills  were  manufactured 


SAW-Mll.l.    UN     I  m;    COiNi-MAlU.FI. 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


501 


Thus 
1789 


;inii.ially  about  1790  is  significant  of  the  development  of  the  Uiniber-business 
through  this  important  instrumentahty  all  over  the  country. 

The  abundance  of  pine-forests,  the  improved  facihties  afforded  by  saw- 
mills, and  the  natural  hardihood  and  enterprise  of  the  colonists,  led  many  of 
them  to  embark  in  the  lumber-trade,  not  simi)ly  for  their  own  Deveiop- 
necessities,  but  for  jnirjjoses  of  trade,  domestic  and  foreign.  Saw-  ment  of  in- 
mills  were,  to  a  great  extent,  run  like  grist-mills,  the  proi)rietor  """"y- 
taking  toll  from  his  many  patrons,  and  selling  the  stock  thus  accumulated,  and 
even  engaging  in  the  cutting  of  trees,  in  order  to  keej)  his  mill  going,  and 
enlarge  his  i)rofits.  The  proprietary  lumber-business  thus  had  an  early  start  : 
it  began  in  New  Hampshire  and  Maine,  which,  in  the  seventeenth  century, 
both  belonged  to  Massachusetts.  Many  mills  were  erected  on  the  Piscataipia, 
Saco,  Kennebec,  and  other  rivers.  Mason,  (lorges,  and  the  Pepperells, 
original  jjroprietors  in  New  Hampshire  and  Maine,  engaged  extensively  in  the 
Inisiness.  There  was  a  deal  of  ship-building  done  too,  in  those  colonial  days, 
at  Kittcry,  and  elsewhere  along  the  coast ;  and  lumber  was  largely  consumed 
in  this  way.  There  was  a  large  export  of  jiartially-manufactured  lumber  to  the 
West  Indies,  and  of  masts  and  knees  for  shipping  to  England.  New  England 
carried  on  a  large  sugar-trade  with  the  Indies,  and  was  obliged  to  ship  thither 
large  ciuantities  of  staves  and  shooks  for  barrels.  In  the  eighteenth  century 
the  Champlain  district  exported  lumber  extensively  to  Montreal  and  Quebec, 
and  after  the  Revolution  a  large  business  sprang  up  in  the  western  counties  of 
New  York.  New  Jersey  became  consjjicuous  for  her  lumber  exi)orts  early  in 
colonial  days,  and  prohibited  the  carrying  of  any  timber,  planks,  boards,  oak- 
holts,  staves,  heading,  hoops,  or  even  hop-poles,  except  in  her  own  ship]jing. 
Huge  rafts  of  lumber  were  floated  down  the  Delaware  to  Philadeli)hia,  and 
down  the  Sus(|uehanna  to  Baltimore.  Philadelphia  exported  783,000  feet  of 
lumber  in  1765,  and  in  1731  a  British  publication  mentioned  the  importations 
of  jQx'^.ooo  worth  of  lumber  annually  from  Virginia  and  Maryland.  The 
ofticial  value  of  the  different  kinds  of  lumber  exported  from  all  the  colonies 
in  1770  was  ^154,637:  this  embraced  boards,  i)lank.  scantling,  timber  for 
masts,  spars,  and  buildings,  staves,  heading,  hoops,  and  poles.  In  1  792  the 
exports  of  lumber  were  65,846,024  feet,  including  80,813,357  shingles,  i,o8o 
<e(lar  and  oak  ship-knees,  and  191  house-frames. 

Within  the  present  century,  however,  and  especially  within  the  past  thirty 
years,  the  lumber-business  has  attained  a  development  compared  with  which 
that  of  the  pre-Revolutionary  age  was  insignificant.  The  needs  of  Lumbering 
tlie  country  have  vastly  increased,  and  the  focilities  for  handling  t'jringiast 
and  manufacturing  lumber  have  improved  to  a  remarkable  extent.  ^  ''^^"  ^^^' 
I'orty  and  fifty  years  ago  we  had  a  large  siii|i-hui!ding  industry,  whi<  h  has 
declined  ;  and  v/e  are  using  iron  rather  more  than  wood  in  our  modern  bridges. 
Hut  when  it  is  remembered  that  our  population  has  increased  from  three  to 
forty-five  millions,  and  that  but  one  man  in  fifty  has  a  house  of  brick  or  stone, 


I!  .■•■*■;■ 


0     i:  .."■  Jli; 


llr 


i « 


502 


INDUSTRIAl.    niSTOKY 


it  can  be  seen,  that,  for  building-purposes  alone,  our  demand  for  lumber  hari 
multiplied  exceedingly.  Then,  too,  within  forty  years  we  have  btuit  thousands 
of  miles  of  railroad  and  telegraph,  requiring  ties  and  poles  all  along  the  route. 
The  timber  thus  employed  is  of  an  inferior  sort ;  but  the  (luantity  is  immense 
Wooden  pavements  in  our  large  cities  also  consume  large  quantities  of  thi^ 
material.  The  invention  of  wood-working  machinery  and  the  development  of 
various  manufactures  have  necessarily  increased  the  demand  ;  while  the  appli- 
cation of  the  steam-engine  to  the  saw,  and  the  arrangement  of  saws  in  gangs 


so  as   to  (lit  several  i)lanks  from  one  log  simultaneously,  have  enlarged  the 
capacity  of  the  mills  wonderfully,  and  so  increased  the  supply. 

If  one  will  but  comjjare  the  value  of  the  lumber  sawed  and  i)lane(l,  and  the 
number  of  establishiiients  engagetl  in  the  business,  in  i<S5o.  i<S6o,  and  iSjo, 
Central-  -  '^*"'  ^^''"  discovcr  that  tlic  increase  in  ])r()duct  is  very  remarkable, 
tion  of  but  that  the  increase  in  the  number  of  mills   is  not  proportionate  : 

us  ry.  .^^  other  words,  the  business  is  becoming  centralized.  A\'hile  there 
are  a  great  many  lilUe  local  saw-mills  all  over  the  country,  the  main  business  is 
conducted  by  a  few  large  ones,  which  cut  fifty  or  a  hundred  times  as  much 
in  one  season  as  .uiy  mill  of  half  a  century  ago.     Thus  in  1S50  the  product  of 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


503 


(1  the 


much 


17,895  mills  was  $58,520,966  ;  in  i860,  that  of  20,165  mills  was  $104,928,342, 
or  nearly  double  that  of  ten  years  before  ;  and,  in  1870,  that  of  26,930  mills 
was  $252,032,229,  or  more  than  double  that  of  i860.  The  increase  since 
then  has  not  been  at  quite  the  same  rate  ;  but  it  is  very  large. 

Half  a  century  ago  the  State  of  Maine  was  the  great  producer  of  surplus 
lumber  for  the  rest  of  the  country.  At  times  the  States  of  New  York  and 
Pennsylvania  equalled  her  in  product,  and  in  i860  considerably 
exceeded  her.  But  while  the  Champlain  region,  the  western  i)art 
of  New  York,  the  Delaware,  Chesapeake,  Schuylkill,  and  Alleghany  regions, 
were  great  producers,  the  population  of  those  States  was  so  large  as  to  nearly 
or  ciuite  consume  their  home-supplies  ;  Philadelphia  even  importing  from  the 
Pningor  district.  Maine  was  lightly  populated,  and  exported  to  all  New  Eng- 
land, and  even  farther  south  on  the  Atlantic  coast.  By  i860  the  saginaw 
(Ireen-Bay  region  in  Wisconsin,  and  the  Saginaw  district  in  Michi-  '•'^f'ct. 
gan,  had  assumed  considerable  ]iromincnce  in  the  business  ;  and  they  both 
eclipsed  Maine  during  the  next  decade.  Thus  while  Maine's  product  of  sawed 
lumber,  including  laths,  shingles,  and  staves,  in  that  interval,  only  increased 
from  $7,167,760  to  $11,395,747,  Wisconsin's  rose  from  $4,616,430  to  $15,130,- 
719,  and  Michigan's  from  $7,303,404  to  $31,946,396.  New  York's  ])roduct 
had  increased,  meantime,  h-om  $10,597,595  to  $21,238,228,  and  Pennsylvania's 
from  $10,994,060  to  $28,938,985  ;  but  except  a  good-sized  ex])ort  from  New 
York  to  Canada,  and  a  moderate  one  from  Pennsylvania  Soulli,  those  two 
States  did  little  more  than  provide  for  themselves.  The  Saginaw  region  con- 
tinued to  increase  its  product  until  1873,  when  its  climax  api)cars  to  have  been 
reached.  The  Green-Bay  region  has  continued  to  increase  its  product.  The 
same  great  belt  of  dense  white-pine  forest  which  starts  in  Maine,  and  runs 
througii  to  the  head  of  the  Creat  I,akes,  also  crosses  Minnesota;  which  State 
has,  within  the  past  eight  or  ten  years,  risen  into  great  prominence  as  a  lumber- 
producing  State.  The  saw-mills  about  the  Falls  of  St.  Anthony  are,  perhai>s, 
more  numerous  than  in  any  otiier  one  locality  in  the  United  States.  The 
principal  lumber  of  Maine  and  the  North-West  is  the  white  or  soft  pine,  with 
considerable  spruce  and  hemlock  :  the  hard  pine  comes  chiefly  from  North 
Carolina,  Ceorgia,  I'lorida,  and  Alabama.  The  Dismal  Swamp  in  Virginia  is 
also  (juue  a  producer  of  pine,  spruce,  and  hemlock.  Ohio  and  Michigan  yield 
considerable  black-walnut,  cherry,  ash,  and  white-oak,  although  these  woods 
are  also  found  elsewhere.  Louisiana  and  Mississippi  are  also  coming  to  be 
large  lumber-producers.  The  Pacific  coast  and  Rocky-Mountain  region 
abounds  in  a  sort  of  fir,  or  red-wood,  which  is  very  serviceal)le  :  this  is  the 
principal  lumber  of  Oregon.  The  city  of  Chicago  is  now  the  greatest  lumber- 
mart  of  the  w'orld,  her  supplies  coming'  chiell}-  from  the  shores  of  Dake  Michi- 
gan. It  might  be  remarked  in  this  connection,  that  Chicago  and  other  lumber- 
markets  now  send  to  the  pioneer,  all  prepared  for  use,  much  of  the  building- 
material  needed  by  him.     Indeed,  to  such  a  degree  of  jjerfcction  is  this  science 


5^4 


INDUSTRIAL    HIS  7  OK  Y 


n' 


II  Ii 


carried,  that  thousands  of  ready-made  houses  are  sold  and  shipped  to  their 
destinations  every  year  ;  the  timber  lieing  so  cut  and  numbered,  that  a  skilful 
carpenter,  provided  with  the  proper  accompanying  designs,  can  easily  erect 
the  proposeil  edifice  in  a  very  short  space  of  time. 

We  have  already  spoken  of  the  magnitude  of  the  lumbering- business 
carried  on  by  individuals  ami  separate  companies ;  yet  it  is  not  generally 
Description  realized  ;  nor  is  the  exciting,  laborious,  and  almost  romantic  ex])e- 
of  industry,  fience  ot  the  lumbermen.  Every  fall  the  mill-owner  or  contractor 
arranges  for  a  winter's  campaign  in  the  woods.  If  the  land  be  his  own.  lie 
provides  equipments  and  supplies  for  the  men  himself;  or,  if  the  land  lie 
another's,  he  arranges  with  the  proprietor  to  cut  the  wood  for  so  much  a 
thousand  feet,  or  so  much  per  tree.  An  eligible  neighborhood,  where  there 
are  plenty  of  trees,  and  a  stream  of  water  near  by,  with  perhaps  a  more  or 
less  sloping  bank,  is  selected  ;  and  thither  a  gang  of  able-bodied  woodsmen 
are  despatched  ere  snow  flies.  Rude  log-huts  called  "camps"  are  erected, 
with  wooden  chimneys,  and  beds  of  hemlock-boughs ;  and  here  they  stay  for 
the  season.  The  staple  of  their  diet  is  salt  pork  and  rum.  At  night,  cards, 
story-telling,  and  general  hilarity,  beside  a  blazing  fire,  form  a  marked  contrast 
to  the  hard  toil  of  the  day  and  the  loneliness  and  cheerlcssness  of  a  forest- 
winter.  Such  adventures,  too,  as  the  encountering  of  wolves  and  catamounts. 
the  occasional  skating  upon  a  frozen  river,  and  the  sharp  competition  through 
the  day  ■  Ith  neighboring  gangs  of  workmen,  lend  excitement  to  this  wild, 
strange  life.  Through  the  day  the  toil  is  of  the  hardest.  The  trees  are  cut, 
stripped  of  their  branches,  sawed  with  great  cross-cut  two-hand  saws  into  logs 
of  the  desirable  size,  and  hauled  into  convenient  localities  for  drawing  to  the 
water-side.  Then,  by  means  of  a  chain,  a  skid,  and  an  ox-team,  the  logs  arc 
loaded  upon  huge  sleds,  —  sometimes  only  one  end  of  the  log  being  placed 
upon  the  bob,  —  and  are  hauled  down  to  the  river  and  emptied  in,  the  ice- 
crust  serving  to  keep  them  from  floating  off.  l''ach  owner's  logs  are  properly 
marked  in  order  to  distinguish  them,  inasmuch  as  a  number  of  different  con- 
tractors are  at  work  often  on  the  same  stream.  This  is  the  case  especially  in 
such  great  lumber-regions  as  the  Kennebec,  the  Penobscot,  Saginaw  River, 
Green  Ray,  and  Rum  River  (Minn.).  The  season  begins  in  December,  and 
generally  ends  in  March.  Every  thing  depends  on  the  snow.  Sometimes  this 
is  so  deep,  that  the  oxen  cannot  break  paths  ;  and  again  there  is  so  little,  that 
it  has  to  be  scraped  up  at  nightfall,  and  made  into  a  road  to  be  used  only  at 
night ;  for  even  the  winter  sun  and  the  mildness  of  day  would  so  soften  the 
bed,  that  the  sleds  would  cue  it  all  up  and  destroy  it.  Much  of  the  work  of 
hewing,  sawing,  loading,  and  hauling,  is  done  in  the  stormiest  and  coldest  of 
weather. 

From  the  time  when  operations  °ase  in  the  woods,  until  the  rivers  open, 
there  is  generally  a  season  of  about  two  months.  Few  of  the  hands  stay  in 
the  woods  during  this  period,  although  a  few  are  needed  to  keej)  watch  against 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


505 


thefts.  When  spring  comes,  the  logs  are  floated  down  stream  in  an  immense 
mass  called  a  "  drive."  Generally  this  branch  of  the  work  is  carried  on  by 
a  different  set  of  men  from  those  who  cut  the  logs.  Here,  again,  great 
skill  and  muscle  are  required,  and  great  excitement  is  afforded.  The  logs  are 
accumulated  by  millions ;  the  streams  are  swollen  and  rapid  ;  and  the  scene 
resembles  an  immense  herd  of  furious  cattle,  such  is  the  confusion,  and  leai)ing 
of  logs  upon  one  another.  Every  now  and  then  occurs  a  "jam,"  where  two 
or  more  logs  in  the  van  catch  against  obstructions  on  opposite  shores,  become 
locked,  and  so  check  the  progress  of  the  whole  drive,  which  now  piles  itself 
up  like  an  ice-pack.  At  this  juncture  some  bold  and  dexterous  "  driver  "  runs 
out  upon  the  floating  mass,  (juickly  finds  by  his  practised  eye  where  the  diffi- 
culty is,  and  pries  the  obstructing  logs  apart  with  his  pole  ;  then  the  whole 
drive  gives  way  with  a  tremendous  rush,  the  foremost  logs  shooting  away  like 
rockets,  and  the  heap  in  the  rear  suddenly  subsiding.  Only  with  the  utmost 
agility  is  the  adventurer  able  to  reach  the  shore.  A  whole  gang  of  men  is 
engaged  in  this  labor,  and  it  takes  several  days  to  reach  their  destination  : 
accordingly  a  cook  accompanies  them  on  a  raft  with  their  clothing  and 
provisions,  and  ministers  to  them  as  in  the  logging-camp. 

Finally  the  dam  is  reached  where  the  mills  are  located.  Here  a  "boom," 
or  series  of  logs  bound  together  with  strong  chains,  and  sometimes  stayed  by 
great  piers,  catches  the  drive,  from  the  confusion  of  which  the  jjropcrty 
of  different  owners  is  laboriously  and  tediously  separated.  Then,  througii  tiie 
summer  and  fall,  the  logs  are  forced  through  the  mills,  and  converted  into 
lumber. 

The  following  description  of  a  mill  and  mill-site  in  the  Saginaw  region, 
where  salt-boiling  is  carried  on  in  connection  with  the  sawing  of  lumber,  as 
is  elsewhere  described,  will  afford  an  excellent  idea  of  the  magni-  .    . 

"  Description 

tude  of  this  business,  not  only  in  Michigan,  but  in  all  the  other  of  miii  and 
principal  lumber-regions  already  designated,  just  as  the  description  salt-works 
given  above  applies  equally  to  all  winter  operations  in  the  North. 
Says  a  writer  in  "The  New-York  Tribune,"  of  an  establishment  at  Bay  City, — 
"  The  mill,  salt-works,  and  other  buildings,  cover  a  very  large  area.  The 
river-front  and  slips,  from  wliich  the  lumber,  lath,  shingles,  and  salt  can  be 
l^laced  on  steam  and  sailing  vessels,  are  a  mile  and  a  (piarter  in  extent. 
The  motive-powers  of  the  saw-mill  and  other  works  are  one  engine  of  760 
horse  power,  and  four  smaller  engines  used  for  various  purposes.  There  are 
225  men  employed  in  and  about  the  mill,  salt-works,  and  yard.  There  iiave 
been  265,000  feet  of  lumber  sawed  in  the  mill  in  one  day  of  eleven  and  a  (juar- 
ter  working-hours.  The  capacity  of  the  mill  is  from  25,000,000  to  30,000,000 
feet  of  lumber  when  the  machinery  is  running  on  ordinary  time,  from  May  to 
November ;  but  the  results  can  be  doubled  in  busy  seasons  when  the  men  are 
employed  night  and  day.  In  this,  as  in  all  other  large  mills,  ga.  g-saws  are 
used  in  addition  to  the  large  circular-saws.     The  gang-saws  are  set  upright  in 


ill    '■  Ll 


506 


INDUS  TRIAL    HISTORY 


Displace- 
ment of 
manual 
labor  by 
machinery 


frames.  There  are  two  pairs  of  gang-saws  in  this  mill :  the  largest  of  those 
contains  fifty-four  saws.  The  large  circular-saws  are  used  in  producing  timber 
of  varying  widths,  the  log  being  adjusted  by  machinery,  so  that  any  thickness 
can  be  ol)tained.  The  furnaces  are  fed  with  sawdust,  which  is  carried  by 
means  of  endless  belts  from  l)el()w  the  saws  to  the  mouths  of  the  long  row  of 
furnaces.  All  of  it,  however,  is  not  needed  for  this  purpose ;  and  the  surplus, 
together  with  a  considerable  amount  of  other  refuse,  is  conveyed  by  simple 
machinery  to  an  opening,  into  which  it  is  being  continually  discharged  when 
the  machinery  of  the  mill  is  in  motion.  This  oi)ening  leads  to  a  large  furnace, 
twelve  or  fifteen  feet  in  diameter,  into  whicli  the  refuse  is  thrown  and  con- 
sumed.    It  was  constructed  for  tiiis  pui-jjose  alone." 

WOOD-WORKINti    MACIIINKRV. 

Touring  the  last  fifty  years  mechanical  labor  has  taken  the  place  of  manual 
labor,  in  the  sawing  up  and  shaping  of  wood,  to  an  extraordinary  extent.  Tin- 
greatest  progress  has  been  made  in  the  United  States,  wliere  ma- 
chines have  been  al)solutely  necessary  to  supplement  the  limited 
amount  of  human  labor  which  manufacturers  have  been  able 
to  command,  and  where  there  has  been  a  general  impression, 
among  workmen  and  emi)loyers  alike,  that  all  the  country  need-^ 
to  obviate  debt,  taxes,  and  bad  weather,  and  to  make  the  men  handsome  and 
the  women  lovelier,  and  give  everybody  a  thousand  dollars  in  tiie  bank,  is  tlu' 
use  of  i)lenty  of  machinery  and  a  liberal  issue  of  patent-rights.  The  spirit 
with  which  new  machines  iiave  been  received  in  the  United  States  has  been 
very  difierent  from  that  which  formerly  prevailed  in  Europe,  and  is  still  mani- 
fested tiiere  from  time  to  time.  The  result  is  a  larger  use  of  mechanical 
inventions,  and  a  corresponding  improvement  in  the  position  of  working-men, 
who,  from  manual  laborers,  have  risen  to  be  directors  of  machines,  and  masters 
of  shops. 

Since  1S67  one  of  the  most  interesting  departments  in  every  one  of  the 

world's  fairs  has  been  that  in  which  American  wood-working  machinery  has 

been  exhibited.     The  first  show  which  attracted  special  attention 

American  ....  ,,  -  ,         ,  ,  .,  .  .  r      <>  fi  i 

wood-work-  ^™^  '^'^  Vm\^  \w  1867.  .At  the  exhibitions  of  i<S5i.  US55,  and 
ing machine-  1862,  the  Mnglisli  had  been  almost  without  rivals.  In  1S67  the 
fair^s  '^°^  ^  United  States  appeared  upon  the  scene  both  with  wood-working 
and  metal-working  machines,  and  made  a  show  which  was  a  veri- 
table surprise  to  the  English  makers.  The  American  exhibit  was  speciall\- 
commented  upon  in  the  reports  made  to  all  the  governments  whose  jieople 
were  rei)resented  in  the  fair.  Professor  Reauleaux,  director  of  the  Industrial 
Academy  at  Berlin,  was  especially  interested  in  the  American  machines  ;  and 
he  reported  to  his  government :  "  Upon  the  \vhole  it  may  be  said,  that,  in 
machine-industry,  Phigland  has  partly  lost  her  formerly 


lisp 


Oh    THE    rNlTKD    STATES. 


507 


t  of  thcsi' 
ng  timber 

thickness 
carried  Ijy 
ng  row  of 
ic  suri)liis, 
by  simple 
rged  when 
;e  furnace, 

and  con- 


of  manual 
cnt.  'I'lu' 
where  ma- 
he  limited 
been  nbk' 
mprcssion, 
ntry  nee(l> 
Isome  and 
ank,  is  the 
The  spirit 
has  been 
still  mani- 
nechanical 
king-men. 
1(1  masters 

)ne  of  the 
hinory  lias 
1  attention 
1855,  and 
1  1 86 7  the 
id-working 
vas  a  veri- 
li  specially 
3se  people 
Industrial 
ines  :  and 
id.  that,  in 
:adership, 


or  that  she  is  at  least  about  to  lose  it.  'I"he  healthy,  yoimg.  trans-.\tlantii  m 
<lust;y,  which  continually  withdraws  from  us  energetic  and  intelligent  he.nds  and 
robust  hands,  makes,  with  the  aid  of  her  pecidiar  genius,  the  most  sweeping 
])rogress  ;  so  that  we  shall  soon  have  to  turn  our  front  from  England  westward." 
Describing  the  distinguishing  traits  of  American  machines,  I'rofessor  Renu- 
lea'ix  said,  "  I'hey  are  distinguished  from  us  by  more  (lire(  t  and  rapid  concej)- 
tion.  The  American  aims  straightways  for  the  needed  construction,  using  the 
means  that  appear  to  him  the  simi)lest  and  most  effective,  whether  new  or  old. 
Our  historically  heaped-up  material,  and  the  cautious  character  of  the  (lerman, 
are  so  inseparably  interwoven,  that,  among  the  number  of  known  means,  we 
often  forget  to  ask  whether  they  are  the  simplest,  or  whether  new  ones  might 
not  be  better.  The  American  really  constructs  in  accordance  with  the  severest 
theoretical  abstraction,  observing  on  the  one  side  a  distinctly  marked-out  aim, 
weighing  on  the  other  the  already  available  means  or  creating  new  ones,  and 
then  proceeding,  regardless  of  precedents,  as  straight  as  possible  for  the  ol) 
ject."  ('.  1).  Rogers  iS:  Company  of  Norwich,  ("onn.,  obtaii.ed  the  gold  medal 
at  this  fair.  At  Philadelphia,  in  1876.  Ihi?  department  of  machines  and  tools 
for  working  wood  was  almost  exclusively  occupied  by  the  I'nited  States.  Can- 
ada sent  a  'i^w  machines.  (Ireat  Britain  had  one  exhibiter,  and  the  rest  of  the 
world  perhaps  a  do/en.  The  United  Stales  had  attained  to  undisputed  emi- 
nence in  the  originality,  variety,  and  excellence  of  her  wootl-working  contri\- 
anccs  ;  and  not  a  rival  from  the  Old  World  dared  really  to  compete  with  her. 

The  saw-mill  (the  jjioneer  wood-working  machine)  came  into  use  in  the 
\ery  early  days  of  this  country  •.  but  not  till  recendv  has  it  reached  any  thing 
like  a  perfect  state.  I'Aen  yet  the  sav.-mill  is  not  all  that  it  should  The 
he;  for  the  mechanical  appliances  for  handling  the  log.  for  liold-  saw-miii. 
ing  it  in  place  on  the  iron  frame  which  carries  it  forward  to  the  saw,  an<l  for 
adjusting  the  guides  of  the  circular  saw,  are  still  somewhat  crude,  and  make 
the  manufacture  of  lumber  a  dangerous  occupation.  It  is  claimed  that  more 
persons  are  maimed  and  injured  in  the  United  States  from  the  use  of  circular 
saws  as  now  employed  than  from  any  other  cause,  wars  and  accidents  not 
excepted.  If  dangerous  to  careless  sawyers,  'le  mill  has  at  any  rate  become 
very  efticient  in  cutting  up  the  logs  into  i)lanks,  boards,  and  s(|uarc  beams,  with 
great  rapidity,  and  little  waste  of  material.  One  of  the  devices  of  the  saw- 
mill to  which  a  good  deal  of  attention  is  ])aid  is  the  "  dog,"  —  a  sharj)  iron 
tooth,  projecting  from  the  upright  iron  4andard  agamst  which  the  log  is 
placed,  to  hold  it  steady  while  it  is  being  sawed  lengthwise.  The  "  dog  "  is 
worked  by  a  lever,  which  causes  it  to  sink  down  into  the  log  with  a  tight 
grip,  and  draw  the  log  tightly  against  the  standard.  A  great  many  "  dogs  "  are 
nia(ie  for  the  trade,  having  '  'rious  tenacity  of  grip  ;  and  every  few  years  a 
"boss  dog,"  or  a  "  boss  do'^,  jun.,"  or  some  other  species  of  the  canine,  is 
brought  out  to  take  the  place  of  the  inventions  which  have  preceded  it.  and 
are  supposed  not  to  do  the  work  as  well. 


.■l^l. 


508 


IND  L  'S  TNI  A  I.    Ills  TON  Y 


Y 


Saws,  of  course,  arc  used  all  the  way  up,  in  the  shaping  and  inanufarturc 
of  wood,  from  forest-work  to  ('al)inet-work.  Scarce  a  shop  of  any  si/e  is 
without  its  ( irciilar  saw  for  cutting  up  wood  rapidly  into  eipial  lengths,  and 
circular  and  the  haiul-saw  is  universal.  Within  the  last  twenty-five  years  rili- 
other  laws.  |)on-saws  have  come  into  use  also  for  the  manufacture  of  orna- 
mental work,  such  as  brackets,  pieces  of  irregular  form  for  furniture,  ornaments 
for  staircases,  &c.  The  ribbon-saw  is  of  two  kinds  :  it  is  either  an  endless 
band  of  steel,  which  passes  over  two  wheels, — one  al)ov<',  the  other  bi'low,  the 
table  on  which  the  i)iece  of  wood  to  be  sawed  is  laid,  —  or  it  is  a  straight,  slen- 
der blade,  which  works  up  and  down 
with  a  reciprocating  motion.  The 
band-saw  was  the  slowest  in  arriving 
at  perfection.  'i"he  blades  were  lia- 
ble to  break  with  a  sudden  strain. 
'l"he  blailes  for  these  saws  are  now, 
however,  of  excellent  make,  and  the 
machinery  upon  which  they  are 
mounted  is  of  the  most  solid  and 
non-vil)rating  description.  The  saws 
are  a  valuable  aid  to  the  furniture- 
maker  and  architects.  They  are  re- 
sponsible lor  a  great  deal  of  the 
gingerbread  ornament  put  uiioii  the 
eaves,  porches,  balconies,  and  win- 
dows of  our  modern  wooden  cot- 
tages ;  but  they  have  substantial  and 
valuable  uses,  and  are  the  origin  of 
such  beautiful  and  inexpensive 
brackets  and  wooden  ornaments  for 
interiors,  that  we  can  fcjrgive  them 
for  what  they  have  done  for  exte- 
riors. The  demand  for  these  saws 
has  been  very  large.  Exhibited  first  at  fairs  as  curiosities  for  cutting  up 
blocks  of  wood  into  complicated  Chinese  puzzles,  they  soon  came  into  gen- 
eral use  in  all  practical  work.  A  great  many  of  the  general  machine-shops  of 
the  United  States  are  devoted  to  their  manufacture.  The  saws  are  worked 
either  by  stcam-i)ower  or  by  means  of  a  treadle.  The  reciprocating  saw  can 
be  given  a  speed  of  two  hundred  and  fifty  cuts  a  minute  by  means  of  a 
treadle,  the  saw  working  so  easily  that  the  workman  is  in  no  respect  embar- 
rassed with  the  action  of  his  foot. 

Some  very  ingenious  improvements  have  been  made  in  the  United  States 
upon  that  most  universal  of  wood-working  machines,  the  turning-lathe.  Tiie 
machine- lathe    originally   was   devoted    only    to    the   production    of  straight 


HAND-SAW. 


OF    THE    CMTKn    STATES. 


5"9 


round  sticks  for  brooin-lKindles,  banisters,  parts  of  chairs,  itc,  and  otlicr  sinii»k' 
rotmd  objects.  'I'lic  chisels,  which  cut  away  the  wood  as  the  rough  sticks 
revolved  at  great  speed,  were  ( arried  along  I'roni  one  enil  of  the  Turning- 
stick  to  the  other  by  tool-posts,  whi(  h  were  opi-rated  by  long  Iced-  '""'«■ 
screws.  It  it  was  desired  to  turn  the  banister,  <  iiair  leg,  or  other  object,  in 
any  pattern,  the  chisel  had  to  be  applied  by  hand,  and  guided  by  the  eye  of 
the  workman.  .About  twenty  five  years  ago  the  lathe  was  improved,  so  as  to 
perform  the  whole  business  of  carving  a  chair-leg  of  any  pattern.  The  slid- 
ing-tool  carrier  was  supplied  with  two  tools.  One,  a  chisel,  was  fi.xed,  and 
was  made  to  rcjugh  otf  the  work  :  the  second,  a  V-shaped  cutter,  <  ul  out 
(lie  pattern,  being  guided  by  a  teniplate  fixed  to  the  bed  of  the  lathe.  A 
knife,  whose  edge  was  fashioned  according  to  the  form  to  be  produced,  was 
made  to  move  vertically  in  a  frame  behind  the  lathe.  .\s  the  tool-carrier 
passed  along,  this  knife  was  made  to  descenil,  and  smooth  off  the  pattern, 
by  this  apparatus  it  became  possible  to  turn  out  chair-legs  with  the  a<  (  uracy 
.Ulained  by  hand,  and  with  increased  speed.  The  lathe  was  also  so  improved 
as  to  permit  the  turning  out  of  wood 
111  elliptical  and  stpiare  forms.  The 
Ntick  was  given  two  motions.  It  re- 
volved rapidly  upon  its  a.xis,  and  at  the 
same  time  received  a  motion  from  side 
to  side  by  means  of  eccentrics,  ivc,  in 
llie  gearing  ;  so  that  it  approached  and 
receded  from  the  cutting-tool  suffi- 
ciently to  give  it  a  S(|uare  or  elliptical 

surface.  This  style  >f  machine  iias  proved  useful  in  turning  out  wood  for 
patterns  ;  and  it  has  been  adopted  by  the  brass,  silver,  and  gold  smiths  in  the 
"spinning-up  "  of  flat  sheets  of  metal  into  hollow-ware,  in  which  process  a 
block  of  a  cert.iin  shape  and  a  flat  disk  of  metal  are  put  into  the  lathe,  and 
the  metal  is  maile  to  lie  down  upon  and  take  the  sha[)e  of  the  block  by 
|)ressing  it  with  a  smooth  steel  tool,  both  revolving  rapidly  tiuring  the 
process. 

Planing-machines  were  introduced  at  a  very  early  day.  They  are  of  two 
kinds.  In  one  style  cutting-blades  are  mounted  upon  a  cylinder,  and  the 
plank  or  strip  of  wood  to  be  ])laned  is  passed  through  between  pianing- 
the  planer  and  a  heavy  roller,  which  are  fixed  the  rif,ht  distance  machines, 
ajiart  by  means  of  screws  :  in  the  other  style  the  cutting-tools  are  chisels, 
mounted  at  right  angles  upon  two  spokes  of  iron,  and  made  to  revolve  in  a 
circle  at  enormous  speed.  These  machines  are  made  to  plane  horizontally  or 
vertically,  and  to  deal  with  wood  across  the  grain,  with  knotty  wooil,  and 
l)lanks  and  beams  of  all  descriptions. 

The  sash,  blind,  and  door,  and  the  hand-plane  industries  have  given  rise  to 
a  variety  of  machines    for  cutting  out    mortises,    tenons,   grooves,   slots,  and 


I'l.ANEK   AND    M  AIL  IIIN(.-.M  ACIMSK. 


iii 


iiM 


V 


510 


/AD  USTRIA 1.    ins  TOR  Y 


Machinery 
for  making 
sashes, 
blinds,  and 
doors. 


joints  of  all  kinds.  'I'lie  work  is  generally  done  in  these  machines  by  means 
of  chisels  and  saws.  This  I'.lass  of  machines  has  multiplied  very 
last  since  1861,  and  has  concentrated  in  factories  a  large  amount 
of  work  which  was  formerly  carried  on  by  hand,  and  scattered  far 
a'ld  wide  among  small  shops.  It  h;is  also  greatly  lessened  the 
art  of  production.  The  machines  are  all  very  simple,  though 
frequently  ^  ery  ingenious,  and  work  with  great  precision.     'J'he  framing,  sl-.ap- 

ing.  and  panelling  of 
windows,  doors,  and 
blinds,  is  now  done 
entirely  by  maciiine- 
ry  ;  and  the  a])pli(a- 
tion  of  mechanical  la- 
bor in  this  industn 
hp'  gone  so  far,  that 
even  the  wire  staples 
which  fasten  the  rod 
of  the  window -liliiid 
tt)  the  slats  are  all 
dri\en  by  machine, 
and  with  incredible 
speed.  If  a  ukk  liiiie 
were  invented  to 
Ijrush  on  'he  L,M-eei\ 
paint  to  the  wiiidbw- 
])lin(l.  sash,  or  door,  there  would  be  nothing  more  to  do  in  the  construction 
of  those  objects  which  could  be  done  by  machine.  That  a  de\ice  of  that 
character  could  be  made  is  apparent  both  by  the  aid  of  the  ■i.iassisted  reason. 
and  from  the  fact  that  laigland  ex- 
hibited a  painting- machine  at  I'hila- 
deli)hia  in  1S76.  li  was,  in  fact,  her 
only  wood-working  machine  shown. 

One  of  the  comjiaratively  recent  in- 
ventions is  a  set  of  machines  for  making 
Barrel-  ^'^^'  diflercnt   parts  of  I)ar- 

making-  rcls.     Ill   thcsc   the    staves 

machines.  i         ,    ,         ^    •    ■    .^     i 

are  sawed  out,  bent,  jomted, 
and  prepared  for  the  barrel,  with  scarce- 
ly the  aid  of  any  hand-tool  v  '.atevcr. 

The  heads  of  the  barrels  and  the  wooden  hoops  are  also  shaped  by  a])pro- 
Carvingand  pHatc  inventions.  There  are  also  now  in  nse  machines  for  carving, 
engraving.  engraving  and  i)ortrait  engines,  lathes  for  mtung  and  boring 
spools,     box-mortisin^- machines,     stair  jointers,    liub-boxing-machiiK's.     c>^rk- 


iMi-IN'CII    I'l.ANI'.Ii. 


Mol'LUl^^;-^; AC  iriNK. 


:s  Dy  means 
Itiplicil  very 
rgc  amount 
cattcrcd  far 
csscncd  the 
pie,  though 
LUiing,  slui])- 
:)anclUni,f  of 
doors,    and 

now  done 
ly  niachinc- 
the  a])pH(a- 
xhanical  la- 
liis  inihistrv 
so  far,  that 
wire  staples 
ten  the  rod 
indow-Mind 
lats    are    all 

maehiiie. 
1     incredible 

a  machine 
vented    to 

'he  L;"reen 
the  wiiidT)\v- 
construction 
vice  of  that 
isted  reason. 


by  appro- 
s  for  carving, 
and    boring 
vines.    c.>rk- 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


511 


cutters,  shingle  and  lath  saws,  a  variety  of  apparatus  for  benfling  wood  for 
carriages,  &c.,  and  shoe-peggers.  The  latter  are  often  matle  so  as  to  drive  a 
peg  into  the  shoe  tlie  moment  it  is  made  from  a  ribbon  of  hard  wood,  coiled 
up  'ike  a  spring  in  the  machine,  and  fed  forward  as  it  is  wanted.  Pegs  are 
also  made  by  the  bushel  by  means  of  it,  antl  supplied  to  the  .'.ade  for  hand- 
l)egging.  It  is  said  that  shoe-pegs  are  made  on  such  a  scale  in  Connecticut, 
and  so  cheaply,  that  they  are  sometimes  sold  for  oats,  —  a  legend  which  will 
do  now  to  be  placed  on  the  shelf  with  the  kindred  tale  of  the  foitunes  made  by 
'  "onnecticut  peddlers  in  retailing  wooden  machip'  made  nutmegs.  :\  great 
deal  of  machinery  is  also  used  in  cutting  out  and  jointing  wooden  Toy-making 
'oys  and  automatons,  such  as  snakes,  clog-dancers,  dolls,  furni-  "machinery. 
*,nre,  mechanical  playthings,  wooden  i)ipes,  tenpins,  boats,  puzzU  s,  blocks,  &c. 
I'Vance  formerly  had  almost  a  monoi)oly  of  the  manufacture  of  toys,  and  her 
ingenuity  in  devising  new  ideas  is  still  unexcelled.  But  her  toys  have  been 
nearly  all  hantl-made,  and  Auicrican  machine-made  wooden  toys  are  i)ro\ing 
a  tbrniidable  rival  to  the  product  of  her  factories.  They  have  become  so 
witiiin  the  last  ten  years. 

Wood  is  one  of  the   raw  products  which    enter   into    the    manufacturing 
industries,  whose  cost  is  generally  so  small,  compared  with  the  labor  expended 
ujion  it,  that  it  does  not  usually  form  any  material  part  of  the  cost   Extensive 
of  the  article  made  from  it.     Houses  and  bridges  which  contain  a   use  of  wood 
great  deal  of  lumber  are,  of  course,  exceptions.     Usually  the  cost   '"   "'    '"^' 
of  wooden-ware  is  attributable  chiefly  to  the  wages   of  the  men  employed   in 
its  manufacture.     Nine-tenths  of  the   selling-price   of  carriages,   toys,  ships, 
luntiture,  the  minor  parts  of  a  house,  brackets,  picture-frames,  (S:c.,   Houses  and 
is  labor.     This  being  the   case,  and  labor  being  so   high  in   this   tji^'dges. 
country,  the  public  necessity  for  an  extensive  employmer'  of  time  and  labor 
saving  machinery  in  the  manufacture  of  wood  is  apparent.     L  Migress  has  given 
■irotection  to  the  making  of  wooden-ware  by  a  heavy  tariff,  steadily   wooden- 
maintainetl ;  but,  without  the  aid  of  machinery  to  cheapen  pro  iuc-   ware. 
tion,  it  is  doubtful  whether  half  the  manufacturers  of  wooc'    in  this  country 
<ould  hold  their  ground  against  foreign  competition.    With  tb's  protection,  and  a 
plenty  of  machinery,  they  are  able  to  outstrip  all  rivals  in  supplying  the  Ameri- 
can market  with  all  wooden-ware  in  common  use  ;  and,  to  some  extent,  they  are 
now  able  to  export  common  goods.     They  have  long  been  able  to  export  ware 
labricated  from  peculiar  American  woods,  such  as  hickory,  and  peculiar  inven- 
tions, like  the  cabinet  organ ;   but    it   is   only  recently,  and    by  the    aid   of 
niaeliinery,   that  ware  made  of  common  wootls  has   been  made   by  them   a 
leature  of  any  interest  in  the  export  trade.     Goods    upon  which  machinery 
cannot  be  employed,  and  which  recpiire  the  expenditure  of  a  great  ileal  of 
labor,  we  still  buy  of  other  nations  ;    such  as  laccpiered  ware,  carvetl  wooden 
clocks,    carved    paper-knives,   elaborately-carved    cabinets    and    inlaid    tables, 
curious  sets  of  chess-men,  iVc. 


■yhM 


11 


''^% 


Ui 


!S 


Ji; 

i  <  mi 


512  INDUSTRJAL    HISTORY 

The  number  of  establishments  in  the  United  Sr-tes  employing  wood-work- 
ing machinery  to  any  extent  in  1870  was  about  37,000.  They  were  the  fol- 
lowing :  — 

CLASS.  NO.    OF   FACTORIES. 

Agricultural  implements 2,076 

Boats 174 

Bo.xes 1,049 

Brooms 635 

Wagons 11,900 

^-'''""s 173 

Cooperage 4,901 

Cork-cutting 27 

Furniture 5,960 

Hubs,  spokes,  and  fellies 302 

Kindling-wood 70 

Lumber  (i)lancd) 1,113 

Lumber  (sawed) 25,817 

Lumber  (staves,  &c.) 15 

Musi'^il  instruments 340 

Oars 25 

Sashes,  doors,  and  blinds 1,605 

Ship-building 762 

Shoe-pegs .  26 

Washing-machines 64 

Wheelbarrows          ..........  23 

Wheelwrights 3,613 

Wooden  brackets 65 

Wooden-ware 269 

Wood  (turned  and  carved)       . 733        > 

These  establishments  employed  steam-engines,  wind-mills,  and  water- 
wheels  which  had  a  capacity  of  850,000  horse  power ;  and  it  is  estimated, 
moderately,  that  the  number  of  wood-working  machines  in  operation  in  the 
factories  and  mills  was  120,000.  Ten  years  ago  it  was  estimated  that  the 
total  number  o*^  wood-working  machines  in  France  was  only  ro,ooo.  The 
difference  is  partly  explained  by  the  circumstance  that  America  is  a  great  for- 
esting country,  and  not  only  obtains  from  her  own  woodlands,  and  works  up 
in  her  own  shops,  all  the  common  timber  she  consumes,  but  a  vast  amount  of 
lumber  is  sawed  and  planed  for  exportation ;  whereas  France  is  obliged  to 
import  a  large  amount  of  timber  which  comes  to  her  already  prepared  for 
consumption.  Allowing  for  this  difference  in  the  foresting  products  of  the 
two  coiu'.tries,  the  comparison  in  the  amount  of  wood-working  machinery 
employed  by  each  is  still  remarkable.  A  comparison  equally  favorable  to  the 
Americans  could  be  made  with  every  other  country  in  the  world.  To  build 
the  machinery  required  by  the  American  shops  devoted  to  wood-working,  and 
supply  tliat  which  is  required  to  replace  the  worn-out  and  antiquated,  calls  for 
the  services  of  several  hundred  machine-shops  and  the  labor  of  thousands  of 
our  countrymen. 


OF    Tf/E    UN/ TED    STATES. 


513 


vood-work- 
re  the  fol- 

FACTORIIiS. 
,076 
'74 
.049 

,900 

'73 
[,901 

^7 

i,96o 

302 

70 

M13 

5.8 '7 

'S 

340 

25 

1,605 

762 

26 

64 

23 

3'6'3 

65 

269 

733 

and  water- 
cstiniated, 
itiou  in  the 
id  that  the 
),ooo.  The 
a  great  for- 
d  works  up 

amount  of 

obhged  to 

repared  for 

icts  of  the 

machinery 

able  to  the 

To  build 

orking,  and 
;d,  calls  for 
ousands  of 


FURNlTUKi;. 

The  furniture -industry  had  no  definite  beginning,  as  did  some  of  the  other 
trades  of  the  country ;  though,  like  the  mushroom  which  came  in  one  night 
through  a  tar-walk,  it  had  a  definite  <ie/nit  in  society  as  a  full-  uj^g  ^^  m^, 
grown  factory-industry.  It  grew  up  (]uietly  in  the  carpenter-shops  niture-man- 
scattered  through  the  land  in  every  village  and  hamlet,  beginning 
in  a  modest  way  with  simple  hard-wood  chairs,  benches,  dining-tables,  and 
bedsteads,  all  plain- 
ly but  strongly 
made,  antl  without 
any  pretence  of 
style.  The  carpen- 
ter, when  out  of  a 
job  of  house-build- 
ing, filled  up  the 
dull  days  with  fur- 
niture-making, not 
as  a  regular  trade, 
but  as  a  means  of 
saving  his  time. 
The  chairs  were 
straight-backed  af- 
fairs, often  with 
bent  hickory  arms. 
They  were  general- 
ly uncushioned,  but 
they  sup])(>rted  the 
form  admirably; 
and  so  well  did 
they  perform  their 
purp(jse,  that  nine- 
lenths  of  the  heav- 
ily upholstered  and 
draped  chairs  of  the  ^hah;. 

present  era  of  fash- 

i()iial)le  art  are  far  less  comfortable  and  healthfiil  to  the  occupant  an  the 
ipiaint  liickory  chairs  which  come  down  to  lis  in  anc  lent  homes  from  a  hundred 
years  ago.  The  tables  were  simple,  but  heavy.  They  generally  had  hinged 
leaves  in  order  to  economize  the  space  of  the  apartment  when  not  in  use. 
Sometimes  they  were  made  so  that  the  whole  top  revolved  on  a  hinge,  and 
couki  be  turned  up  perpendicularly,  and  the  table  pushed  up  close  against  the 
wall.     Oftentimes  the  tables  were  hinged  to  the  wall  of  tlie  room,  so  as  to  turn 


'!%*. 


y.  a 


II' t 


5>4 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


up  flat  against  it  when  not  in  use,  the  leg  of  the  table  hanging  down  against  it 
when  thus  raised,  but  swinging  down  into  its  proper  position  when  the  table 
was  lowered.  The  bedsteads  were  often  as  strongly  built  as  a  house.  There 
was  no  grudging  of  material  in  them.  The  four  posts  were  huge  and  high, 
and  the  sides  and  the  head-boards  almost  as  thick  as  the  side  of  a  ship. 
A  framework  was  built  over  them  for  the  curtains  of  the  bed.  Less  fur- 
niture was  used  in  that  age  than  at  present,  and  the  wants  of  the  colonists 
were  amply  supi)lied  by  this  desultory  manufacture  in  the  carpenter-shops. 
Besides,  for  more  than  a  hundred  years,  a  great  deal  of  furniture  was  im- 
ported from  luirope.  Mahogany  furniture,  which  was  then  very  much  in 
fashion,  was  almost  exclusively  imported. 

After  the  Revolutionary 
war,  ornamental  woods  were 
Mahogany  f r  c  e  1  y  imported 
furniture.  from  the  West 
Indies  and  South  America. 
Carpenters  then  began  to 
make  mahogany  furniture,  as 
well  as  that  of  the  more  com- 
mon woods.  The  wood  was 
generally  worked  up  solid. 
The  chairs,  bedsteads,  cabi- 
nets, cJK'sts,  and  tables  into 
which  it  was  fashioned,  were 
all  made  by  hand ;  and  the 
workmen  lavished  upon  tlicm 
an  amount  of  loving  carving 
and  decoration  which  showed 

^ that  their  hearts  were  in  the 

work.  Pieces  of  this  mas- 
sive old  furniture  are  still  preserved  in  many  old  families  as  heirlooms:  and 
when  they  stray  into  the  general  market,  as  they  occasionally  do,  they  are 
eagerly  snapped  up  by  wealthy  flimilies  at  fabulous  prices.  There  was  not 
very  much  of  it  made,  however,  owing  to  its  cost  and  the  limited  demand  for 
it.  It  was  hard  to  make  it,  also,  in  competition  with  the  iMU-opean  makers  ; 
for  France,  England,  and  Oermany  had  great  factories  employed  in  this  class 
of  manufactures,  and  furniture  could  be  turned  out  at  very  much  less  cost 
than  here. 

The  industry  first  began  to  differentiate  itself  from  the  general  carpenter- 
Furniture-      business  in  1812.     Congress  imposed  a  tax  of  thirty  per  cent  upon 
making  in       all  imported  articles  of  furniture,  and  maintained  a  duty  of  about 
that  weight,  by  the  way,  under  all  siibsetpient  tariffs,  free  or  protec- 
tive, steadily.     The  two  or  three  years  of  war  following  181 2  were  an  additional 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


s»s 


against  it 
the  table 

t.     Tliere 

and  high, 

jf  a  ship. 

Less  fur- 
colonists 

iter-shops. 

:  was  im- 
much   in 

olutionary 
jods  were 

imported 
the    West 

America, 
began  to 
mi  tare,  as 
iiore  corn- 
wood  was 
up  solid, 
ads,  cabi- 
al)les  into 
ned,  were 
and  tlie 

)on  them 
,g  carving 

1  showed 
•re  in  the 
this  nias- 
onis  :  an<l 

they  are 
was  not 

mand  for 
makers  ; 

this  class 

less  cost 

arpenter- 
L'nt  upon 
of  about 
)r  protec- 
idditional 


protection  to  the  furniture-makers,  and  by  1815  a  large  number  of  them  were 
regularly  engaged  in  the  business  in  all  principal  cities.  From  p^pjj  ^^^^x. 
that  period  the  rise  of  the  industry  has  been  rapid  :  it  has  more  opment  until 
than  kej)t  pace  with  population.  Soon  after  18 15  American  ideas  '  ^' 
and  vigor  began  to  manifest  themselves  in  the  business,  es[)ecially  in  the  pro- 
duction of  turniture  for  common  use.  The  rocking-chair,  a  purely  AmcriLcin 
idea,  was  largely  manufactured.  Straw,  cane,  wicker,  and  rattan  seats  and 
backs  to  chairs,  were  introduced.  New  wt)ods  were  put  to  use,  such  as  cherry, 
butternut,  ash,  and  black-walnut.  Wicker-work  chairs  were  made.  Machinery 
was  constructed  to  produce  the  parts  of  chairs,  beds,  bureaus,  &c.,  in  whole- 
sale lots.  The  art  of  veneering  was  adopted,  which  was  to  furniture  what 
silver-plating  was  to  table-ware.  \  variety  of  charming  and  serviceable  forms 
were  invented,  and  all  furniture  was  made  lighter,  handsomer,  and  cheaper. 
I'he  use  of  machinery  cheapened  furniture  immensely,  and  brought  within  the 
reach  of  the  great  masses  of  the  people  that  profusion  of  chairs,  tables, 
bureau  .,  &c.,  which  had  abounded  only  in  wealtliy  houses.  The  country  was 
growing  in  wealth  too  rapidly.  The  sale  of  furniture  grew  enormously.  Families 
l)Ought  a  dozen  pieces  of  it  where  they  had  bought  one  before,  and  furniture- 
making  soon  became  one  of  the  most  diffused  and  most  flourishing  forms  of 
native  industry.  By  1850  the  American  makers  had  almost  entire  possession 
of  the  market :  indeed,  they  had  possession  of  it  for  all  except  a  certain 
jjcrcentage  of  the  more  fashionable  and  costly  varieties.  The  (juantity  of 
(•(junnon  furniture  imported  was  a  mere  leaf  floating  on  the  siu-face  of  the 
stream  of  native  iJroduclion. 

The  growth  of  the  business  since   1H50  will  be  illustrated  by   Growth 
the  following  figures  :  —  "'""  '^so. 


•^50 

i860 

1S70 

I  Incliuling  iron  Ijcdsttacl,  rcfiigcratdf, 
1S70  ■'      picture -frame,     and     looiiing- glass 

(      makers 


F.\CTORlES. 


4,242 

,5-594 
5,981 


oi>F.uAriv|i.>. 

VAI.UH  OF 
I'KDDl'Cr. 

22,010 

$17,663,000 

27,016 

.-.,6;,  2, 000 

53.-')^ 

69,082,000 

S7>09i 

75'539'00o 

Within  the  last  twenty  years  the  business  has  become  subdivided  greatly. 
Very  few  makers  now  attempt  to  j^roduce  all  the  articles  needed  to  eiiuijj  a 
house  for  occupancy.     In  the  thickly-wooded  districts  many  fac-    Recent  sub- 
tories  confme  themselves  simply  to  getting  out  furniture   in   the   division  of 
rough  by  means  of  machinery,  sending  it  to  the  large  cities  to  be 
fmished  for  the  market.      There  are  now  so  many  special  styles  of  chairs  made, 
—  office,  dining-room,  cane-seat,  wicker,  camp,  upholstered,  bent- wood,  .nnd 


Ill'l 


5'6 


IND  US  TKIA  I.    Ills  TOR  V 


SO  oil,  —  tluU  large  numbers  of"  makers  devote  themselves  to  one  specially  in 
chairs.  Some  factories  make  a  specialty  of  sofas,  some  of  ottomans,  others 
of  tete-a-tetes  and  divans.  There  are  a  large  number  who  make  special  styles 
of  tables,  —  dining,  ironing,  card,  billiard,  extension,  library,  carved,  inlaid, 
anil  centre  tables.  .Some  make  bedsteads  alone ;  though  the  common  plan  is 
now  to  make  bedroom-' (irniture  in  sets,  the  sets  including  a  bed,  bureau,  com 
mode,  washstand,  table,  and  three  or  four  chairs.  One  class  of  makers  n(nv 
confine  themselves  to  gilded  or  enamelled  furniture  ;  others  to  solid,  carved, 
and  inlaid  sets.  'I'he  most  fashionable  makers  keep  a  corps  of  designers,  and 
make  sots  for  parlor,  bedroom,  dining-room,  &c.,  to  order,  often  taking  the 
measure  of  a  room,  and  adapting  the  pieces  to  it. 

It  is  only  within  the  last  ten  or  fifteen  years  that  American  makers  ha\c 
begun  to  pay  any  especial  attentioii  to  a  foreign  trade.  As  furniture  is  a  class 
Cultivation  *^^  products  into  the  making  of  which  art  ideas  largely  enter,  and 
or  foreign  the  artistic  is  the  special  field  in  which  Americans  have  been 
'""'^  ^  ^'  behind  the  rest  of  the  world,  the  furniture-dealers  have  been  afraid 
to  venture  into  the  foreign  markets.  At  the  Paris  I'^xhibition  in  1867  the 
United  States  were  represented  by  so  insignificant  a  disjjlay  of  furniture,  that  the 
visitor  would  not  have  known  that  they  were  rejiiesented  at  all.  'I'he  display 
consisted  of  a  i^w^  camp-chairs,  a  few  rocking-chairs,  an  inlaid  table  fron\ 
Wisconsin,  and  a  laurel-wood  door  from  California.  Our  manufacturers  have 
gained  confidence  since  1867.  In  1876  they  were  represented  at  I'hiladeb 
phia  most  creditably  :  they  made  a  splendid  and  showy  display.  In  all  com- 
mon furniture  their  styles  were  original,  and  their  workmanship  of  superior 
description.  In  elegant  furniture  their  carving,  finish,  gilding,  iS:c.,  were  all 
that  could  be  desired,  and  were  hilly  equal  to  those  of  foreign  makers.  That 
exhibition  was  a  great  encouragement  to  American  makers,  and  they  are  now 
exporting  their  goods. 

The  one  weak  point  in  American  furniture  is  the  lack  of  originality  of  jiat- 
tern  in  the  more  artistic  pieces.  Every  thing  is  borrowed  from  the  ideas  of 
Lack  of  the  French  or  the  English.     Whatever  happens  for  the  time  to  be 

originality.  popular  abroad  —  whether  it  is  the  style  of  '^  Louis  XIV.,"  the 
"Louis  XV."  i)attcrns,  the  "renaissance,"  the  "rococo,"  the  •"  (^ueen  .\nne,''  the 
"Eastlake."  or  what  not  —  is  copied  immediately  and  slavishly  by  the  American 
designers.  This  fact  is  both  a  source  of  regret  to  their  countrymen,  and  is  the 
reason  why  so  much  costly  fiirniture  has  always  been  imported.  No  admirable 
American  style  has  been  developed  ;  and  buyers  of  artistic  fiirniture  depend 
on  Europe  for  their  styles,  and  prefer,  when  possible,  to  buy  the  fiirniture  really 
made  in  the  workshops  which  set  the  style,  rather  than  the  imitation  by  the 
American  workman.  Nothing  remains  to  be  desired  ir.  the  way  of  common 
furniture  ;  but,  in  the  line  of  artistic  furniture,  every  thing  is  to  be  desired.  A 
gleam  of  the  dawn  of  a  better  order  of  things  was  seen  at  the  Philadelphia 
Exhibition  in  two  or  three  ])ieces,  bedsteads  all  of  them,  which  were  carved  in 


OF    THE    U/vjjED    STATES. 


CI1 


cially  ill 
i,  others 
al  styles 
,  inlaid, 
,  plan  is 
lu,  vxm\ 
:ers  now 
,  carved, 
lers,  and 
king  the 

:ers  have 
s  a  class 
nter,  and 
ave  been 
,'en  afraid 
1867   the 
I,  that  the 
e  disijlay 
able  from 
rers  have 
i'hiladeb 
all  com- 
f  superior 
were  all 
rs.    Thai 
are  now 

ty  of  l>at~ 
ideas  of 
nie  to  be 
IV.,"  the 
Ume,''  the 
American 
and  is  the 
admirable 
e  depend 
ture  really 
on  by  the 
common 
:;sired.     A 
iladelphia 
d  in 


n 


carve 


a  truly  American  style,  deriving  its  inspiration  from  a  study  of  the  plants  of 
our  own  soil,  and  from  a  study  of  /  merican  ideas.  One  was  carved  with  the 
symbolic  ornaments  of  the  lily,  the  poppy,  and  the  Virginia  creeper.  Here 
was  a  suggestion  of  an  American  style.  When  the  idea  shall  have  been  devel- 
oped, and  American  pattern-makers  shall  fill  their  licads  with  ideas  taken  from 
the  suggestions  of  our  own  beloved  land  and  reproduce  them  in  their  furni- 
ture, they  will  occupy  a  position  inferior  to  none  among  civilized  nations. 

STARCH. 

When  Mr.  Tilden,  after  his  defeat  for  the  Presidency  in  1877,  got  back  from 
his  subsefju'^nt  trip  to  Europe,  he  made  a  speech  from  his  residence  in  (Ira- 
mercy  Park,  New-York  City,  of  which  the   newspapers  made  a 

'  Uses  of  corn. 

great  deal  of  fun.  He  alluded  to  the  variety  of  products  in  this 
country  which  are  not  yet  manufactured  and  utilized  for  the  foreign  trade  to 
the  extent  of  which  they  are  capable.  "  Kspecially  cereals,"  he  said.  He 
then  went  on  to  specify  Indian-corn,  which  can  be  prepared  in  so  '  many 
delicious  forms  for  human  food."  Acting  on  the  suggestion  that  Europe  needs 
to  be  civilized,  and  life  there  made  joyous  by  imp?icing  to  its  people  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  mysteries  of  cooking  this  succulent  grain  into  pudding,  corn-cake, 
mush,  &c.,  Mr.  Abram  S.  Hewitt  of  New  York  proposed  in  Congress  that  a 
corn-kitchen  should  be  established  at  Paris  at  the  Exhibition  of  1878,  in  order 
to  create  a  demand  in  Europe  for  Indian-corn  by  showing  the  natives  how  to 
( 00k  it.  This,  in  turn,  made  sport  for  the  newspapers,  and  the  sky  was  dark- 
ened with  the  clouds  of  lurid  paragraphs  and  bad  jokes  which  filled  the  air. 

In  spite  of  thp  American  propensity  for  looking  at  the  funny  side  of  every 
thing,  there  was  a  great  deal  of  truth  in  Mr.  Tilden's  remarks.  The  United 
States  do  not  yet  utilize  their  grains  for  export  to  the  extent  of  which  they  are 
capable,  and  there  is  a  vast  field  here  open  for  profitable  effort.  The  success 
of  one  single  branch  of  the  manufacture  of  cereals  is  indicative  of  what  may 
yet  be  done  in  other  directions. 

Corn-starch  is  purely  an  American  invention.     Its  l)irth   dates  from  1842. 
Previous  to  that  year,  all  the  starch  known  to  commerce  was  made  from  wheat, 
barley,  rice,  and  potatoes,  princ  .pally  from  the  first  and  last  named,   corn-starch 
I'otato-starch  was  introduced  into  the  United  States  in  1802  by  John   an  American 
Hiddis  of  Pennsylvania  :  and  a  large  number  of  factories  were  built   '"^^"*'°"- 
to  make  the  article,  especially  in  the  cotton-factory  districts,  the  factories  being 
their  i)rincipal  customers.     A  number  of  wheat-starch  factories  were  also  built. 
Abroad  wheat  was  the  principal  material  used.     The  consumption  of  starch 
made  from  it  was  enormous,  especially  in  England  and  France,  whose  ( (;tton- 
factories  took  a  large  part  of  the  whole  product.     In  1842  Thomas  Thomas 
Kingsford,  while   superintending   the  wheat-starch  factory  of  W.   Kingsford. 
Colgate  &  C'ompauy  in  New  Jersey,  made  experiments  with  com.  and  satisfied 


-41 


i  )  •        I. 


5'« 


/NDCS  TKIA  I.    HIS  TOR  Y 


himself  that  corn-starrh  would  be  a  l)etter  commereial  article  in  some  resjjec  ts 
than  any  other.  In  1S4S  a  factory  was  built  for  him  at  Oswego,  N.V.,  by 
gentlemen  living  in  the  c'ty  of  Aui)urn  in  the  same  State,  the  location  being 
selected  on  account  of  the  ease  of  obtaining  large  shipments  of  corn  from 
the  West  at  Oswego  by  an  all-water  route,  and  on  account  of  the  nearness  of 
Oswego  to  the  large  commercial  <ities  and  manufacturing  States.  The  fu  lory 
w;ls  a  prosperous  conc'crn  from  the  outset  ;  and  it  has  grown  so  fast,  that  it 
occupies  ten  acres  of  land,  and  has  machinery  for  treating  950.000  bushels  of 
<  orn  a  year.  Its  product  is  now  about  10,500  tons  of  starch  a  year.  In  iS5,S 
another  great  concern  was  startt-d  at  C.len  '.'ove,  i..l..  bythe  seven  Messrs. 
Duryea.  Tlv  two  estal)iishments  are  now  the  largest  siarch-i'.ictories  in  the 
world,  .\fter  iSOo  whi-n  tlie  two  concerns  had  lairly  developed  their  capabili- 
ties ihey  put  an  en<l,  for  the  lirst  tin\e  in  history,  to  the  imjiortations  of  starch 
to  the  United  States.  They  followed  th  s  up  by  an  emphatic  bid  f  •-  foreign 
patronage.  Tliey  sent  their  starch  ail  over  the  world  They  made  \\  in  three 
tonus,  —  lor  (ookiiig  (in  which  form  't  is  called  "  m.ii/ena  "),  for  lamidry-use, 
and  for  cotton-fu-tory  purpose:^  ;  an  they  gi)t  g(  Id  medals  for  it  I'verywhere, 
Exports  of  and  enormous  orders.  In  iSo.}  the  exi)ort  was  scarce  i.ooo.ooo 
starch.  ])ou!i(ls  :   in  1S77  it  was  barelv  short  of  10000.000.      The  su'cess 

of  the  two  great  <-oncerns  nan--  'd  has  led  others  into  the  business,  which  is 
Corn-rtarcti  l^irge  and  prospering,  ("orn-starch  has  not.  however,  superseded 
v».  wtieat-  the  mamifuture  of  wheat-starch,  and  that  branch  of  the  business 
is  also  continued  on  a  large  scale.  In  1S70  the  total  number  of 
s^arcli -lactones  in  the  I'niied  States  was  195.  the  number  of  operatives  2,072. 
and  the  product  worth  Ss.OO.S.ooo.  The  business  is  destined  to  have  a  great 
future  development. 

The  projHirtions  of  n.itiN-e  starch  in  the  different  grains  is  as  follows  :  Corn, 
from  sixty  to  eighty-live  per  cent  ;  wheat,  sixty  per  cent  ;  rye.  sixty  :  oats,  forty- 
six  ;  barley,  tlfty-se'-'.'n  ;  rice,  sixty-one  ;  pease,  thirty-seven  :  and  beans,  thirty- 
eight  ;  and  the  percentage  in  potatoes  is  sixtv  two.  'I'here  is  no  reason  wjiy 
corn-starch  — so  delicious  for  food,  and  .so  val  lable  as  sizing,  and  so  cheap  — 
should  not  sajjersede  all  others,  and  why  the  I'ni'.ed  States  s'.:ouId  not  ;ii|)|)h- 
the  greater  part  of  the  world  with  it.  T's  us;  as  food  is  ra])id'y  increasing. 
It  needs  only  to  be  known  to  b:  embraced  as  a  regular  part  of  the  bill  of  fue. 
Perhaps  it  i;;  a  pity  that  the  corn-kitchen  of  Mr.  Hewitt  was  not  added  to  the 
Exhibition  of  1878,  at'ter  all.  as  one  of  the  att -actions  of  the  Anv-i^  \\\ 
de{)artnient. 


wni-,   .';i'iRiTs,   .\Ni>   ni:i'.R. 


One  of  the  forms  in  whiih  the  grains  and  fruits,  and  other  raw  products  of 
the  United  States  are  utilized  for  commerce  is  in  the  i-ianufacture  of  stimulat- 
ing beverages.  Mr.  Tilden  did  not  refer  to  this  class  of  manufactures  when 
he  commended  the  idea  of  bringing  the  things  which  can  be  made  out  of  the 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


5«9 


<:i'R'als  of  the  land  to  the  attention  of  foreign  nations.     There  has  been  ample 
<levelopment  in  that  (iirc(ti(;ii  already. 

Nearly  all  the  ( olonists  of  America,  especially  those  living  south  of  ('on- 
iiecticut,  hnjiight  with  them  to  this  country  a  taste  for  wine,  l)eer,  and  whiskey. 
'I'he  latter  two  beverages  were  poj)ular  among  the  middle  and  laboring  <;lasses 
in  lOngland  and  the  Netherlands,  and  the  former  among  the  gentry.  £„!„  u»e  of 
Wine  was  a  luxury  whi<  h  almost  all  who  came  to  this  c(jntinent  stimulants 
had  to  flo  without  for  a  long  i)eriod  ;  but  the  population  began  to  ^  *^°  omsts. 
make  beer  and  whiskey,  and  to  import  what  they  ( oiild  not  make,  almost  as 
soon  as  they  landed  from  their  ships.  In  every  large  company  of  artisans  sent 
out  to  the  (olonies,  a  few  brewers  were  regularly  in(  hided  among  the  rest, 
h'or  a  long  period,  however,  the  majority  of  the  colonists  brewed  their  own 
beer  at  home,  just  as  many  farmers  do  still,  in  this  jjresent  age  of  colonists 
huge  breweries  and  cheap  lager,  in  the  c()untry-towns  in  the  hay-  brewed  beer, 
ing  and  harvest  season.  In  1649  it  is  reported  that  Virginia  had  "six  [)ublic 
brew-houses  ;  but  most  brew  their  own  beer,  strong  and  good."  Virginia  gave 
a  warmer  welcome  to  luxuries  of  this  descri])tion  than  some  of  the  other  colo- 
nies ;  but  the  condition  of  things  was  about  the  same  in  all  the  neighboring 
provinces.  There  were  pulilic.  breweries  here  and  there  ;  but  most  j)eople 
made  their  own  beverages.  In  New  Isngland  alone  was  there  no  welcome  to 
stimulating  drinks. 

Uy  the  lime  of  the  Revolution,  the  distillation  of  whiskey  from  corn  and 
other  grains  had  l)egun,  and  was  practised  to  a  very  wide  extent.  'l"he  still.s 
were  small  ;  but  there  were  a  great  many  of  them.  They  were  Distillation 
scattered  all  tiirough  well-settled  and  sparsely-settled  districts  °'  whiskey, 
alike.  The  whiskey  made  was  a  purer  article  than  tiiat  jjut  upon  the  market 
at  present,  and  could  be  drunk  in  greater  (piantity  without  danger.  It  was  so 
<:heap  and  so  common,  that  those  who  made  it  carried  't  al)out  in  ])ails  to  sell 
to  men  at  work  on  ])uildings  and  ])ublic.  improvements,  and  handed  it  out  in  a 
dipper.  'I'he  old  records  of  the  county  clerk's  offices  show  that  the  owners 
of  stilb  in  various  States  ac(|uired  a  great  deal  of  property  by  ()artering  whiskey 
for  real  estate.  It  was  often  stipulated  in  deeds  that  the  land  should  be  ])aid 
for  in  so  many  barrels  of  whiskey  down,  and  such  or  sucli  a  (juantity,  to  be  paid 
in  the  form  of  a  pint  a  day,  to  be  drunk  at  the  still. 

Spirits  and  beer  were  so  extensively  c(jnsumed  at  that  early  day,  that,  when 
Congress  took  up  the  first  tariff  bill  in  1  71S9.  the  tax  on  this  class  of  luxuries 
was  very  carefully  considered,  as  being  a  thing  which  affected  the 
people  closely,  and  which  would  1;"  likely  to  yield  a  large  revenue. 
Jamaica  rum  was  very  extensively  "onsumed  among  the  other  varieties  of 
stimulating  beverages.  The  bad  effects  of  spirits  on  the  morals  and  health  of 
the  people  were  spoken  of  by  several  congressmen,  and  it  was  universally 
resolved  to  tax  them  as  high  as  there  was  any  probability  whatever  of  collect- 
ing a  duty.    Alexander  Hamilton's  report  on  the  finances  in  1790  stateil.  "The 


Tariff  of  1789. 


'^'^f!* 


520 


/jvn us TKJA L  nisTOK  y 


consumption  of  ardent  spirits,  no  doiiht  very  nmch  on  account  of  their  cheap- 
ness, is  carried  to  an  extreme  ;  wliich  is  truly  to  be  regretted,  as  well  in  regard 
to  the  health  and  morals  as  the  economy  of  the  conununity."  Mr.  Hamilton 
recommended  a  tax  which  would  operate  in  favor  of  increasing  the  use  of 
cider  and  malt-licjuors,  and  decreasing  that  of  whiskey.  Congress  assented  te 
the  principle,  and  taxed  spirits  heavily.  It  is  to  be  feared,  however,  that  the 
result  was  only  to  increase  the  home-manufacture  of  whiskey,  which  now 
became  very  profitable.  As  a  moral  measure,  the  duly  had  little  effect,  what- 
ever result  it  may  have  had  as  a  source  of  revenue. 

The  manufacture  of  whiskey  and  beer  has  kept  even  pace  with  the  increase 
of  population  in  the  United  States.  A  strong  public  opinion  has  e.xciuded 
Growth  of  stimulating  beverages  from  several  of  the  States,  —  particularly 
manufacture  those  of  New  England,  —  and  it  has  limited  their  use  among  re- 
o  w  IS  ey.  spectable  people  in  all,  excei)t,  perhaps,  in  regard  to  ordinary  beer, 
which  is  a  comparatively  harmless  drink,  as  it  certainly  is  an  agreeable  one,  and 
which  is  increasing  in  use  constantly.  But,  in  spite  of  public  opinion  and  of 
active  temperance  agitation,  there  has  been  so  far  a  steady  growth  in  the  man\i- 
facture.  The  late  war,  with  its  passionate  excitements  and  its  wearing  expos- 
ures in  the  field,  gave  a  great  mipetus  to  the  consumption  and  manufacture  of 
whiskey ;  and  though  the  passion  has  died  out,  and  the  exposure  is  at  an  end. 
the  tastes  acquired  in  the  field  still  linger,  and  maintain  the  demand  for  spirits. 
The  consumption  is  now  enormous.  Considering^  how  large  a  proportion  of 
the  population  never  touch  a  stimulating  beverage,  ladies  and  children  particu- 
larly giving  spirits  a  wide  berth,  it  is  an  extraordinary  thing  to  find  that  61,000- 
000  gallons  of  whiskey  are  now  annually  produced  in  the  United  States,  and 
7,000,000  barrels  of  beer ;  and  that,  in  addition  to  this,  about  400  factories 
are  busily  engaged  all  the  time  in  i)roducing  wines,  brandies,  and  chamixigne 
for  the  American  market.  In  1870  the  industry  presented  the  following 
.statistics  :  — 


F.STAni.ISH- 
MKNTS. 

OPERATIVES. 

VAI.t;K  OF 
PROUliCT. 

Cider        

.Spirits 

Ale  and  beer    

Wine  and  brandy 

547 

719 

1,972 

398 

1,472 

5.i3f 

12,443 

1,486 

$1,537,000 

36,191,000 

55,706,000 

2,225,000 

These  were  the  establishments  ofificially  reported.  To  these  must  be 
added,  however,  a  large  number  of  whiskey-stills  conducted  illicitly  in  the 
iMicit  dis.  mountains  of  the  South  and  in  the  large  cities  of  the  North,  the 
tiUing.  number  of  which  is  not  Icnown.     There  are  a  very  large  number 

of  these  illicit  stills.     The  revenue-officers  are  constantly  breaking  them  up; 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


S2» 


eir  cheap- 
in  regard 
Maiuilton 
If  use  of 
isentcd  to 
•,  that  the 
hidi  wv)\\ 
"cct,  \vli;i( 

c  incrcasf 
excluded 
artieularly 
imong  re- 
nary  Ijecr, 
_'  one,  and 
m  and  of 
the  nianu- 
ng  expos- 
facture  of 
at  an  end. 
for  s})irits. 
)ortion  of 
n  particu- 
\\.  61,000- 
Itates,  and 
»  factories 
lanipagnc 
following 


vai.i;k  of 

FKOUUCT. 


I-537.000 
6,191,000 
5,706,000 
2,225,00c 

must  be 
ly  in  the 
Jorth,  the 
e  number 
hem  upf 


Imt  they  spring  up  again  as  thick  as  frogs  after  a  shower,  and  they  add  to  the 
total  product  of  the  country  in  spirits  millions  of  gallons  yearly.  There  was 
great  temptation  toward  illicit  distilling  in  the  few  years  following  the  war,  wher» 
the  tariff  duty  on  imported  whiskey  was  two  dollars  and  fifty  cents  a  gallon, 
and  the  internal-revenue  tax  on  that  made  within  the  (ountry  two  dollars  a 
gallon.  Since  the  tax  was  reduced  to  fifty  cents  a  gallon,  the  amount  of 
secret  distilling  has  very  much  decreased,  owing  to  the  removal  of  the  tempta- 
tion ;  but  it  is  still  considerable.  Latterly,  distillers  in  the  North  have  added 
surreptitiously  to  the  real  i)roduction  of  the  country  by  managing  to  i)ut  \\\w\\ 
the  market  a  large  amount  of  whiskey  which  has  not  paid  the  government  tax, 
and  which,  consefiuently,  made  no  figure  in  the  returns  of  the  total  amount  of 
whiskey  produced.  These  whiskey  frauds  created  a  great  public  sensation  in 
1876  at  Chicago  and  St.  Louis,  and  in  1878  at  Cincinnati.  Prominent  and 
respectable  houses  were  engaged  in  them.  The  extent  of  these  evasions  of 
the  law  has  been  so  great,  counting  in  both  the  illicit  distillation  and  the  failure 
to  report  to  the  government  the  full  product  of  the  regular  distilleries,  that 
there  ought  to  be  added  to  the  figures  above  given  of  total  annual  product  of 
spirits  from  5,000,000  to  10,000,000  gallons  to  approximate  to  the  real  truth 
of  the  matter.  The  production  of  beer  is  probably  correctly  returned.  There 
is  less  temptation  to  deceive  the  government  in  regard  to  its  manufacture. 
I'robably  7,000,000  barrels  is  the  real  annual  product. 

The  large  whiskey-making  States  are  New  York,  which  has  about  fifty  stills  ; 
Pennsylvania,  a  hundred  and  ten  stills ;  New  Jersey,  fifty-seven  stills ;   Ohio, 
seventy-five   stills;    Indiana,  thirty-six   stills;    Illinois,   fifty   stills;   chief whis- 
Kentucky,  a  hundred  and  forty  stills ;  Tennessee,  forty-four  stills,   key-produ- 
and  Virginia,  forty-nine  stills.  ""«  ^'"'"■ 

The  large  brewing  States  are  New  York,  which  has  now  about  two  hundred 
and  ninety  breweries  ;  (Jhio,  two  hundred  breweries  ;  Pennsylvania,  about  two 
hundred  and  fifty;   Indiana,  a  hundred;  Illinois,  a  hundred  and   chief  brew- 
fifty  ;  Michigan,  a  hundred  and  thirty ;   California,  ninety ;   Mis-   '"^  states, 
souri,  ninety  ;  Iowa,  a  hundred  and  five  ;  New  Jersey,  fifty ;  and  Wisconsin,  a 
hundred  and  eighty. 

During  the  days  of  the  high  tariff  on  whiskey,  a  great  deal  of  smuggling 
of  this  article  into  the  country  was  done  from  Canada.  Near  Toronto  there 
are  a  number  of  distilleries  of  a  superior  cjuality  of  whiskey,  the  whiskey 
product  of  which  many  prefer  to  buy  in  the  o))en  market,  paying  smuggling, 
tariff  and  all,  rather  than  purchase  the  home  article.  The  profit  on  the  smug- 
gling of  Canada  whiskey  was  so  great,  that,  for  years,  the  whole  frontier  had  to 
be  watched  with  unsleeping  vigilance  in  order  to  head  off  those  who  were 
bringing  in  the  untaxed  article  to  the  United  States.  It  was  brought  over  in 
wagons,  boats,  in  small  quantities  concealed  about  the  j)erson,  in  tin  babies, 
and  in  a  thousand  other  ways. 

A\'hiskey  is  made  by  distiUing  a  fermented  mash  composed  of  corn,  wheat. 


i 


522 


INDUSTRIAL    II I  STONY 


I. 


!' 


barley,  rye,  or  oats,  or  a  mixture  of  them.  Ilourbon  whiskey  —  so  called 
from  Ilourbon  County.  Kentucky  —  is  made  from  fifty  to  sixty  per  cent  of  corn, 
Proceit  of  and  forty  to  fifty  of  small  grain  ;  ten  per  ( ent  being  malt,  and  the 
diitiiung.  r^j^t  rye.  Monongahela  whiskey  —  nameil  after  the  ( ounty  in 
Pennsylvania  of  that  title  —  is  made  from  rye,  with  ten  per  cent  of  malt  added. 
Canada  whiskey  is  made  from  rye,  wheat,  and  corn  mixed,  with  five  per  cent 
of  malt.  The  number  of  pountis  of  spirits  containing  forty-five  i)er  cent  of 
alcohol  which  can  be  obtained  from  a  hundred  jwunds  of  grain  is  as  fol- 
Jows  :  Wheat,  forty  to  forty-five  ;  rye,  thirty-six  to  forty-two  ;  barley,  forty  ; 
oats,  thirty-six  ;  buckwheat,  forty  ;  corn,  forty.  I'ure  whiskey  contains  about 
fifty  per  cent  of  alcoiiol.  A  large  part  of  that  sold  in  the  market  is  not 
■whiskey  at  all,  however,  but  a  mixture  of  high  wines  (spirits  containing  more 
than  sixty  per  cent  of  alcohol)  with  various  substances  to  give  it  color  and 
taste.  The  ingredients  put  into  spirits  to  make  commercial  whiskey  are  often 
of  the  most  frightfiil  and  poisonous  description  ;  it  has  been  re[)eate(lly  enough 
proved  in  New  ICngland  t.  make  a  man  reform  from  drinking  simply  by 
showing  him  just  what  the  whiskey  he  has  been  drinking  was  composed  of. 
There  are,  however,  some  comparatively  harmless  mixtures  which  are  sold  as 
"pure  Bourbon,"  <S:c.,  in  which  the  spirits  are  simply  flavored  with  i)each  and 
hickory  nut,  pure  brandy,  oil  of  Cognac,  and  vinegar,  ameliorated  with  gly<x- 
rine,  and  colored  with  burnt  sugar.  .\  great  deal  of  cheap  whiskey  is  exported 
to  Europe  to  l)e  manufactured  there  into  Hollanil  gin  and  good  Cognac 
brandy  by  flavoring  and  redistillation. 

It  is  not  intended  here  to  go  into  the  moral  side  of  the  (|uestion  of  this 
industry  in  the  United  States,  except  merely  to  say  that  the  nK)ral  side  of  it, 
Moral  rank  which  cannot  be  entirely  ignored,  i)revents  the  industry  from  being 
of  industry,  classed  among  those  which  are  beneficial  to  our  beloved  country. 
It  would  be  better  for  the  land  and  for  our  countrymen  were  the  industr\'  to 
decline.  Three-quarters  of  the  spirits  ])roducetl  can  be  spared.  Modern 
science  shows  that  the  temjierate  use  of  alcoholic  beverages  is  not  bail  for 
certain  temperaments ;  but  it  also  shows  that  even  the  temj)eratc  use  is  bad 
for  the  majority  of  men.  and  that  vice,  pauperism,  discontent,  crude  ideas, 
and  disease  follow  in  the  train  of  its  use  invariably.  It  is  only  into  fiimilies 
which  refrain  from  the  consumption  of  ardent  spirits  that  variety  of  ideas, 
content,  and  the  gentleness  and  grace  of  life,  enter  and  take  up  their  abode. 
Less  than  one-quarter  of  the  alcohol  and  distilled  spirits  now  manuiactured 
in  this  country  is  really  needed  as  chemical  solvents  in  the  arts. 

The  manufacture  of  wine  is  an  enterprise  of  recent  date  in  the  United 
States :  it  is  probably  not  over  twenty  years  old,  and  has  not  yet  reached 
Manufac-  special  development.  The  citizen  and  the  statesman  look  with 
ture  of  greater  interest  on  this  branch  of  the  business  than  on  the  pre- 

ceding two.  The  first  American  wines  were  really  a  sort  of  clari- 
fied cider,  which  was  sold  in  the  market  by  the  name  of  champagne  and 


OF    THE    (fX/TKD    STATES. 


5^3 


really  was  not  a  bad  substitute  for  it,  except  that  it  was  not  what  it  professed 
to  be,  and  was  therefore  a  sham,  no  matter  how  pleasant  a  beverage  it  really 
was.  Wines  have  l)een  made  in  California  and  in  New  Mexico  for  a  lonj; 
period,  but  only  on  an  extremely  small  scale.  'I'he  grapes  of  those  regions, 
;uul  the  sunny  (lunate,  led  naturally  to  wine-making  ;  and  the  produce  has 
been  so  good,  that  the  Spanish  population,  and  lovers  of  good  living  there, 
have  long  chanted  the  praises  of  their  native  wines.  It  is  only  within  about 
twenty  years,  however,  that  there  has  been  any  special  manufacture  of  wine 
even  in  th(jse  summery  portions  of  our  national  domain.  The  wine-making 
States  are  now  Missouri,  which  in  1870  had  a  hundred  and  ninety  estab- 
iisluneiils  which  are  devoted  to  wines  and  brandies  ;  California,  with  a 
hundred  and  thirty-nine  establishments  ;  Ohio,  with  thirty-eight  ;  New  \'ork, 
with  nine;  and  Illinois,  with  five.  The  total  product  in  1S70  was  worth 
$2,22^,000.  The  American  wines  are  both  red  and  white,  and  vomjjrise  many 
of  the  s|)arkling,  or  champagne,  variety.  They  are  not  very  ilelic  ate  natu- 
rally, and  liiey  are  made  heavy  by  the  addition  of  alcohol  and  sugar  before 
fermentation.  Were  they  made  of  the  i)ure  juice  of  the  grape,  with  a  view 
to  flavor  and  gentle  exhilaration,  rather  than  for  strength  and  beautiful  < olor. 
the  manufacturers  would  do  much  toward  removing  the  strong  popular  feeling 
against  them,  and  would  secure  for  them  a  larger  sale  both  at  home  and 
abroad.  American  wine-makers  do  not  now  hesitate,  however,  to  appear  at 
world's  fairs,  and  compete  with  the  makers  of  the  older  countries.  Twenty 
or  thirty  were  at  Paris  in  1867  :  others  were  at  Vienna  in  1873.  .At  I'hila 
(lelphia,  in  1876,  a  show  was  made  by  thirty  makers.  At  the  latter  exhibition 
the  Calift)rnians  showed  not  only  a  great  variety  of  wines,  but  the  largest  grape- 
vine in  the  world, — the  famous  Montecite-vine  of  Santa  Barbara,  which,  after 
an  existence  of  fifty  or  sixty  years,  during  which  it  bore  about  six  tons  of 
grapes  a  year,  had  then  only  recently  died.  California  still  possesses  the 
largest  living  grape-vine  in  the  world,  variously  called  the  "  Daughter  Vine,"  or 
the  "Young  Mammoth."  It  grows  near  the  place  where  the  former  thrived  so 
long,  is  now  eleven  inches  in  diameter,  covers  an  area  of  ten  thousand  s(|uare 
feet,  and  yields  from  eight  thousand  to  ten  thousand  pounds  of  fruit  a  year. 

CORD.\GK    AND    BACGING. 

There  are  now  raised  in  the  United  States  every  year  4,600,000  bales  of 
« otton,  which  have  to  be  enclosed  in  coarse,  stout  bags  in  order  to  be  in  a 
<ondition    for  transportation    to    market.     There    are   also  raised   oj^antit    of 
50,000,00c  pounds  of  wool,  which  must  also  be  put  up  in  thick   baling  and 
bags   for   market.     There   are,   besides,    200,000,000   bushels    of  ''aee'ngstuff 

°  J  7        y    '  '  required. 

wheat,   1,300,000,000  bushels  of  corn,  and  an  average  of  400,- 

000,000   bushels   of  other   grain,    besides    140,000,000    bushels    of  potatoes, 

unmeasured    apples,  and  uncounted   tons  of   flour,  produced  ;    the   principal 


1,  \x 


N 


H 


524 


IND  US  TRIA  I.    HIS  TOR  V 


part  of  which  stuff  spends  a  portion  of  its  time  in  bags  of  thick  cloth  or 
tenacious  paper  after  it  leaves  the  farm  and  the  mill,  and  before  it  is  finally 
consumed  by  man.  The  number  of  bags  which  have  to  be  manufactured 
every  yeor  to  accommodate  this  enormous  sui)ply  of  produce  can  only  be 
counted  by  the  tens  of  millions.  It  is  so  large  as  to  be  a  matter  of  inter- 
national importance ;  and  foreign  merchants  and  manufacturers  are  fond  of 
studying  how  they  can  manage  to  furnish  to  the  United  States  the  largest 
share  possible  of  the  bago  she  requires  every  year,  or  of  the  raw  materi.il  from 
which  the  bags  can  be  made. 

Another  class  of  goods  which  enters  into  even  more  universal  consump- 
tion in  the  United  States  comprises  ropes,  cables,  and  twine.  No  great 
Cables,  sailing-vcsscl  leaves  a  port  of  our  country  without  going  out  with 

ropes,  &c.  ffQ-,-,  Qj-jg  jQ  three  miles  of  rope.i  and  cordage  aboard  of  her, 
either  strung  aloft  as  rigging,  or  coiled  below  as  cables  and  spare  ropes.  No 
vessel,  in  fact,  large  or  small,  stirs  without  a  certain  amount  of  cordage 
aboard  ;  not  even  a  canal-boat,  wh.ch,  at  least,  must  have  towing  and  moo'-ing 
cables.  As  there  are  23,000  large  ships  and  steamers  belonging  to  the  peo])le 
of  the  United  States,  and  3,000  canal-boats  and  barges,  it  will  be  seen  that 
immense  quantities  of  cordage  are  consumeil  every  year  in  the  furniture  of 
the  vehicles  of  ocean  and  river  commerce.  Besides  this,  every  theatre  mi 
the  country  has  a  forest  of  rigging  behind  the  scenes.  Every  new  l)uildii:ij;, 
and  work  of  construction,  is  erected  by  means  of  ropes.  Every  awning, 
flag,  tower-bell,  curtain,  fishing-boat,  and  railroad-train  requires  the  use  of 
ropes  and  lines.  Every  j)ackage  done  up  at  the  store  must  have  a  piece  of 
twine.  Cordage,  in  fact,  is  in  universal  demand.  The  Yankee  schoolboy, 
who  always  carries  tv/o  or  three  pieces  of  twine  in  his  pocket,  illustrates  the 
\aw  under  which  we  all  live  in  respect  to  cordage  ;  for,  while  we  do  not  all 
go  about  in  the  world  with  a  wild  mass  of  string  and  ends  of  rope  in  our 
poc]-ets,  we  could  not  get  through  life  comfortably  without  the  instrumentality 
of  that  usefiil  cla;>s  of  goods. 

Cordage  and  bagging  are  made  from  the  same  classes  of  coarse  vegetable- 
Materials  fibres,  —  flax,  hemp,  and  jute.  Cotton  is  sometimes  used  for  small 
used.  ropcj.  and  generally  for  twine. 

Rope-making  was  one  of  the  earliest  mechanical  pursuits  of  the  colo- 
nists of  America ;  they  being  impelled  to  exert  their  skill  in  that  direction 
l)y  the  need  of  rigging  for  their  ships,  and  of  nets  and  lines  for 
their  fishing-boats.  Virginia  raised  a  great  deal  of  hemp  and 
flax  in  the  early  years  of  the  province;  and  after  1629  New 
England  raised  hemp  also.  A  sort  of  wild  hemp  grew  in  ihc 
latter  district,  from  which  the  Indians  made  nets  and  lines  ;  but  this  was  not 
what  the  white  man  cultivated.  Hemji-seed  was  obtained  from  England  and 
Holland,  and  ';he  domestic  plant  was  tie  one  cultivated.  By  1641  a  rope- 
walk  had  l)een  startetl  in  Boston  by  John  Harrison.      In   1662  John   Heyman 


Rope- 

laking 
an  early 
pursuit. 


>"       .•• 


;  clotli  or 
t  is  finally 
nufactured 
n  only  be 
r  of  inter- 
e  fond  of 
the  largest 
.erial  from 

c.onsump- 
No  great 
g  out  with 
rd  of  Iier, 
ojjcs.  No 
af  cordage 
d  niocing 
the  peojile 
seen  that 
irniture  of 
theatre  ui 
v  bi'.ildii^g, 
ry  awning, 
he  use  of 
I  piece  of 
schoolboy, 
strates  the 
do  not  all 
pe  in  our 
unientality 

vegetable- 
[1  for  small 

the  colo- 
t  direction 
1  lines  for 
icnip  and 
[629  New 
ew  in  the 
is  was  not 
gland  and 
1  a  rope- 
Heyman 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


525 


was  authorized  to  make  cordage  at  C'harlestown.  This  industry  was,  unac- 
countably, not  opposed  by  Parliament  :  and,  there  being  no  weight  upon  its 
practice,  it  was  taken  up  rapidly  by  Connecticut  and  other  colonies.  By  i69<S 
there  were  several  rope-walks  in  Philadelphia,  some  of  them  being  owned  by 
Joseph  Wilcox.  'I'he  native  culture  of  hemp  began  to  fall  off  about  this 
time.  This  luxuriant  plant,  growing  from  four  to  twelve  feet  high,  as  fast  and 
as  strongly  as  Indian-corn,  exhausted  the  soil.  In  Virginia  it  began  to  be 
abandoned  for  tobacco,  and  in  the  North  for  crops  less  taxing  to  the  soil. 
This  did  not  prevent  the  cordage-makers  from  getting  raw  material,  however. 
An  importation  of  hemp  from  Russia  and  other  hemp-countries  took  place, 
sufficient  to  satisfy  all  demands.  Parliament  sought  to  stimulate  the  growth 
of  hemp  here  by  offering  in  1703  a  bounty  of  six  pounds  per  ton  of  hemp, 
"  bright  and  clean,"  which  should  be  ex[)orled  to  England  ;  but  the  effort 
did  not  avail  much,  and  the  bounty  was  not  long  maintained.  Virginia 
and  other  colonies  u'Tered  bounties  also  for  hemp-raising  at  different  times  : 
but  it  tlid  not  pay  to  raise  hemp  on  a  very  large  scale  when  the  soil  was 
so  available  for  tobacco  and  plants  of  that  r.Mik  ;  and  the  country  has 
never,  from  that  day  to  ti.'s,  raised  all  the  hemp  it  could  con-  Culture  of 
Slime.  For  the  last  twenty  years,  from  20,000  to  40,000  tons  of  '^^'^p- 
the  material  have  been  imported  annually.  The  culture  of  hemp  is  now 
confined  principally  to  the  States  of  New  York.  Ohio.  Indiana,  Kentucky, 
Tennessee,  and  Missouri.  Flax  is  now  the  more  poi)ular  crop  with  farmers, 
Iiecause  its  seed  is  so  valuable  for  the  oil  it  contains,  and  the  crop  does  r.ot 
tax.  the  soil  so  Heavily.  It  is  raised  ])rincipally  in  the  West,  Ohio  i)roducing 
more  than  half  of  the  whole  crop.  The  production  is  about  15,000  tons  of 
fibre  a  year,  and  1,700,000  busbiels  of  seed.  Flax,  however,  still  has  to  be 
imported  at  the  rate  of  from  4,000  to  C,ooo  tons  a  year  to  supply  the  demand 
for  it,  because  the  farmers  throw  away  the  fibre  half  of  the  time,  being  content 
when  they  have  gathered  the  seed.  Flax  was  raised  abundantly  during  the 
cotton-famine  in  the  North  resulting  from  the  late  war ;  but  its  culture  fell 
off  again  after  the  cotton-crop  of  i(S66  came  into  the  market. 

Hemp  is  prepared  for  rope-making  by  exposure  to  the  dew  and  weather  in 
the  fields,  or  by  soaking  in  tanks  of  water  ;   both  of  which  processes  have  the 
same  effect,  —  namely,  of  decomposing  and  washing  out  the  natu-    process  of 
ral  glue  in  the  bark  of  the  i)lant,  whic  h  unites  the  fibres  of  the  bark    rope-mak- 
into  a  tenacious  peel.     When  the  fibre  readily  separates,  the  hemp    '"^' 
is  removed  from  the  woody  heart  of  the  plant,  dried,  and  prepared  for  spin- 
ning by  hackh'ng.     This  process  is  simply  combing  by  hand  to  get  out  the 
dust  and  tow.     After  the  hand-treatment  it  is  hackled  finer  in  a  machine,  and 
then  combed  by  another  machine  — the  "spreader"  —  into  a  long,  loose  roll 
of  fibre  called  a  "sliver."     One  or  two  of  the  slivers  are  then  passed  through 
a  "drawing-frame,"  in  which  they  pass  through  two  sets  of  rolls  (the  second 
set  moving  faster  than  the  first),  l)y  which  means  the  sliver  is  drawn  out  and 


\m'' 


h  i  > 


526 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


i  i^ 


attenuated.  The  sliver  then  goes  to  the  spinning-machine,  in  which  it  is  stilt 
further  ''  drawn,"  and  twisted  into  a  yarn.  The  yarn  is  then  reeled  for  twisting 
into  a  rope.  John  (lood  of  Brooklyn  has  invented  a  plan  by  means  of  whic  i. 
the  yarn  is  passed  tiirough  a  tube  before  reeling,  and  made  smootiier.  The 
yarns  are  graded  in  size,  according  to  the  number  that  will  just  fill  a  half-inch 
tube,  or  make  one  strand  of  a  three-inch  rope.  No.  40  is  for  fine  rope.  No. 
20  for  cables.  The  yarns,  being  reeled,  are  now  tarred,  if  destined  for  rigging. 
I)y  being  drawn  through  tar  heated  to  220°.  When  they  come  out  of  tiie  tar 
they  pass  between  rollers,  or  through  small  holes,  so  that  the  sui)erfluons  tar 
may  be  i^ressed  out.  The  yarns  are  now  twisted  into  a  rope  in  a  long  building 
called  a  rope-walk,  which  is  generally  about  1,200  feet  long.  (The  govern- 
ment walk  at  Boston  is  1,360  leet  long.)  A  number  of  bobbins,  containing 
300  flithoms  of  yarn  each,  are  put  into  a  frame  at  one  en('  of  the  walk,  and  the 
yarns  are  "  hauled  down "  into  strands.  Three  or  more  yarns  pass  into  a 
tube,  which  compresses  and  moulds  them  into  a  strand  ;  and  the  three  stran(l^ 
of  the  rope,  emerging  simultaneously  from  as  many  tubes,  are  drawn  along  the 
rope-walk  by  another  machine  the  full  length  of  the  buikling.  I'lach  strand  is 
now  separately  and  simultaneously  twistetl  until  it  is  hard,  and  then  the  three 
are  allowed  to  come  together  and  close  up  into  a  rope.  .\  suitablv-shaped 
triangular  wedge  is  placed  between  the  strands  to  prevent  them  from  closing 
up  too  fast,  and  the  whole  process  goes  on  slowlv  under  the  jjcrsonal  inspection 
of  a  workman.  The  process  is  the  same,  whethcx'  the  rojic  be  large  or  small, 
or  tarred  or  white.  Since  1S27,  when  ro])e-factories  were  started  in  A\  heeling 
Cincinnati,  St.  Louis,  and  Louisville,  the  machinery  has  been  ])ro])elle(l  liy 
steam,  and  a  stronger  twist  has  been  given  to  rope,  and  its  strength  increased. 
The  breaking-strain  of  hemp  ro])e  was  about  9,200  pounds  to  the  scjuarc  inch 
when  made  by  the  old  processes  :  the  breaking-strain  has  risen  as  high  as 
15.000  potmds  of  late.  Twine  is  spun  from  cotton  and  flax  by  the  ordinary 
processes  of  spinning,  the  fibre  being  carded,  drawn,  twisted,  and  reeled  by 
appropi  iate  machinery. 

In  1870  there  were  in  the  United  States  20T  factories  of  i  ordage  and 
Number  of  twinc,  employing  3,700  men  and  boys,  and  turning  out  work  worth 
rope-facto-  S9.000.000  aunuallv.  The  factories  were  scattered  all  over  the 
nes  in  i  70.  country  :  but  the  large  nvijority  were  in  the  I'.ast.  Those  on 
the  Atlantic  seaboard  were  largely  supplied  with  imported  hemp  ;  those  in  the 
interior,  entirelv  with  the  native  article. 

Wire    rope   is  now  beginning  to  supplant  hemp  for  ships  and  hoisting- 
apparatus  and  many  mechanical  purposes.     It   is   probable  that  it 
will  soon  take  the   place   of  hemp  for  all   purposes  where  great 
strength  and  light  weight  are  desired,  as  in  heavy  rigging,  cables,  e*vc. 

For  the  finer  <]ualities  of  bagging,  such  as  for  grain  and  flour  sacks,  cottmi 
and  flax  are  principally  used  :  for  the  coarser  sorts,  hemp  and  jute  are  the 
favorite    materials.      Jute   is  a  grass  growing  seven   or  eight   feet    high,  the 


Wire  rope. 


^tei.^^ 


h  it  is  still 
for  twisting 
IS  of  whici. 
)tlicr.     The 

a  half-iiK  h 
e  rope,  No. 

for  rigging, 
t  of  the  tar 
erfluons  tar 
)ng  building 
"he  govern - 
,  containing 
alk,  and  the 
pass  into  a 
iree  strands 
,'n  along  the 
ch  strand  is 
en  the  Uirce 
tably-shajicd 
from  closing 
x\  inspection 
•ge  or  small, 

n  ^Vhceling 
propelled  hy 

1  increased. 

s(iuarc  inch 
as  high    a^ 

the  ordinary 
d  reeled   In 

ordage  and 
t  work  worth 

all  over  the 

Those    on 

those  in  the 

nd  hoisting- 
)al)le  that  it 
where  great 

:c. 

lacks,  cottdii 

jut'^  are  the 

et    high,  the 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


527 


|)eculiar  product  of  India,  which  was  unknown  to  Europe  until  1830,  and  first 
became  known  to  the  civilized  world  from  the  fact  that  it  constituted 

Jute. 

the  materials  of  which  the  gunny-bags  were  made  in  which  Indian 
produce  was  exported.     Attention  being  attracted  to  the  fibre,  it  was  exported 
to  lOngland  ;  and  the  city  of  Dundee  in  Scotland  developed  a  great  manufac- 
ture of  it  into  gunny-cloth.     Scotland  is  still  the  principal  seat  of  the  industry  ; 
hut  the  United  States  has  since  i860  taken  to  the  manufacture  of  jute  bagging 
also,  and  now  imports  sixty  thousand  tons  of  jute-butts  annually  for  the  purpose. 
The  bagging  is  useful  for  putting  up  the  cotton  and  wool  crops.     The  total 
valv;e  of  the  raw  jute  imported  is  about  $2,500,000,  and  the  bagging  jute-raising 
made  from  it  $4,500,000.     Attention  has  latterly  been  drawn   to   in  United 
the  possibility  of  raising  jute  in  the  United  States.     Experiments     *^*^^" 
ha\e  been  made  with  success  in  Louisiana ;  yet  it  is  doubtful  whether  it  is  wise 
to  encourage  this  crop.     Half  or  more  of  the    flax-crop  of  the   useofref- 
United  States   is   thrown   away  by  the   farmers  after  the  seed   is   use  flax  for 
thrashed  from  it,  the  flax  being  raised  only  for  the  seed.     A  better     ^^smg- 
bagging  can  be  made  from  that  refuse  flax,  or  the  flax-tow,  than  from  jute- 
hutts,  as  there  can  Le  also  from  hemp-tow.     It  would  be  more  patriotic  and 
prudent  to  encourage  the  utilization  of  hemp  and  flax  for  c-oarse  bagging  than 
to  expend  any  effort  on  native  jute.     It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  long- 
decayed  industry  of  whale -fishing  has  revived  with  the  jute-manufacture,  a  great 
deal  of  Oil  being  consumed  in  that  business. 

Since  i860  the  manufacture  of  bags  of  paper  has  been  added  to  the 
industry,  and  now  occupies  a  very  distinguished  position,  'i'he  idea  of  the 
inventors  was  to  create  something  which  would  answer  the  purpose 
of  flour-sacks,  which,  owing  to  the  scarcity  of  cotton,  were  very 
expensive.  They  employed  for  the  purpose  thick  manila  paper,  and  succeeded 
admirably.  About  forty  factories  are  now  devoted  to  the  industry  ;  and  they 
are  producing  bags  of  all  sizes  and  strength,  from  the  little  package-bag  in 
whi<  h  the  customer  takes  home  a  pound  of  candy  to  the  huge  sack  holding 
one  or  two  hundreil-weight  of  flour. 

To  flax,  hemp,  jute,  antl  cotton-bagging,  there  are  now  devoted  about  eighty 
factories,  producing  about  $15,000,000  worth  of  gootls. 


SOAP. 

The  French,  the   sunniest  and   most   polite   people   in  the  world,  love  to 
believe  that  nearly  every  thing  which  ameliorates  life,  and  renders  social  inter- 
course pleasant,  was  invented  among  themselves.     They  claim  the   g^^    ^j 
origin  of  soap,  of  course.     The  south  of  France  has  always  had   French 
an  abundance  of  olive-oil   and  soda.     The  writers  say,  that,  away   °'''^'"" 
back   in  the   twelfth  century,  a  fisherman's  wife  at  Savona,  who  had  wanned 
some  soda  lye  in  an  earthen  jar  which   had  formerly  held  olive-oil,  discovered 


Paper  bags. 


'i%% 


528 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


\  I* 


in  the  jar  a  new  substance,  which  attracted  attention  on  account  of  its  utility, 
and  led  to  the  establishment  of  regular  factories  for  its  manufacture.  Fruin 
the  name  of  the  village,  the  new  substance  was  called  savon,  —  a  word  which 
survives  in  Saxon  in  the  adjective  saponaceous.  It  is  certain  that  soap  was 
made  at  Marseilles  in  the  twelfth  century,  and  that  that  city  has  ever  since 
been  the  principal  centre  of  its  manufacture  in  the  world  at  large.  In  1860 
30,000  workmen  were  employed  there  in  that  one  industry,  and  the  product 
was  over  60,000  tons.  The  use  of  soai)  spread  from  Marseilles  all  onlt 
France,  and  thence  all  over  luu-ope  anil  to  the  rest  of  mankind.  The  maim 
facture  has  always  been  a  prolific  source  of  pros})erity  for  that  great  maritime 
city,  both  because  it  added  largely  to  the  commerce  of  the  port,  and  because 
it  gave  employment  to  so  large  a  proportion  of  its  own  population.  The  soaps 
were  perfumed,  and  were  of  exijuisite  delicacy  and  beauty. 

In  1877  the  manufacturers  of  Marseilles  awoke  to  find  that  the  sales  of 
their  famous  products  were  falling  off  in  an  alarming  manner.     Nortli  America, 

which  formerly  took  so  large  a  quantity  of  the  goods,  no  longer 
soap-manu-  was  buying  them.  The  South-American  demand  began  to  fall  off. 
factures  in       Europe  itself  was  not  so  large  a  consumer.     Upon  investigation,  it 

was  I'vjund  that  the  trouble  was  due  to  several  causes ;  and  one  of 
them  was  the  fact  that  the  United  States  had  ceased  to  be  a  buyer,  and  not 
only  that,  but  that  she  was  actually  exporting  from  5,000  to  10,000  tons  of 
common  and  perfumed  soaps  every  year  to  the  countries  formerly  supplied  hv 
France.  The  matter  was  considered  of  so  serious  conse([uence,  that  tin- 
attention  of  the  government  of  France  was  called  to  the  matter.  Nothing', 
however,  has  been  done  which  could  stop  the  American  competition  ;  and  the 
consequence  is,  that  the  ancient  city  of  Marseilles  appears  to  be  doomed  to 
see  a  portion  of  her  industry  permanently  go  from  her  to  the  New  World. 
Soaps  and   candles,  which  weie  always  made  at  the  same  factory,  were 

imported  to  the    United    States   in  considerable   quantities    until 

Importation  ,  ,  .„  ... 

of  soap  into  about  1824,  when  the  tariff  was  so  arranged  as  to  give  an  imi)ctus 
United  jq  t]-,(_.   hoiiie-manufacture.     Up  to  that   time    the    only  varieties 

made  here  were  the  common  soft-soap  —  which  was  then,  as  now, 
largely  a  household  manufacture  —  and  the  common  laundry  and  toilet  soaps. 
Higher  grades  were  attempted  after  1824,  and  made  on  so  large  a  scale,  that 
Tariff  of  the  foreign  article  was  virtually  excluded  from  this  market.  'Ihr 
'^^*-  tariff  of  1864  gave  another  impetus  to  manufacture  by  raising  the 

duty  from  about  three  cents  to  ten  cents  a  pound.  Since  1864  the  American 
factories  have  been  making  the  very  highest  class  of  perfumed  and  deiicati- 
s^oaps,  as  well  as  the  more  common  grades  ;  and  they  have,  as  already  stated, 
not  only  been  able  fully  to  supply  the  home-market,  but  to  extend  their  sale.-^ 
successfully  to  foreign  markets. 

Three  of  the  American  houses  have  attained  to  a  great  reputation  within 
the  last  fifteen  years;  namely,  those  of  Enoch  Morgan's  Sons,  B.  T.  Babbitt  iv 


OF    THE     UNITED    STATES. 


529 


its  utility, 
re.  From 
vord  wliich 
L  suap  was 

ever  since 

In    i.Srx) 

lie  product 

IS     all     (ALT 

rhe  nianu 
It  maritiuu' 
lid  because 
The  soajjs 

le  sales  ot' 
th  America, 
,  no  longer 
n  to  fall  olT. 
.'stigation,  it 
and  one  of 
'er,  and  not 

00  tons  of 
iujjplied  !)>' 
:e,  that   the 

Nothing, 
n  ;  and  llie 
doomed  to 
World, 
ictory,  were 
ntities  luitil 
an  impetus 
ily  varieties 
len,  as  now, 
toilet  soaps. 

1  scale,  thai 
arket.  'riir 
1  raising  the 
le  .Vmerican 
md  delicate 
cady  state<i. 
1  their  sale.-> 

tation  within 
'.  I^abbitt  \- 


Adverti: 


Company,  and  Colgate  &  Company,  all  of  New- York  City.     The  first-named 
invented   the   article   called  sapolio,  in   which  a  fine  white  pow-   g^^^ 
der  is  incorporated,  which  renders  the   soap  useful  for  removing    American 
dirt  from  the  hands,  and  from  furniture,  wood-work,  oil-cloth,  &c.,   '"^""fac- 

turers. 

by  rubbing.  Colgate  and  Babbitt  have  made  themselves  known  for 
specialties  of  their  own.  All  three  have  employed  indefatigably  that  great 
resource  of  the  energetic  business-man  in  the  present  age, — the 
system  of  advertising,  —  and  in  this  respect  have  been  imitated  by 
Higgins  and  other  Western  makers.  One  secret  of  success  in  trade  is  first  to 
have  a  good  thing  to  sell,  and  then  to  let  fhe  whole  world  know  it.  The 
])eddler  travelling  along  every  country  street,  and  knocking  at  every  urban 
door,  was  the  mainstay  of  earlier  merchari.'  of  small  goods  who  wanted  to 
diffuse  their  wares  over  the  country.  Since  the  multiplication  of  newspapers, 
and  the  enormous  increase  of  travel,  printed  and  painted  advertisements  have 
been  the  resource  of  those  who  have  a  new  thing  to  sell,  and  want  to  impress 
its  virtues  upon  the  minds  of  the  people.  The  soap-manufacturers  have  filled 
the  newsi)a])ers  of  the  land  with  their  notices.  They  have  frequented  all  the 
fairs,  from  the  World's  Expositions  down  along  the  whole  line  to  the  annual 
county  displays  of  cattle  and  bed-(iuilts  at  them  r'l ;  and  have  hung  up  big  pla- 
cards to  catch  the  eye,  and  inform  the  mind.  They  have  sent  out  an  army  of 
men  with  brushes  and  i)ots  of  colored  paints,  who  ha\'e  covered  all  the  availa- 
ble board  fences  and  barns  and  conspicuous  rocks  with  huge  inscriptions  and 
signs  proclaiming  the  names  and  virtues  of  their  soaj^s.  They  have  made  it 
almost  impossible  for  the  American  citizen  to  sit  down  in  the  retirement  of  his 
own  home,  or  to  go  out  into  the  open  air,  without  seeing  something  that 
reminded  him  of  the  very  excellent  character  of  the  latest  brand  of  soap,  and 
how  happy  he  would  be,  and  how  rich  he  would  probably  get,  if  he  only 
bought  that  style  of  soap  very  largely.  Great  ingenuity  has  been  displayed  by 
different  makers  in  preparing  their  newspaper  advertisements.  Sometimes 
these  cards  are  printed  as  ])aragraphs  of  reading-matter,  and  are  frequently 
sparkling  models  of  wit,  beauty,  and  brevity.  Higgins  has  used  the  pictorial 
pa])ers  largely,  and  filled  them  with  imaginary  pictures  in  which  a  box  of  his 
soajj  constitutes  by  turns  a  camp-chair  for  llismarck,  an  iron-clad  for  the 
American  navy,  a  coach  drawn  by  a  four-in-hand  of  dogs,  a  target  for  a  rifle- 
shoot,  &c.  The  ingenuity  of  those  who  have  advertised  by  pnrngraphs  is  so 
great  as  to  be  worthy  of  illustration.  Here  arc  a  few  samples  of  the  style  of 
thing  they  have  resorted  to,  the  paragraphs  being  technically  called  at  the 
newspaper-offices  "reading  advertisements."  The  samples  have  been  taken 
at  random  from  the  actual  paragraphs  of  these  enterprising  firms. 

"  Shaks]:)eare  says,  '  Care  is  no  cure,  but  rather  corrosive,  for  things  that 
are  not  to  be  remedied.'     We  cannot  associate  care  and  corrosion,  howe\er, 

with 's  Toilet-Soap  ;  for  it  saves  care,  and  is  deliciously  emoliicit.     Tiiis 

new  toilet-soap  is  the  highest  achievement  of  a  well-known  manu'  xturer  for 


.^.X::hi»i 


i;i 


■ 

i 


ill  li* 


\i: 


ii 


530 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


its  pcirfect  purity,  and  pleasant  re-action  on  the  skin,  combined  with  a  sweet 
natural  odor." 

"  Poets  and  essayists  have  delighted  in  the  supreme  delights  of  country 
life,  and  its  accompaniments  of  health,  and  peace  of  mind.  But  body  and 
mine,  require  the  help  of  regular  habits  and  cleanly  habits.     Why  not,  then. 

sing  the  praises  of  's  Toilet-Soap?     The  purest  of  all  toilet-soaps  (for 

none  but  the  finest  vegetable-oils  enter  into  it),  and  exhaling  a  delicate  violet- 
odor,  it  needs  only  to  be  tried  to  become  a  household  necessity." 

'According  to  Voltaire,  perfection  is  attained  only  by  slow  degrees  and 
the  hand  of  time.  This  is  peculiarly  the  case  with  inventions  and  dis- 
coveries.    For  instance, has  been  forty  years  in  applying  and  perfecting 

his  chemical  science  :  therefore  we  have  his  "new  toilet-soap,  —  an  article  for 
the  toilet  and  bath-room  that  cannot  be  overpraised  for  its  excellences.  As 
a  test,  it  is  found  to  be  the  most  admirable  in  the  world  for  the  delicate  skin 
of  babes." 

"  Old  Fuller,  the  excellent  preacher,  says,  '  If  thou  wouldst  please  the 
ladies,  endeavor  to  make  them  pleased  with  themselves.'     You   can  help  to 

do  this  by  recommending  them  to  use  that  superb  toilet-articl?, 's  soap. 

Nothing  can  ecpial  its  excellences :  for  the  purest  oils  only  are  used,  and  thi- 
resources  of  science  are  artistically  and  scieniifically  lavished  upon  it ;  and  a 
delicate  fragrance  is  the  result." 

This  exaggerated  style  of  advertising  is  amusing  in  many  respects;  but  it 
requires  men  of  wit  and  scholarship  to  pen  their  paragraphs  ;  and,  as  an 
investment  of  money,  they  have  proved  very  remunerative.  Xone  <jt'  the 
manufacturers  wiio  have  resorted  to  this  plan  of  introducing  tiieir  goods  to 
the  public  have  foiled  to  make  a  fortune  by  it. 

Soft-soap  is  made  by  boiling  the  scraps  of  fat  from  kitchens  with  a  strong 
lye  made  from  wood-ashes,  or  directly  from  potash.  The  hard  bar-soap  ot' 
commerce  is  made  in  the  same  way,  except  that  the  materials  are 
more  choice,  and  that  twenty-fne  or  thirty  per  cent  of  powdered 
rosin  is  added,  and  saponified  with  them.  Caustic  soda,  prepared  for  tlie  piu- 
pose,  is  now  generally  the  alkali  used  for  all  soaps,  in  place  of  the  lye  made 
from  wood-ashes  employed  by  our  forefathers.  Marine  soap  is  made  ti"oni 
cocoanut-oil.  It  is  very  hard,  will  hold  a  great  deal  of  water  before  dissolv- 
ing, and  can  be  used  to  wash  with  salt  water.  It  has  a  heavy,  tlisagreeable 
odor.  Toilet-soap  is  made  from  very  pure  and  sweet  materials,  such  as  oli\e- 
oil,  sweet-almond-oil,  beef's  marrow,  and  refined  sweet  lard.  The  Marseilles 
soaps  have  gained  their  unequalled  reputation  by  being  made  of  olive-oil. 
from  which  fact  it  has  happened  that  the  soap  has  been  entirely  free  from  the 
heavy  animal  odor  which  generally  attends  common  soaps.  The  materials  for 
the  cakes  for  the  toilet  are  saponified  without  heat,  and  perfumed  with  vegeta- 
ble-flavors. A  very  good  toilet-soap  is  made,  however,  by  cutting  very  i)ure 
tallow-soap  into  thin  shavings,  and  melting  it  over  a  water-bath  with  rose  and 


Soft-soap. 


n««2j 


OF   THE   UNITED  STATES. 


531 


1  a  swett 

f  country 
body  and 
not,  then, 
loaps  (for 
ite  violet- 
frees  and 
and  dis- 
perfecting 
irticle  for 
nces.  As 
icate  skin 

)lease  the 
,n  help  to 
— 's  soap. 
d,  and  the 
it ;  and  a 

;ts  :   but  il 

nd,  as  an 

le    of  the 

goods  tt) 

h  a  strong 
r-soap  of 
terials  are 
)0\vdere(l 
r  the  pur- 
lye  made 
ade  fi-oni 
e  dissolv- 
sagreeable 
as  olive- 
Marseilles 
oUve-oil. 
from  the 
iterials  for 
th  vegeta- 
ery  pure 
rose  and 


orange- flower  water  and  common  salt,  in  the  proportion  of  twenty-four  pounds 
of  soap  to  four  pints  each  of  the  perfumed  waters  and  half  a  pound  of  salt. 
Whiin  cold,  next  day,  the  soap  is  cut  into  small  bits,  thoroughly  dried  in  the 
shade,  and  again  treated,  as  before,  with  rose  and  orange-flower  water.  It  is 
( ooled,  powdered,  and  dried  rgain.  15y  this  process  all  unpleasant  odors  are 
removed.  Castile-soap  is  made  from  olive-oil  and  rape-seed  in  France,  but 
from  various  mixtures  of  fats  and  oils  in  this  country.  (Jxide  of  iron  imparts 
the  strongly-marbled  appearance  of  this  product.  Soap  is  also  made  from 
glycerine  and  many  other  substances. 

The  number  of  factories  in  this  country  at  present  devoted  to  soap  and 
candles  is  nearly  650.  'I'hey  produce  about  $25,000,000  worth  of  goods 
annually, 

FLOUR. 

The  United  States  has  become  one  of  the  great  sources  of  the  food- supply 
of  the  world.     It  is  the  aim  of  every  free  and  inde[)endent  nationality  to  make 
sure  of  its  food-supply  by  raising  it  at  home ;   but  some  of  the 
coK'-'tric;-)  of  the  Old  World  have  utterly  failed  in  every  attempt   y^^^^^^  ^  ° 
m  this  direction,  and  some   of  the  richest  of  them  —  especially   states  to 
[•"ranee,  Great  Britain,  and  the  Netherlands  —  are  obliged  to  buy   1^^,,^*^* 
food  from  other  nations.     This  is  also  the  situation  of  the  VVes' 
Indies  antl  South  America.     The  United  States,  on  the  other  hand,  with  her 
fertile  fields  and  active  population,  has  managed  to  raise  all  the  food   her 
poi)ulation  of  forty-five  million  can  possibly  consume  ;   and  she  has,  besides, 
a  surplus  of  grain  alone  every  year  to  sell  which  will   support  thirty  million 
people  a  year.     According!}',  this  country  not  only  does  not  import  food,  but 
it  exports  largely  to  the  kingdoms  of  the  Old  World,  and  to  those  regions  in 
the  tropics  which  prefer  to  rais*^  coffee,  tea,  and  tropical  fruits,  rather  than 
a  great  supi)!y  of  provisions. 

The  grain-crops  of  th  i  United  States  now  amount,  in  an  average  year,  to 
about  the  following  figures  in  bushels  :  — 

Wheat 290,000,000 

Corn 1,300,000,000 

Rye       ...........  20,000,000 

Oats 330,000,000 

Uarley 40,000,000 

Of  this  enormous  yield,  aliout  60,000,000  bushels  of  wheat  and  70,000.000 
111  corn  are  exported  to  other  lands.  .\  part  of  what  is  left  is  consumed  in 
replanting  the  earth,  and  in  tl'ic  manufacture  of  starch,  hominy,  and  whiskey. 
There  lemain  about  250,000,000  bushels  of  wheat  and  1,000,000.000  busheis 
of  corn,  which  are  consumed  in  the  United  States  as  food.  A  jjart  of  the 
<  orn  is  fed  to  the   flocks  and   herds  of  the  country  in  the  grain.     A  part  is 


li    I. 


532 


INDUS  TKIAL    ///S  TO  A'  V 


I' I 


lli]I._,  "  ■■■l  it 


Colonial 
mode  of 
'.laking 
.lour. 

windmil 


also  used  as  fuel  in  years  of  excessive  abundance  and  expensive  transportation. 
One-half  of  the  corn,  however,  and  ihreeMjuarters  of  the  wheat  at  least,  are 
ground  up  into  flour  and  meal  for  bread. 

(Jrain  was  reduced  to  flour,  in  the  early  days  of  the  settleinen'.  of  the 
country,  by  breaking  it  with  a  hand-pestle  in  a  mortar  made  from  a  hollow 
stump.  This  was  the  red  man's  mode  of  making  bread,  ihc 
white  man  improved  'ipOii  it  a  litde  by  rigginy  up  an  nppara'iis 
like  a  wjU-s\v  .\,;'>,  ?M  :  -Jsp 'nding  thj  heavy  pestle  from  that,  so 
that  ...  could  ■  •:  ?;  •.  rnted  ivith  less  expenditure  of  labor.  'Ilu; 
was,   however    so  i,    i ;>'.:'    hiced,   and    finally  the    gristmill    run    by 

water-power  ;  and  the 
_^      _..  ,-.-=^  -  .^--:  settlers  gladly  allowrd 

the  grindstone  to  mi- 
])ersede  the  laborious 
pestle  and  mortar, 
which  it  did  immedi- 
ately. The  floiiriiig- 
mills  were  a  great  (ou- 
venience  to  the  ])eo- 
])le  ;  and  they  have 
been  an  institution  ol 
such  positive  necessi- 
ty, that  they  have  iiinl- 
tiplied  in  all  ])arts  ol 
the  country  as  fa>t  a-^ 
tjie  ]K)pulation. 

Twenty  years  a^o 
the  largest  flouring 
State  in  the  country 
for  the  supply  of  the 
general  market  was 
New  York.  This  was 
due  to  the  abundance  of  water-power  in  that  State,  and  the  large  number  of 
canals  and  railroads  available  for  collecting  the  grain  and  distrib- 
peri'oHty'of  ^'t'^K  ^'^c  flour.  The  grain  came  largely  from  the  farms  ot  the 
New  York  as  State  itself,  but  also,  in  part,  from  the  West.  The  city  of  Roches- 
a  flour-mak-   ^^^  ^^^^  ^|^^  princi])al  Centre  of  manufacture,  owing  to  the  luxu- 

mg  State.  •  '  .  .  - 

riant  water-power  of  the  famous  (lenesee  River.  The  cities  ol 
Baltimore  and  Richmond  also  becarne  famous  milling-centres.  .'\t  the  latter 
Baltimore  ''^^'^  placcs  a  large  part  of  the  surplus  grain  of  the  South  was  con- 
and  Rich-  centratcd  for  conversion  into  Hour,  and  distribution  to  market. 
'"°"'^'  Since   1850  the  manufacturing-centre  for  the  general  market  has 

moved  backward.     'I'he  great  flour-cities  of  the  country  are  now  in  the  heart 


GAI.I.EOn    l-l.OUK-Mll.l.s. 


gn 


OF    77//-:    UN /TED    STA7'7:S. 


533 


of  the  grain-regions  of  tht  West.     Ix)iiisville,  St.  Louis,  (Jhicago,  MiniTcupoiis, 

..  I'aiil,  Milvauiijc,  rolcdo,  &c.,  are  now  the  flour-cities  pap-  excellence ;  and 

ii   is  from  their  mills  that  the  barrelled   product  conies  which  is  distrihuttd 

hrjugh  the     Ider  States,  and  sent  abi   ad,  bearing  the  enthusiastic  brands  of 

"Old'  lory,"  "(lilt  Kdge,"  "  Sea- Foam,"  "Red   Letter,"  "  I'eer-    Names  of 

less,"  "Monarch, I'he  Pride  of  the  liorder,"  "  Hallelujah,"  and   '"^*"'>''- 

so  on.  How  ap-  /  the  milling-interest  has  develope<l  since  the  opening  of 
the  West  to  free  settlement  may  be  seen  from  the  following  statement  of  the 
total  number  <jI  flouring-mills  in  the  United  States  :  — 


1840 
1850 
i860 
1870 


4.364 

i-i73 


'I'he  jjroduct  was  worth  $136,000,000  in  i(S5o,  and  5248,000  noo  in  iHoo; 
l)iit  in  1870  it  was  worth  $445,000,000,  and  in  1878  it  musil"'-  l)een  at 
least  $550,000,000. 

Ill  the  I'lastern  States  the  mills  are  run   principally  by  wat  •"  ,  ""•.  .r.     Along 
the  coast  and  on  the  islands  many  old   windmills  still  stand,  and  grind,  in 
their  ((uaint,  leisurely  way,  the  corn  and  wheat  of  meal  commu-    mius  in  the 
iiities.     Steam-mills   generally  supply   the    cities.       In    the    South    Eastern 
wind  and  water  power  is  ciiiefly  used  ;  but  in  1870  Texas  had  also 
lifty  mills  driven  by  horse-power,  and  seventeen  by  oxen,     'i'his  sort  of  motive- 
power  was  also  resorted  to  more  or  less   in   most  of  tlie  other  SoiUhern   States, 
the  mills   in  that  section    being    numerous,   but  small.      An   instance   (jf  the 
small  si/e  of  the  Southern  uiills  can  be  given.     North  ('ar(jlina  had    southern 
ahoul  1.450  mills  in    1876  as  against    1,400  in  Ohio  ,   yet   North    states. 
Carolina  produced  only  about  $8,000,000  worth  of  flour  and  meal,  while  Ohio 
produced    more   than   four   times   as  much.      In   the   West   steam-power  and 
water-power  are   used.     The   mills  of  the  West  are   very  large  :    the   bulk  of 
the    flouring   for  the  general  market   is  now  done   in  that  part   of  the  coiui- 
try.      Illinois,    Indiana,    Michigan,   Minnesota,   and    .Missouri    are 
the  principal  milling  States.     New   York  and    Pennsylvania,  how- 
ever, by  reason  of  their  dense  pojiulation   and   heavy  hjcal  consumption,  still 
grind  the  most  flour  ;  but  it  is  chielly  consumed  'oy  the  Stales  themselves. 

The  ordinary  operation  of  griniling  grain  is  carried  on  by  letting  the  grain 
llow  slowly  down  between  two  heavy  grindstones    from  four  to    six    feet    in 
diameter,  weighing  about  1,400  pounds  apiece  ■  the  lower  one  sta-   process  of 
tionary,  the  upper  one  revolving  at  a  speed  of  120   revolutions  a   making 
minute.     The  grain  enters  between  the  stones  through  an  aperture     """^^ 
111  the  centre  of  the  u[)per  stone,  and   is  ground   to   powder  speedily.     The 
flour  and  bran   flow  from  between   the  stones  into  the  tight  box  which  sur- 
rounds them,  and  are  carried  off  by  spouts  to  be  sifted  and  separated.     Within 


In  the  West. 


il'li'i 


v;  f(,,. 


>?. 


534 


/JV/)  f/S  TK I A  [.    nrs  TOR  J ' 


a  very  few  years  a  new  process  has  been  invented,  whi<'li  promises  to  revolu- 
tionize the  iuisiness  of  griniHng.  The  plan  is  to  let  the  grain  flow  into  a 
hollow  cylinder,  within  which  a  forest  of  iron  spokes,  mounted  upon  the  a\i.. 
of  the  cylinder,  is  revolving  with  great  velocity.  The  grain  is  struck  in  tin- 
air,  and  reduced  hy  collision  rather  than  l)y  grinding.  Another  and  better 
knt)wn  "  new  process  "  is  the  invention  of  Mr.  Lacroix  of  Faribault.  Minn., 
and  dates  from  1872.  The  plan  is  to  let  the  stones  revolve  slower,  so  as  to 
grind  the  grain  more  coarsely.  The  flour  is  bolted  upon  very  large  bolting- 
cloths  with  the  aid  of  an  exhaust  draught  of  air  and  of  brushes,  which  prevents 
the  cloth  from  clogging.  It  is  claimed  that  eight  or  ten  per  cent  more  flour 
is  gained  by  this  i)rocess. 

'I"he  exports  of  flour  are  now  3,900,000  l)arrels  yearly,  and  of  meal  445.000 
barrels.  The  ex|)orls  of  botii  ought  to  be  largely  increased.  I'aigiand  griuiU 
our  grain,  and  derives  a  jjrofltable  trade  by  sending  it  as  flour  and  meal  to 
South  /\merica  and  other  non-food-producing  countries.  We  ought  to  grind 
that  grain  ourselves,  and  obtain  the  ])rofit  of  the  manufacture.  We  might  aKo 
grind  sonu'  portion  of  tlie  1  15,000,000  l)ushels  of  grain  sent  abroad  every  year 
in  the  kernel. 

The  Southern  flour  is  the  best  for  export,  because  it  has  the  (|uality  of 
standing  the  moist  ocean-voyage  better  than  other  flours.  Richmond,  lialli- 
more,  and  St.  ],ouis  supply  the  bulk  of  the  flour  for  export. 


idea  of 
America 


.MU.SICAt.     INS'1'KL'MI':NT.S. 

In  distant  lOurojje  the  ])e()ple  expect  very  little  of  tiu'  I'nited  States  in 
an  art  point  of  view.  They  look  upon  the  country  as  half-savage  yet.  I'hey 
Euiopean  think  everybody  carries  a  revolver,  and  drinks  a  great  deal  of 
whiskey  straight,  and  can  go  out  of  town  into  the  country  any 
day.  in  any  part  thereof,  and  kill  a  wild  Indian  or  a  ram 
pant  buffalo  within  a  few  miles  of  the  city.  They  look  upon  the  I'nited  Slates 
somewhat  as  they  do  upon  Siberia,  whose  only  value  to  I'lurope  con-ists  in  its 
producing  savage  dogs  of  great  si/e  and  beauty  ;  or  as  a  barbaric  country,  from 
which  it  is  absolutely  out  of  the  (juestion  to  expect  any  product  of  genius  and 
high  artistic  culture.  It  was  therefore  possible  in  1S75  for  an  i'lnglish  clergy- 
man, the  Rev.  H.  R.  Ilaweis,  to  write  his  charming  book  on  "  Musi<  and 
Morals,"  in  which  he  discussed  mur,ic  and  musical  instruments  in  all  their 
phases,  historical  and  otherwise,  an<l  al)solutely  without  referring  to  the  exist- 
ence of  such  a  thing  as  an  American  piano,  organ,  or  violin  :  and  the  book 
Superiority  ^^'''^^  reprinted  in  tlie  United  States  too.  Yet  the  American  piano, 
of  American  organ,  and  violin  are  conccdedly  the  best  made  in  the  present  age 
pianos.  ^^^  ^1^^  world.     The   iMiropean  makers   of  pianos  have  been  de 

feated   at  every  international   exhibition   since   1S62   by  one   or  both  of  thr 
American   iiouses  of  (Whickering  and  Steinway,  ui  respect  to  touch,  tone,  bril- 


■ 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES, 


5>^S 


t()  rcvolii- 
low  into  a 
M  llic  a\i., 
ink  in  tlic 
and  iK'ttiT 
Ilk,  Minn., 
er,  so  as  to 
ge  boltinji- 
h  prevents 
more  Hour 

eal  445,000 

ami  grini!^ 

1(1   meal   to 

it  to   uriml 

niiglit  aUo 

I'vcry  )  far 

( nullity  of 
nond,  Ikilti- 


•d   States  ill 

ytt.  Thoy 
eat  (leal  of 
country  any 

or  a  ram- 
'nited  States 
insists  in  its 
ountry,  iVoni 

genius  and 
^iisli  i-lergy- 
'  Music  and 

in  all  dieir 
to  the  exist- 
id  the  book 
;rican  piano. 

present  age 
I'e  been  de- 
both  of  the 
h.  tone,  bril- 


liancy, durability,  and  all  the  other  desirable  qualities  of  the  piano.  Hroafl- 
wood  (whose  pianos  often  cost  56,ooo  in  London  in  1851),  Erard,  ("oUard,  and 
I'leycl  have  all  failed  to  surpass  tlie  American  makers.  'I"he  American  cabinet- 
organ  is  superior  in  all  respects,  and  has  a  world-wide  sale.  It  has  been 
discovered  of  late  years  that  New- York  City  possesses  a  violin-maker,  (le- 
miinder,  whose  work  ranks  with  the  best  which  is  produced  in  the  ancient 
capitals  of  the  Old  World.  It  is  a  singular  comment  on  the  lack  of  candor 
and  fairness  in  the  English  mind,  that  the  protluction  of  such  remarkable  in- 
stnunents  in  America  was  not  alluded  to  in  any  manner  in  the  book  above 
referred  to,  which  professed  to  be  stanilard  on  the  subject  of  which  it  treated. 

The  human  fainily  is  fond  of  music,  and  the  variety  of  musical  instruments 
in  use  is  large.  Every  nation  contributes  its  ciuota  to  the  vast  multitude  of 
contrivances  for  producing  musical  sounds.  Wild  countries  have  pondness  of 
eccentric  creations  of  bamboo  and  hide,  horn  trumpets  which  can  man  for 
be  heard,  three  miles,  and  violins,  ornamented  with  tusks  and  inen's  '""""^• 
heads,  which  produce  shrieks  of  noise  that  would  make  an  American's  hair 
stand  on  end.  From  this  class  of  instnanents,  uj)  to  the  melodious  organs, 
violins,  pianos,  and  brass  horns  in  use  in  civilized  regions,  there  is  a  wide 
interval ;  but  it  is  filled  with  a  myriad  of  inventions  of  all  degrees'  of  originality 
and  jierfection.  The  piano,  which  stands  near  the  head  of  the  list  of  perfect 
instruments,  is  comparatively  a  recent  invention,  dating  back  no  farther  than 
1760.  It  had  ancestors  which  resembled  it  somewhat,  however,  in  the  (|ueer 
old  psaltery  and  dulcimer  (boxes  across  which  strings  were  stretched),  the 
clavicitherium  (with  a  keyboard,  the  strings  being  plucked  witii  ([uills),  the 
clavicymbal,  the  virginal,  the  spinet,  and  the  harpsichord.  The  harpsichord 
was  the  instrument  in  use  by  our  great-grandmothers.  It  was  the  first  one  of 
the  series  in  which  the  strings  were  struck  by  a  hammer.  Prior  to  1760  the 
strings  had  been  plucked  with  a  (juill.  A  few  specimens  of  the  harpsichord 
are  still  extant  among  the  older  families  of  the  country.  One  made  for  Charles 
Carroll  was  exhil)ited  in  Philadelphia  in  1876. 

The  expense  of  the  larger  musical  instruments  prevented  many  people  from 
owning  them  in  this  (-ountry  until  after  the  manutacture  began  here.  A  great 
inany  violins  and  accordions,  which  cost  little,  were  owned  by  the  people,  and 
helped  solace  the  loneliness  of  the  farms,  and  the  lack  of  popular  amusements 
in  hoiTies  in  the  cities.  Jefferson  was  an  accomplished  musician 
with  the  first-named  instrument.  P)Ut  harpsichords  and  jiianos 
were  seldom  seen.  A  few  were  imported  by  merchants  tor  sale  in  the 
cities;  and  great  musicians  who  came  over  here  to  give  concerts  generally 
brought  pianos  with  them,  which  they  generallv  leli  behind  when  they  returned 
to  Europe  :  but,  on  the  whole,  the  instrument  was  as  rare  as  a])])ointments  to 
positions  in  the  President's  cabinet.  It  was,  moreover,  even  as  late  as  1825, 
still  a  thin-toned,  feeble  instrument.  It  v.as  made  with  a  frame  entirely  of 
wood,  and  could  not  stand  our  climate. 


-^XSiiiSi 


'     til). 


f-  ■ 


536 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTOKY 


In  J822  Jonas  t'hickering  of  Uoston,  a  young  and  intelligent  mechanic 
with  a  lovL'  of  music,  began  to  experiment  at  piano-making.  His  first  instru- 
jonai  ment  was   offered    for   sale    in    April,    1823.     Chit;kering   began, 

.Chickering.  almost  from  the  very  outset,  with  pianos  which  were  a  long  stride 
ahead  of  the  lOuropean  instruments  in  purity  and  resonance  of  tone,  and  in 
the  length  of  time  they  would  remain  in  tune.  He  made  the  entire  frames 
of  his  pianos  of  iron  instead  of  wood,  and  introduced  the  cir(  ular  stales, 
arch  wrest-planks,  and  tuning-blocks.  'I'he  iron  frames  were  a  great  improve- 
ment. 'l"he  strings  of  \\  piano  pull  enormously ;  and,  unless  the  frame  is  per- 
fectly rigid  and  unyielding  (which  the  wooden  frame  never  was),  the  piano 
will  get  out  of  tune  rapidly,  and  soon  wear  out.     The  pull  of  the  strings  of 


LlllCKEUlNc;    I'lANd, 


a  modern  grand  piano  is  between  eleven  and  twelve  tons.  The  iron  frame 
was  improved  by  other  makers,  and  was  soon  adopted  generally  botii  in 
America  and  Europe.  Alpheus  Babcock  of  Philadelphia  got  a  patent  in 
Conrad  1 825  for  an  oblong  frame,  the  shape  of  which  caused  it  to  resist 

'^^y^''-  the  tension  better.     Conrad  Meyer  of  Philadelphia,  in  1833,  made 

s(|uare  pianos  witii  full  iron  frames  substantially  like  those  now  used  by 
American  makers. 

There  were  other  makers  in  the  business  in  the  early  part  of  the  century : 
among  them  were  Stodart,  (^sl)orn,  and  Thurston  ;  Stodart.  perhaps,  being 
Early  piano-  the  most  jjopular.  All  the  makers  displayed  great  ingenuity  in 
makers.  increasing  the  richness  and  brilliancy  of  tone  of  their  pianos ;  and 

they  were  rewarded,  in  the  ])rosperous  times  following  1825,  by  the  large 
demand   which  grew   nj)   for  their   instruments.     Competition   between  them 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


537 


,  l)eing 
luity  in 
s ;  ami 
!  large 
1  them 


rtdured  prices,  and  the  sales  soon  increased  to  several  thousand  a  year.  The 
sale  has  since  been  constantly  extending.  Chickering  took  the  lead  after 
a  while,  an<l  in  1853,  when  he  died,  was  selling  eight  hundred  pianos  a  year. 
My  I  Ho  7  the  firm  had  sold  in  all  thirty  thousantl  pianos,  and  was  ahead  of 
all  couipetitors,  'The  house  has  since  incrcaseii  its  sales  to  more  than  three 
thousand  a  year. 

In    1855   Stoinway  &  Sons  of  New- York  City  introduced  the  second  of 
the  two  striking  improvements  which  have  been  made  in  the  piano  by  .\meri 
can  makers  :  this  was  the  "  overstringing  "  of  the  bass-strings,  as  it   steinway  & 
is   called ;    that  is,   taking  them  out  of  the   horizontal    plane   in   ^°"*' 
which  the  tenor-strings  are  placed,  and  stringing  them  over  the  others,  and 
nearer  the  middle  of  the  sounding-board.     By  this  improvement,  and  a  new 
arrangement   of  the  bridges,  Steinway  &  Sons  increased  the  length  of  the 
bass-cords  over  the   sounding-board    from   forty  to  sixty-four  inches,      i'his 
brought   a   wonderful   access   of  power   to   the    instrument.      All    the   other 
makers,    American    and    foreign,  were    soon    compelleil    to    adopt    this    ex- 
1  client  arrangement  of  the  strings.     They  were  the  first  to  manufixcture  im- 
proved grand  pianos  in  this  country.     Their  first  essay  in  this  direction  was 
brought  out  in  1859,  and  appeared  in  concert  at  the  New- York  Academy  of 
Music. 

In  i860  Lindeman  & 
Sons  of  New  York  pat- 
ented a  cycloid  piano 
which  received  universal 
commendation  ;  and 
Decker  cV  Brothers,  J.  P. 
Ilale,  Harris  Brothers, 
and  Albert  Weber,  of 
New  York,  Knabe  <!v 
Company  of    other 

Haiti  more,     inventors. 

William  1'.  KmcrNon,  and 

Hallet,   Davis.         Com- 

jtany,   of   liostuii,    and 

others,  in  turn,  br^    ight 

out    si)et:ial    styles     and 

patents.      All    t  h  e  s  e 

makers  have  had  a  great  sale  of  their  instruments.     Steinway  «S:  Sons  took 

the  lead  in  1S69. 

The  annual  production  of  pianos  in  the  United  States  is  now  ilc  ut  fortv 
thousand:  in  Europe  it  is  only  about  twenty-five  thousand,  in  1867.  at 
Paris,  the  first  prizes  were  given  to  .Steinway  and  Chickcring.  '!  iic  United 
States  now  outstrips  the  Old  World  both  in  the  extent  of  production    i:id  the 


WEHER   riANO. 


%\ 


W  {!■'' 


p>'. 


i    II.    I 


,11 


i 


Irifi 


538 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


qiiality  of  her  pianos  ;  and  she  has  the  three  largest  factories  in  the  world. 
She  can  well  sustain  the  neglect  of  Haweis  in  "  Music  and  Morals "  with 
equanimity,  in  view  of  these  facts. 

Within  the  last  two  years,  one  of  the  New- York  factories  (that  of  Joseph 
P.  Hale)  has  begun  to  do  business  cii  a  scale  which  promises  to  put  its  sales 
Joseph  p.  ahead  of  ihat  of  the  houses  of  both  Chickering  and  Steinway. 
Hale.  ]yji-    Hale,   a  Massachusetts   man  by  birth,  began   piano-making 

in  New  York  in  i860,  after  having  first  accumulated  a  fortune  in  the  crockery 
and  real-estate  trades  in  Worcester,  Mass.  His  purpose  was  to  cheai)en  tlie 
selling-cost  of  the  pinno.  He  w;.ntetl  "the  people,"  as  contrasted  with  the 
ipper  ten  thousand,  to  have  a  piano  which  would  be  both  good,  and  cheap 
enougli  for  them  to  afford.  He  entered  upon  the  manufiicture  on  a  largo 
scale,  and  by  187.3  had  a  factory  in  New- York  City  capable  of  building  sixty 
pianos  a  week.  He  has  recently  undertaken  to  increase  the  capacity  of  hi-, 
factory  to  a  hundred  and  fifty  pianos  a  week  ;  which  would  be  three  times 
greatei  than  that  of  any  other  factory  in  the  world,  and  would  supply  one- 
fifth  of  the  trade  of  the  continent.  Mr.  Hale's  operations  made  a  givat 
sensation  in  the  piano-trade  in  1877. 

In  1870  there  were  156  piano-factories  in  the  United  States,  employing 
Number  of  4,200  people,  and  producing  24,306  pianos  worth  $8,330,000. 
factone:..  T\\c  number  of  factories  does  not  increase  ;  but  the  production 
has  now  nearly  doubled. 

An  instrument  which  is  contesting  for  the  palm  of  popular  favor  with  the 
piano  is  the  sweet-voiced  cabinet-organ,  whose  gentle  and  sympathetic  tones 
Cahs.et-  are  far  better  adapted  to  the  (piiet  and  repose  of  the  family  life 
organ.  \\\d,\\  the  more  l)rilliant  but  less  gracious  piano  ;   :n  fact,  it  mii^hl 

have  been  said  that  the  contest  is  ended  in  favor  of  the  cabinet-orffiiii.  were 
it  not  for  the  fact  that  its  larger  sale  is  jjartly  due  to  its  cheaper  price,  ami 
that  the  recent  reduction  in  the  price  of  pianos  leaves  the  contest  for  llie  ulti- 
mate largest  sale  still  an  unsettled  question. 

'i'he  cabinet-organ  is  an  American  invention  :  it  sprang  from  so  humble 
an  origin  as  the  accordion.  't  is  a  reed-instrument,  the  tones  being  pro- 
AnAmerican  duced,  not  with  the  aid  of  pipes,  but  bv  the  vibrations  of  a  thin 
invention.  i^^,.jp  ^f  brass  iVom  half  an  inch  to  several  inches  in  length,  fas- 
tened at  one  entl  over  an  aperture  in  a  metal  plate  througli  which  a  current  of 
air  is  forced  or  drawn.  The  original  ])alent  was  issued  to  Aaron  M.  I'easiey. 
in  1818,  for  what  he  called  '"an  im])rovement  ip.  organs."  'c  first  the  reed- 
O'  ;an  was  simjily  an  accordion,  or  la])-melodeon  :  and  it  was  m  that  form  that 
rnanunaci.-.rers.  for  a  long  ])erio(l,  imjiroved  and  sold  it.  It  was  enlarged  l>y 
different  makers,  strength'. ;ied  in  power,  and  Hnally  improved  in  lone  by 
curving  the  reeds  into  an  S.  It  became  po])ular  for  accompaniments  to 
church-music  about  1840.  In  1846  Jeremiah  Carhart,  then  of  Dufdilo, 
invented    the    modern   "■  meiodeon  "  by   fitting  to   the   reed-organ   a    pair  of 


U),000. 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


539 


exliaust-bellows  and  a  regular  key-board.  It  was  provided  that  the  air  in  this 
instrument  should  he  drawn  inward  through  the  reeds,  rather  than  blown 
outward.  The  change  improved  the  tone,  prevented  the  reeds  from  sticking, 
secured  a  prompt  response  whenever  a  key  was  touched,  and  brought  with  it 
many  other  advantages.  Mr.  Carhart.  and  Prince  &  Company,  made  four- 
octave  melodeons  on  this 
plan  for  two  or  three 
years,  and  then  increased 
their  scope  to  five  octaves. 
Many  changes  of  detail 
were  made  in  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  interior  ajjpa- 
ratus  from  year  to  year, 
and  the  tone  and  working 
of  the  instrument  were 
improved.  The  machine 
still  lacked  the  perfect 
sweetness  which  it   ought 

to     have     had.     Emmons 
In     1S49    Km-     Hamlin. 

mons  Hamlin,  a  young 
man  in  the  employ  of 
Prince  (N:  Company  ^f 
Buffalo,  hit  upon  the  ha])- 
py  idea  of  giving  a  slight 
twist  to  the  curved  reeds. 
The  change  eliminr.icd  all 
harsliuess  fn.Mu  tin.-  tone 
of  the  reeds,  and  made 
them  soft  and  musical. 
It  led,  also,  to  experi- 
ments in  the  direction  i)f 
giving  different  i|ualilies 
of  voice  to  reeds  bv  al- 
terations in  their  si/e  ;md 
I'orm,  which  have  >iiice 
proved  successful.     Prince 

vV  C()ni[)any  innnediatelv  adopted  all  the  new  ideas  in  their  melodeons. 
and  presented  to  the  i)u!)lic  a  class  of  instnnncnts  which  instantly  became  a 
powerful  rival  to  the  piano.  Said  Sjienser  in  a  retired  nook  of  an  ancient 
palace. 

Playing  alone,  careless,  on  her  licuvenly  virginals." 


CAIllNKT-OiidAN. 


'■'■*, 


't^ 
( 


I 


[J  Ml    ■■siii; 


>  il' 


1  il 


y 


ft' 

I: 


540 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


If  the  ancient  virginal,  with  its  fiiint,  thin  voice,  could  have  filled  the  poet's 
head  with  d/eams,  what  would  not  the  divine,  assuaging  strains  of  the  sweet 
melodeon,  now  brought  to  perfection,  have  done  in  that  direction  ! 

In  1854  Mr.  Hamlin  formeil  a  partnership  with  Mr.  Henry  Mason,  son  of 
Dr.  Lowell  Mason  the  composer,  and  began  the  manufacture  of  reed-organs 
Progress  of  upo'i  ^  large  scale  in  Boston.  The  firm  first  presented  to  the 
the  manu-  public  their  organ-harmonium,  with  four  sets  of  reeds  and  two  man- 
facture.  ^^.^j^  ^^  keys.     In   1 86 1   they  brought  out  the  school-harmonimn, 

in  1862  the  cabinet-organ.  They  have  since  constantly  develoj)ed  the  re- 
sources, sweetness,  and  scope  of  their  instruments,  until  they  stand  absolutely 
at  the  head  of  manufacturers  of  reed-organs  in  the  world  at  large.  They  are 
not,  however,  the  only  American  makers  who  excel  the  French,  German,  and 
English  makers  :  many  others  do  that,  and  among  them  the  B.  Shoninger 
Organ  Company  of  New  Haven,  Conn. ;  the  Quaker-City  Organ  Companv, 
Philadelphia  ;  Peloubet,  Telton,  &  Company  of  New  York  ;  the  Benham  Organ 
Company  of  Indianapolis ;  the  Clough  &  Warren  Organ  Company  of  Detroit, 
Mich. ;  and  the  Taylor  &  Farley  Organ  Company  of  \\'orcester,  Mass.  It  is 
believed  that  these  makers  all  build  upon  the  exhaust  or  American  plan  ;  and 
their  instruments  are  certainly  superior,  in  sweetness,  variety,  and  rapidity  of 
execution,  to  European  organs, — a  fact  which  is  recognized  by  the  large 
foreign  sale  of  their  organs.  They  receive  orders  from  every  continent  in  the 
world,  and  send  abroad  about  $600,000  worth  of  instruments  annual!)-. 

The  manufacture  in  the  United  .States  is  now  being  carried  on  in  about 
Number  of  scvcnty-fivc  establishments.  In  1870  the  production  had  already 
establish-  reached  32,000  instruments  a  year,  which  was  a  good  ways  ahead 
""^^  ^'  of  the  manufacture  of  pianos.     It  cannot  at  ])resent  be  less  than 

50,000  a  year. 

In  the  building  of  pipe-organs  for  cliurches  the  Unitetl  States  have  made 
some  progress.  They  are  able  n(«v  to  depend  \ipon  their  own 
factories  for  all  that  they  need  in  this  class  of  musical  instruments. 
I'he  principal  makers  are  Hook  &  Hastings  of  Boston,  and  Oeorge  Jardine 
iv  Son  of  New  York.     About  700  clnnrh-organs  are  made  every  year. 

The  manufacture  of  brass  horns  and  trumpets,  violins,  banjos,  guitars. 
drums,  cymbals,  xylophones,  gongs,  accordions,  tambourines,  and  all  othc, 
Manufacture  ''i^truments,  both  for  serious  and  comic  use,  is  now  conducted 
of  brass  u))on    a   large    scale.      The    industry  is    in  a  very  healthy  state. 

instruments.     r,,i         i  •    i        ^       i  c    \  i       -i  i        i-      •    i' 

I  he  liighest  class  of  brass  and  silver  pieces,  and  01  violins,  is 
being  attempted,  and  reasonable  success  has  been  attained  by  a  'i^w  makers. 
Oemiinder  of  New  York,  especially,  has  done  well  in  violins.  The  manutac- 
ture  now  amounts  to  about  $2,500,000  worth  yearly.  There  is  a  fondness  tor 
European  instruments  of  these  smaller  kinds,  however,  which  our  makers  have 
not  yet  conquered  ;  and  $700,000  worth  of  them  are  imported  yearly.  Tlie 
triumph  which  the  piano  an<l  organ  makers  haw  won  has  yet  to  fall  to  the  lot 


Pipe-organs. 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


541 


large 


of  the  makers  of  these  smaller  instruments.  That  the  latter  will  yet  carry  their 
eagles  all  over  the  musical  world  and  subdue  it,  as  their  brothers  have  done 
before  them,  is,  however,  certain.  They  have  the  talent,  and  it  only  needs 
time  and  patient  study  to  accomplish  the  result. 

Two-thirds  of  all  the  musical  instruments  in  the  country  are  made  in  New- 
York  City,  Boston,  and  Philadelphia,  the  cities  taking  rank  in  the  order  named. 

MATCHES. 

The  means  of  lighting  a  fire  were  so  poor  in  the  days  of  our  forefiithers, 
that  a  fire  was  dispensed  with  whene\er  jiossible ;  and  where  a  fire  was 
absolutely  neces'^n'-y,  as  in  tlie  kitchen,  it  was  kept  alive  constantly, 
like  the 


nece 
name 


How  fires 


on  an  ancient  altar,  by  feeding,  and  by  covering  the   were  former- 


ly lighted. 


coals  at  night  with  the  ashes.  The  usual  way  of  kindling  a  fire  ii 
those  days  was  to  strike  a  shower  of  sparks  from  a  ])iece  of  flint  into  a  few 
scorched  cotton  or  linen  rags,  which,  by  a  litde  gentle  blowing,  would  then  be 
mailc  to  burst  into  a  flame.  Phosphorus  was  not  discovered  until  Discovery  of 
1677,  and  it  was  not  until  a  hundred  years  afterwards  that  it  came  phosphorus, 
into  use  at  all  for  lighting  fire;;  There  were  two  ways  in  which  it  was  then 
used.  A  piece  of  phosphorus  was  ])ut  into  a  vial,  and  stirred  with  How  it  was 
a  hot  wire,  so  as  to  coat  the  bottle  with  oxide  of  phosphorus  :  the  ^'  '^'■^'  "^^'^• 
bottle  was  then  tightly  corked.  When  wanted  for  use,  a  sj)linter  of  wood 
about  six  inches  long,  the  end  of  which  had  been  coated  with  sulphur,  was 
dipped  into  the  viai,  where  it  took  fire  from  the  phosi)honis,  and  was  lighted, 
'fhis  process  of  getting  a  light  was  in  use  almost  within  half  a  century:  only 
the  rich  employed  it.  Another  plan  contemporary  with  it  was  to  employ  an 
oxymuriate  match.  .\  stick  of  wood  about  six  inches  long  was  tipped  with 
sulphur,  and  then,  with  a  paste  made  of  chlorate  of  potash,  gum,  and  sugar, 
colored  with  vermilion.  Vials  containing  a  piece  of  asbestos  soaked  in  oil  of 
vitriol  were  sold  with  them.  The  match,  touched  to  the  oil  of  vitriol,  burst 
into  a  blaze. 

In  1829  an  iMiglish  chemist  discovered  that  chlorate  of  |)otash  would  ignite 
by  friction  ;  and  this  gave  rise  to  the  modern  lucifer-match.     The 
new  style  of  match  was  tipped  with  clilorate  of  potash,  sulphate   ^h|X"d  to 
of  antimony,  and  starch,  and  was  lighted  by  drawing  between  folds   the  making 
of  sand-paper.     The  manufiicture  of  this  class  of  matches  be'^an   °ftheiuci- 

'     '  °  far-match. 

soon  afterward  in  the  United  States,  in  New  I'Jigland.  They  were 
called  "  locofoco  "  matches  popularly,  the  jingling  and  unmeaning  name  being 
given  them  for  comic  effect.  The  Democrats  in  1835  acquired  "Locofoco" 
tlie  name  of  "Locofocos"  as  a  political  party  from  the  use  of  these  matches, 
matches.  The  New- York  Whigs  had  called  a  meeting;  and  the  Democrats,  in 
order  to  get  possession  of  the  hall,  came  in  and  blew  out  the  candles.  The 
Whigs  retired;   and  the   Democrats  then  relighted  the  <andles  with  locofoco- 


Hs 


w,  »' 


'    ''1  • . 


'4    ^    i.rt 


I.       i!il7H  '!   If        f  1 


542 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


Alonzo  D. 
Phillips. 


matches,  and  wont  on  with  the  meeting.  The  matches  were  also  called  "Con- 
greves,"  because  they  were  explosive  like  the  rockets  of  that  name.  In  1834 
Invention  of  phosphorus  was  for  the  first  time  applied  to  the  match  itself.  In 
1836  Alonzo  1).  l'hillii)s  of  Springfield,  Mass.,  got  a  patent  for  phos- 
phorous matches,  which  was  a  step  in  advance  of  the  old  kind  ;  and 
since  then  the  manufixctiire  has  been  carried  on  in  the  United  States  on  a  large 
scale.  The  length  of  the  match  was  retUu'ed  to  about  two  inches.  Machinery 
was  invented  for  mak'ng  the  wocjden  splints,  and  performing  different  opera- 
tions of  the  manufacture  ;  and  the  business  was  so  systematized,  and  entered 
Extension  of  upon  on  such  an  enormous  scale,  that  matches  soon  became,  not 
industry.  ■^\■^^,  luxury  of  the  rich,  but  the  cheapest  article  which  entered  into 
the  retail  trade  of  the  people.  In  1850  A.  Beecher  &  Sons  established  a  large 
factory  of  matches  at  Westville,  Conn.;  and  in  1854  Swift  eV  Courtney  went 
into  the  business  at  Wilmington,  Del.  The  two  firms  consolidated  in  1870  as 
the  Swift,  Courtney,  &  Beecher  Company,  and  now  constitute  the  principal 
house  in  the  business  in  the  United  States.  They  have  branches  in  Philadel- 
phia, New  York,  Baltimore,  and  Chicago.  There  are  at  jiresent  about  eighty 
establishments  in  the  business.  The  manufacture  is  enormous,  reaching  about 
15,000,000,000  matches  a  year. 

Friction-matches  were  first  made  in  combs  of  a  dozen  or  two  each.  In 
Piocessof  this  form  the  wood  was  very  conveniently  arranged  for  dipping 
making.  jj^j^y  f]^^.  melted  sulphur,  and  afterward  into  the  chemical  prepara- 

tion of  phosphorus,  or  chlorate  of  potash.  I-lach  match  was  broken  off  as  it 
was  wanted  for  use.  This  style  of  match  is  still  largely  made  for  its  cheapness. 
The  more  convenient  and  now  more  common  form  in  which  matches  are  sold 
is  in  bundles  or  boxes,  containing  anywhere  from  twenty-five  to  five  hundred. 
The  splints  are  formed  by  machinery,  which  will  make  two  million  in  a  day. 
They  are  rolled  into  flat  bundl'^s  eighteen  inches  across  l)y  mat  hinery,  each 
splint  being  held  apart  from  its  neighbors  :  and  are  then  di])petl  l)y  hand  into 
the  chemical  preparations  necessary  to  cause  them  to  ignite.  One  workman 
can  dip  a  million  matches  in  an  hour.  They  are  then  dried,  and  put  up  in 
packages  for  the  market. 

The  match-business  is  now  the  principal  customer  for  phosphorus,  arl  one 
of  the  large  ones  for  sulpluu-.  It  is  said  that  ninety-five  jjcr  cent  of  all  the 
phosphorus  made  is  consumed  in  match-making.  The  business 
has  been  in  the  ])ast  an  unhealthy  one,  owing  to  the  poisonous 
>  haiacter  of  the  chemicals  used.  In  England,  where  matcli-niaking 
i  sed  to  be  carried  on  largely  at  home,  the  poor  ])eoi)le  engaged  in 
\.  -vere  i;,n-er  free  iron  the  fiimcN.  .\t  night  their  very  clothing 
vas  iau  i''Ous  ni  '!;c  day-tiiiT  white  xapors  were  continually  rising  fn  m 
the'ii,  Amr:if-ii  mgenuit).  bv  introducing  the  use  of  machines,  lias  made  the 
busiifjps  vc-v  diircrtMit  sort  *)i  an  occupation  :  and  it  is  now  as  healthfiil  as 
the  inaioMv  '^i   ^viilL's. 


Qu  Mi.ity  of 
[  r.L.:.',  boras 
consi.n;.  J  . 
match- 
making. 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


543 


Among  the  matches  now  made  are  several  for  special  uses,  —  the  parlor- 
match,  for  instance,  which  uses  no  sulphur,  and  is  thus  free  from  the  choking 
fumes  of  bulphur ;  the  smoker's  match,  which  blazes  strongly,  and   various 
can  be  used  to  light  a  cigar  in  the  wind  or  rain ;   and  the  wax   kinds  of 
match,  which   burns   a   long   time,  and  is  an  elegant  affair  for  '"**'^  **' 
dainty  uses. 

GLASS-WARE    AND    J'OTTEKY. 

The  first  glass-factory  in  the  United  States  was  started  in  Virginia  almost 
immediately  after  the  founding  of  the  first  settlement.  It  is  so!d  that  the  very 
first  cargo  sent  l)ack  to  England  contained  "  trials  "  of  glass  n.ade   ^. 

r  .  ,  .  First  glass- 

ill  Virginia.     There   is  very  little   on  record  about  that  original   factory  in 

establishment ;  but  it  appears,  at  any  rate,  that  it  stood  in  the  ^"''='^ 
\vo(xls,  about  a  mile  fiom  Jamestown,  and  that  a  portion  of  its 
product  was  in  the  form  of  glass  beads  to  be  used  in  the  trade  with  the 
Indians.  In  1621  a  fund  was  '•"bscribod  to  establish  a  factory  especially  for 
ulass  beads.  Italian  workmen  v,  ,Te  sent  over  to  get  the  works  in  operation. 
Whether  one  or  more  factories  wc  "e  in  operation  in  1632  is  not  known;  but 
one  certainly  was.  It  was  broken  up,  however,  in  that  year,  by  the  Indians, 
who  in\aded  the  colony,  and  destroyed  factories,  the  crops,  and  the  settlers, 
indiscriminately.  The  glass-bead  business  was  not  again  resumed  in  Virginia 
ibr  more  than  a  hundred  and  fifty  years. 

The  next  essay  by  the  colon 'sts  was  in  Missachu/etts.  Glass  bottles,  table- 
ware, and  window-glass  were  universally  wanted,  and  the  coloniNts  were  not 
satisfied  with  the  slow  and  costly  business  of  tretting  them  from   ^, 

■'  00  Glass-mak 

Muropt.     Factories  were  accordingly  started  at  Hraintree  at  a  very   inginMas- 
cadv  date,  and  at   Salem  in  16^0  :  they  were  encouraged  by  the   "^^chnsetts 

^  ■•  J  0  J  olony. 

goNcrnment  of  the  colony  of  Massachusetts,  and  appear  to  havt 

thrived  for  a  long  period.     The  one  at  Braintree  remained  in  Oj 

until  the  dme  of  the  Revolution.     Philadelphia  had  a  glass-h 

An  old  map  of  New- York  City  shows  that  there  were  two  gl; 

that  place  as  early  as  1732.     During  the  Revolutionary  war  vv; 

made  in  New  Jersey  ;  but  it  was  a  very  inferior  article.     After 

the  I'Kuiufacture  of  glass  v/as  encouraged  both  bv  die  nation      i; 

1)V  several  of  the  state  governments,  as  beinii  one  of  the  back-    ment  of  in 

A;u(i   industries  of   the   countrv.     Ten  i)er  cent  duty  was  levied   ^ustry  after 

'  •'  Revolution- 

ui)on  all  imported  glass-ware  by  the  former.     In  1788  the  legis-   ary  war  by 
lature  of  New  York  loaned  three  thousand  pounds  for  eight  vcnrs   "^^  states 

^  and  nation. 

to  the  proprietors  of  a  glass-factory  near  Alliany,  and  about  1S03 
.Massachusetts  voted  a  bounty  to  a  fiictory  in  Boston  for  every  tible  of  window- 
i^Hass  made.     The  manufacture  was  encouraged  in  Connecticut,  ^  aryland,  and 
Virginia  ;    and  all  of  these  States  had  small  factories  in  operation  before  the 
beginning  of  the  present  century.     The  business  began  at  Pittsliurgh,  Penn., 


ion  nearly 

e  in   1683. 

-factories  at 

)w-glass  was 

c  Revolution 

! 

Encourage- 


{■■i 


^IPP 


544 


IND  US  TKIA  I.    HIS  TO  K ) ' 


|i  I'l 


%\    i 


w-'i!  ■   ,  i 


in  1796,  with  the  cstablishmLMit  of  bottle  and  crown  glass  works  by  (Ilmi. 
O'Hara.  This  factory  met  with  great  success ;  and  it  is  in  operation  even  ;it 
Success  of  ^'^^  present  day,  under  the  ownership  of  Thomas  Wightmaii  \- 
factory  at  Company,  though,  of  course,  so  enlarged  and  changed  as  to  jjossess 
Pittsburgh.      ^1^1^,  ^1^^.  ^^^j|^  ,^|^^j  ^^^^  ^]^^.  body,  of  the  original  works.      Pittsburgh 

became  the  principal  glass-making  city  of  the  cotuitry  in  a  very  Ww  years. 
den.  O'Hara's  success  inspired  others  to  go  into  the  business,  and  the  war 
of  181 2  operated  to  provide  still  further  inducements  by  raising  the  jjrices  of 
glass-ware  ;  and,  as  Pittsburgh  was  sufificiently  remote  from  the  coast  ami 
frontier  to  be  safe  from  the  operations  of  the  war,  by  18 14  there  were  five 
glass-furnaces  in  blast  in  that  city,  making  bottles,  window-glass,  and  table- 
ware. One  of  them  was  the  flint-glass-works  of  Blakewell  iv:  Comjxany,  the 
pioneer  of  its  class  in  .America.  This  concern  imported  its  workmen  ;  il 
made  sets  of  table-ware  for  two  presidents,  and  also  produced  a  sjjlendid 
vase  which  was  subsequently  presented  to  Lafayette. 

The  United  States  were  designated  by  nature  as  a  glass-making  country. 
The  land  is  stored  in  every  part  with  sand,  limestone,  and  disintegrated  quartz- 
Favorabie  •'"^-^  "^  *'''•-'  ^'^'^^  quality  ;  and  there  has  always  been  an  abundance 
of  cheap  fuel.  Only  one  of  the  materials  entering  into  the  com- 
position of  glass  is  not  present  in  this  country  in  al)undance  :  that 
is  soda,  which  constitutes  twenty  per  cent  of  the  weight  of  glass. 
This  can  be  obtained,  however,  as  cheaply  as  it  can  be  in  luigland, 
Belgium,  and  France  ;  and  the  jiossession  of  the  odier  materials  is  a  qualifi- 
cation for  the  business  such  as  'i<i\\'  other  countries  are  endowed  with.  There 
has  been,  therefore,  a  considerable  growth  of  the  business,  especially  in 
I'ennsylvania,  New  Jersey,  and  New  York.     The  statistics  are  as  follows  :  — 


conditions 
for  glass- 
making  in 
United 
States. 


FArxOKIES. 

WOUK.MEN. 

VAI.l.'K  Ol- 
rUODl.'CT. 

1832 

44 

$2,500,000 

I040 

81 

3.236 

4,000,000 

1850 

94 

5.571 

4,641,000 

i860 

112 

9,116 

9,000,00c 

1870 

201 

1 5,Soo 

19,233,000 

'(       <s 


Of  the  factories  reported  in  1870,  fifty-two  were  in  Pennsylvania  (mostly 
at  Pittsburgh,  where  there  were  forty-seven  factories  in  active  operation),  fifty- 
four  in  New  York,  nineteen  in  Now  Jersey,  fourteen  in  Massachusetts,  and 
nine  in  Ohio. 

Notwithstanding  this  progress,  the  glass-works  of  the  United  States  b}'  no 
means  sujij^ly  the  domestic  market.     No   doubt   the   production    of  bottles 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


545 


coarse  and  fine,  of  lamp-chimneys,  good  table-ware,  and  common  window- 
glass,  is  sufficient  for  the 


demands  of 

the     conn- 


America 
does  not  sup- 

try;  but  in   ply  her  own 

market. 

the   higher 

qualities  of  window, 
mirror,  and  plate  glass, 
the  production  is  en- 
tirely inadecjuate.  Over 
six  million  dollars' 
worth  of  these  classes 
of  glass-ware  is  im- 
ported yearly  from  Bel- 
gium, France,  and  luig- 
land,  to  supply  the  de- 
ficiency of  native  pro- 
duction. Tiiere  is  in 
this  direction  a  large 
field  for  the  extension 
of  the  business.  Sev- 
eral places  exist  in  the 
South  where  the  manu- 
facture could  be  eco- 
nomically and  profita- 
bly carried  on.  Mobile 
being  one  of  them. 
There  are  several  good 
places  in  the  North- 
West. 

In  the  manufacture 
of  glass-ware  there  is 
not  one  ar-    d,„^„,„  „, 

Process  of 

tide  in  ten   giass-mak- 

t ho u sand   '"^' 

which  is  not  fashioned 

at  the   end  of  a  blow- 

P'oe.      Plate -glass    for 

windows,  and  the  lenses 

of  optical  instruments,  ca«-.trrs. 

are  cast ;    and  goblets, 

lamps,  and  some  other   irregularly-sha[)ed  ware,   are    [pressed   in  dies :    but 

every  thing  else   is  taken   from  the  melting-pot  in  a  soft  lump  at  Hie   end 


'|iMii:i 


ll!'; 


„,' 


w>. 


\i 


i;'f.-:  J 


41111 


546 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


of  a  blovv-pipc,  and  acquires  its  first  form  by  the  operation  of  the  lungs  and 
hands  of  the  workman.  Window-glass  is  made  by  blowing  the  lump  into 
tables  or  cylinders.  The  sand,  carbonate  of  soda,  manganese,  and  arsenic, 
which  compose  th.e  glass,  are  first  melted  down  in  eight  or  ten  pots  arranged 
in  a  large  circular  dome,  in  the  centre  of  which  is  the  fire.  It  takes  about 
forty-eight  hours  to  perfect  the  fusion.  When  the  bubbles  are  all  gone,  and 
the  dross  has  been  skimmed  oi^,  a  workman  dips  the  end  of  a  blow-pipe  five 
feet  long,  with  a  diameter  ran^Mug  from  one-fourth  inch  to  one  inch,  into  the 

melted  glass,  and 
takes  up  a  lumj)  of  it : 
he  blows  tiiis  into  a 
large  flat  globe.  A 
boy  affixes  to  the 
globe  opposite  \W 
pipe  an  iron  rod 
with  the  aid  of  a  lit- 
tle melted  glass,  and 
ti.e  blow -pipe  and 
the  nose  of  tiie 
globe  are  then  sc])a- 
rated  from  the  glol)e 
by  the  application  of 
a  piece  of  c:old  iron. 
The  globe  held  by 
the  iron  rod  is  then 
put  into  the  furna(  e, 
and  ra])idly  revolved. 
It  softens,  and  finally 
opens  out  with  a  llaj) 
into  a  flat  dish,  whic  h 
is  then  kept  revolv- 
ing until  it  is  cold.  It 
is  next  sent  to  the  an- 
nealing -  furnace,  and 
its  brittleness  removed  by  annealing ;  and  it  is  then  cut  up  for  the  market  with 
a  diamond-point.  The  other  process  of  making  window-glass  is  to  blow  a 
lump  of  melted  material  out  into  a  cylinder,  which  is  done  by  holding  the 
blow-pi])e  alternately  over  the  head,  and  then  down  below  the  platform  on 
which  the  workman  stands.  In  the  hitter  position  it  elongates  into  a  cylinder. 
The  cylinder  being  put  into  the  oven,  the  heated  air  within  bursts  out  the  entl 
opposite  to  the  blow-pii)e.  The  latter  end  is  cut  off  with  a  hot  iron  as  soon  as 
the  cylinder  is  cool.  The  cylinder  is  then  slit  once  lengthwise,  and  laid  in  an 
oven,  where  it  softens,  o[)ens,  and  flattens  down,  the  workman  assisting  the 


DECANTliUS. 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


547 


Plate-glass. 


ojicration  by  working  a  block  of  wood  over  it  attached  to  the  end  of  a  rotl. 

'I'hc  plate  is  then  sent  off  to  be  annealed.  The  distortions  which  are  pro- 
duceil  by  looking  throngh  window-glass  come  from  the  fact,  that,  the  inner 
and  outer  surfaces  of  the  cylinder  being  of  different  lengths,  the  flattening 
produces  in  the  glass  undulations  called  cockles. 

Kottles  and  hollow-ware  arc  blown  (jut  from  a  lump  of  melted  material,  and 
shaped  in  moulds  of  brass  or  iron,  which  open  and  shut  on  a  hinge,  and  are 
worked  by  the  foot.  IMate-glass  is  cast  upon  an  iron  slal),  at  the  Bottles  and 
sides  of  which  are  placctl  bars  i)f  iron  of  the  intended  thickness  hoUow- 
of  the  plate.  .An  iron  or  copi)er  roller  rests  upon  these  bars,  and 
IS  then  rolled  over  the  surface  of  the  melted  glass,  pressing  before  it  the  super- 
fluous material,  and  giving  the  plate  a  uniform  thickness.  The 
edges  of  the  plate  are  trimmed  when  it  is  cool,  and  the  plate  is 
then  annealed.  Flint-glass  for  table-ware  is  ground  after  pressing  by  means 
of  sand  and  emery  wheels.  The  sharp  edges  so  often  noticed  are  produced 
in  tliis  way.  All  glass  has  to  be  ground  and  polished  by  apparatus  specially 
fitted  up  for  the  purpose.  Colored  glass  for  stained  windows,  lanterns,  t\:c.,  is 
matle  by  mixing  into  the  melting-pot  oxide  of  gold  for  red,  oxide  of  coi)per 
for  blue,  oxide  of  manganese  for  amethyst,  iron  ore  and  manganese  for  orange, 
copper  anil  iron  for  green,  and  other  metals  for  other  colors.  The  color  may 
be  produced  in  the  body  of  the  glass  itself,  or  only  on  the  surface  :  if  on  the 
surface,  it  is  produced  by  dipping  the  lump  of  clear  glass  into  a  i)ot  of  colored 
material,  when  some  of  the  latter  clings  to  the  whole  surface,  and  remains 
permanent  in  every  stage  of  the  subsecjuent  processes.  The  silvering  of  glass 
for  mirrors  is  a  simple  operation.  Tin-foil  is  spread  over  a  stone  table,  and 
tpiicksilver  i)oured  thinly  over  it.  The  jilate  of  glass  is  slid  slowly  upon  the 
table,  pushing  the  quicksilver  before  it,  the  object  being  to  ])revent  any  air 
getting  under  the  glass.  The  sui^erfluous  metal  is  then  draA-n  off,  and  the 
plate  weighted  down  foi  several  hours.  It  is  then  taken  up,  the  tin-foil  adher- 
ing, and  exposed  to  the  air.  back  uppermost,  for  several  days,  until  the 
amalgam  is  perfectly  hard. 

The  Siemens  reverberatory  gas-furnace  has  been  adopted  in  the  glass- 
manufacture,  as  well  as  in  the  iron  and  steel  business.  —  more  largely  abroad, 
however,  than  in  America.     It  is  now  considered  essential  in  the   c, „„,  ,„ 

'  oiemens  re- 

making of  the    higher  qualities  of  glass.     The  ordinary  Airnace,    verberating 

with  its  melting-pots  arranged  around  an  open  fire-box.  is  certain   ^^^'  "''"^'^^■ 

to  injure  the  glass  by  bringing  coal-dust,  suljjhur,  i\:c.,  into  contact  witli   the 

melting-materials.     This   is  all  obviated   by  the    Siemens    furnace  ;    and    the 

enlargement  of  the  plate  and   fine  glass  business   in  this  country  can  only 

proceed  wi'  h  the  aid  of  this  style  of  furnace. 

Potter}'  vas  one  of  the  earliest  manufactures  of  the  colonists.     The  T,on- 

don  companies   sent  over  potters  to  all  the  colonies,  and  the  Dutch  did  the 

saiue   for   their   settlements   at   the    mouth  of  the    Hudson.     The   colonists 


^^i: 


f«ii    ; 


ii* ' 


ill  I 


548 


IND  US  TKIA  I.    Ills  TOR  Y 


;r';:^i'->' 


\\\ 


l^f' 


■  I'M;:! 


ANCIENT   rolIKJiV 


-)VO. 


could  not  get  on  without  jars,  jugs,  mugs,  and  fartlicn  dishes  ;  and  every  dis- 
trict of   the  couutrv  hail   its  own   pottery.     Alexander   Hamilton  reported   in 

1790    that     the     business    was 

Manufacture  t  H  l' i  V  i  n  g  .  It  'waS 
of  pottery  by  o  n  e  o  f  t  h  e  I'e  \v 
coloniiits.  1  1  r    '      I 

brandies  ol  indus- 
try whi<h  had  made  itself  able 
to  suppl\  the  colonial  deinaiid. 
'The  business  is  a  very  simple 
one,  tlie  clays,  white  and  brown, 
beinn  fashioned  by  hand  u\)u\\ 
a  little  revoking  round  table 
directly  from  the  lump,  dried  in 
the  air.  baked  in  an  o\en,  and 
Number  of  tlicn  glaze<l.  It  is 
potteries.  very  I  xtensively 
practisi'd  throughout  the  coini 
try,  there  being  about  750  \m{- 
teries  in  operation,  supplying 
about  $6,000,000  worth  of  ware 
every  year.  Trentcm,  N.J.,  is  the  greatest  individual  centre  of  the  manufac- 
ture. Within  the  last  five  j-ears  the  pot- 
ters have  begun  to  pay  some  attention  to 
the  matter  of  producing  artistic  pottery. 
Their  forms  had  l)een,  until  five  years  ago, 
of  the  simplest  and  most  practical  descrip- 
tion :  little  was  done  for  beauty,  and  scarce 
any  pottery  was  made  for  purely  orna- 
mental objects.  A  change  in  reference  to 
form  is  now  takim;  ])lace.  Within  the 
last  ten  years  the  attt'iition  of  makers  has 
been  drawn  to  a  collection  of  pottcy  near- 
Cesnoia  ly    two    thousand    vears    old, 

collection.  which  was  dug  up  from  the 
ruins  of  the  temples  in  tiie  Island  of  ('\pnis 
by  Cesnola.  the  consul  of  the  United  States, 
and  which  was  sold  to  the  Metropolitan 
Museum  of  New-\'ork  City.  The  lovers 
of  art  have  gone  wild  over  these  treasures, 
and  a  mania  has  grown  up  for  ornamental 

pieces  in  the  s;une  shai)es  as  man.y  of  the  interesting  antitiues  in  this  famous 
collection.  TIt,.'  old  mania  for  artistic  china  has  broken  out  ar  'u  too,  and 
these  two  causes  combined  have  presented  to  the  pottery- makers  ihiir  opi)or- 


AM  ii-;n  r  I'oi  ]  i:ijv.  —  iai;. 


'tot    P 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES, 


549 


1 

^ 

J 

w 

tiinity.  Many  of  the  niori'  enterprisini;  firms  have  rcc  ontly  iindcrtakcii  to  pro- 
duce jars,  vases,  mugs,  iVc,  in  the  anliiiui'  style  ;  and  the  movket  is  now  lull  of 
their  ware,  and  the  sales  of  it  are  large.  Some  oi  the  pieces  Uiey  make  they 
decjurate  at  tiie  jjottery  themselves  in  l)ro\vn  ■m\(\.  black;  but  J  lar;4e  propor- 
ti'tn  of  the  pieces  is  sent  to  tlir  store  in  the  rough  state,  to  be  sold  t(t  ladies 
and  artists  who  desire  to  decorate  tin  jnrs  and  vases  themselves.  The  forms 
of  common  pottery  have  ])er(  eptibl)  imprd  .'d,  too,  al'  ng  widi  those  of  the 
more  artistic  kind. 


I'OKCl;  I  MS    I'l.ATK. 


Porcelain-ware  is  also  made  to  some  extent  in  the  rnited  States,  though 
this  is  not  yet  one  of  our  gri  \  industries.  New  Wirk,  Pennsylvania,  and 
New    [ersey  have   excellent    fa(  torii.^.  making   ware    from    native 

111  1  -  1   1        I  Porcelain. 

earths,  and  decorating  it  with  llowcr  ,ind  leal,  and  bird,  in>e(t,  and 
animal  patterns,  according  to  the  taste  of  the  day.  This  brani  of  manufac- 
ture partakes  of  the  character  ol  line  art.  and  it  is  not  one  in  which  American 
artisans  have  yet  won  anv  distinguished  success.  What  will  be  the  result  when 
the  excellent  schools  of  design  in  Massachusetts  and  New  York  have  done  their 
work  a  little  more  thoroughly,  need  not  be  referred  to  here  ;  but  it  may  be  said 


I 


'•  t'l 


IMAGE  EVALUATION 
TEST  TARGET  (MT-3) 


// 


1.0 


Uilli    12.5 


140 


I.I 


■  2.2 

U 
IK 


11-25  III  1.4 


1 2.0 

WJ4 


^^ 


/J 


/ 


Hiotographic 

Sciences 

Corporation 


23  WEST  MAIN  STREET 

WEBSTER,  N.Y.  14580 

(716)  872-4S03 


'%'■ 


0 


4i 


l/.A 


t 


^ 


55° 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


tliat  there  is  ample  room  in  the  United  States  for  a  large  corps  of  native- 
American  decorators.  The  taste  of  the  people  for  choice  table-ware  has  outriirk 
the  ability  of  the  native  factoiies  to  gratify  it.  Decorated  cliina  is  now  the 
attiibute  of  the  rich.  It  ought  to  be  within  the  reach  of  all  the  people  ;  but  it 
never  will  be  until  there  are  more  decorators,  —  a  great  many  more, — and  until 
all  the  manufactories  can  afford  to  emplo)-  them.  The  decorators  are  at  pres- 
ent principally  men  of  foreign  l)irth  and  training.  The 
very  l)esi  class  are  native  artists,  who  occasionally  lay 
aside  the  easel  to  illuminate  a  jar,  a  vase,  a  placpie,  or 
some  other  object  of  clay,  for  a  friend  or  for  the  market. 
As  before  said,  it  is  only  the  rich  that  can  afford  to  en- 
gage the  senices  of  either  class.  It  is  not  strange  that 
the  I'nitcd  States  should  not  yet  be  great  in  china  and 
porcelain  ware,  when  we  reflect  that  attention  to  the 
industry  only  began  about  sixty  years  ago  ;  while,  on 
the  other  hand,  the  jtonelain  countries  par  (\\ccllcur<'  of  the  world  have 
practised  the  art  of  moulding  and  decorating  this  ware  for  a  period  of  from 
three  hundred  to  a  thousand  years.  The  best  that  can  be  saitl  of  the  art 
as  it  exists  in  this  country  at  the  ])resent  day  is,  that  it  promises  well  for 
the  future.      It  most  <  ertainly  iloes  that. 


PORCRI.AIN   CfP. 


c;luk. 

The  most  arid  soils  sometimes  best  repay  cultivation  ;  and  things  the  most 
useless  and  valueless  in  life  often  turn  (nit  to  be,  in  the  hands  of  those  wlio 
From  what  know  their  peculiar  (lualities,  articles  of  priceless  merit.  It  is  from 
it  is  made.  refuse  that  some  of  the  most  necessar}'  and  excellent  commodities 
of  the  age  are  obtained.  Cdue  is  one  of  these  commodities.  It  is  made  from 
the  trimmings  and  clipjiings  of  hides,  which  are  removed  during  the  process 
of  curryinr  and  tanning.  Those  scraps  are  not  only  useless  for  any  other  pur- 
pose than  glue-making,  bu.,  were  ihey  not  available  for  some  such  purpose, 
they  would  be  absolutely  unpleasant  to  have  on  hand.  They  would  be  hard 
til  dispose  of,  and,  unless  speedily  rem.oved,  would  be  a  source  of  disease 
and  danger.  As  it  is,  howe\er,  science  has  put  them  to  use  for  the  produc- 
tion of  an  article  which  society  could  not  now  get  along  without ;  for  glue 
is  of  universal  convenience.  It  enters  into  the  binding  of  the 
books  we  take  up  every  day  ;  it  cements  the  furniture  which  we 
use  every  hour  of  our  lives;  it  renders  writing-paper  capable  of  taking  ink 
without  blurring  ;  it  makes  turpentine  and  petroleum  barrels  tight ;  it  joins 
the  violin  ;  and,  in  flict.  performs  a  thousand  services  of  the  most  necessary 
and  interesting  description.  Were  it  not  for  the  fact  that  this  article  can  be 
made  from  refuse  cuttings  of  hide  which  are  of  no  intrinsic  value  whatever, 
it  would   be   so  costly,  that  books,  paper,  furniture,  anil  all   objects  into  the 


Utility. 


i        '/ 


4. 


•f 


O/''    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


551 


of  native- 
has  outrun 
s  now  thf 
5lc ;  Init  if. 
-and  u: it.il 
re  at  pros- 
ing, 'i'iic 
ionally  lay 
placjuc,  or 
le  market, 
brd  to  cn- 
rangc  that 
china  and 
on  to  tliL' 
while,  on 
orld  have 
d  of  from 
of  the  art 
s  well   fur 


the  most 
those  wl'io 
It  is  from 
inmodities 
uade  from 
le  process 
other  pur- 
i  purpose, 
l1  be  hard 
if  disease 
e  produc- 

for  glue 
ng  of  the 
which  we 
aking  ink 
;  it  joins 
necessary 
:]e  can  be 
whatever, 

into  the 


construction  of  which  it  enters,  would  be  so  much  more  expensive,  that  the 
increased  price  might  suffice  to  turn  the  scale  adversely  when  one  was  deciding 
whether  to  buy  those  articles  or  not. 

In  glue-making,  the  cuttings  of  hide,  when  fresh,  are  put  into  a  strong 
solution  of  lime  in  order  to  remove  the  hair,  fat,  and  bits  of  meat,  clinging  to 
them,  and  to  dispose  the  cuttings  to  melt  readily  upon  the  appli-  procggg  ^f 
cation  of  heat.  When  sufficiently  treated,  the  scraps  are  taken  giue- 
out  of  tiie  lime-water,  and  washed  and  dried,  'i'he  latter  process  *""  '"^" 
is  performed  in  the  most  thorough  manner ;  and,  in  order  that  there  may  be 
perfect  desiccation,  the  scrajis  are  generally  stored  for  a  long  period  of  time. 
\\\  the  spring  and  fall  the  scraps  are  put  into  the  melting-pot  in  bags  of 
netting,  and  boiled  with  rain-water.  'The  gelatinous  substance  in  them  dis- 
solves readily  into  liipiid  glue.  The  glue  is  drawn  off,  strained,  and  allowed 
to  cool  and  settle  ;  and,  when  it  becomes  hard  like  jelly,  it  is  sliced  into  sheets, 
and  spread  upon  nets  to  dry.  Drying  recjuires  two  or  three  weeks.  The 
sheets  are  ready  for  the  store  when  perfectly  dry,  though  they  are  usually 
stored  away  in  lofts  for  a  while  before  they  are  marketed.  The  climate  of 
America  is  very  fa\oral)le  to  glue-making,  on  account  of  its  dryness.  In 
moist  countries,  like  England,  the  drying  is  not  so  perfectly  and  beautifully 
done. 

There  are  now  about  seventy  glue-factories  in  the  United  States.  Phila- 
delphia is  the  principal  centre  of  the  trade,  although  Chicago  and  St.  Louis 
iiave  latterly  attained  some  importance  in  it.  The  Philadelphia  factories  are 
very  large. 

A  purely  American  variety  of  glue  was  invented  by  Mr.  Spaulding.     It  was 
called  '*  Spaulding's  Prepared  (Hue,"  and  under  that  name  was  extensively 
advertised  and  sold,  not  only  \\\  the  United  Stales,  but  in  F^urope    ,.g  ^^jj_ 
and  other  parts  of  the  world.      It  was  made  in  a   li(iuid    form,   ing's 
and  had  the  (juality  of  hardening  when  applied  to  the  cementa-   ^"''""^ 
tion  of  two    surfaces.      Sold    in    bottles    of  small    size,  its    con- 
venience secured  for  it  great  popularity.      Various  preparations  of  this  sort 
are  now  in  the  market.     An  ounce  of  nitric  acid  to  the  pound  of  dry  ghie, 
or  three  parts  of  acetic  acid  to  one  of  dry  glue,  i)reserves  the  glue  in  liquid 
form. 

One  of  the  most  important  uses  of  glue  is  for  the  making  of  sand  and 
emery  paper,  —  an  industry  which  is  carrieil  on  freciuently,  if  not 
generally,  in  the  glue-tactories  themselves.     The  sheets  of  paper   ;„"  aking 
used   are  made  from   okl   rojjc   so  as  to  be  very  tough,  or  from    sand  and 
nianila-.lbre    direct.      Sand-paper    and    emery-paper   are    largely   *^"^ 
used  in  all  factories  in  which  wood  is  fashioned  for  jjopular  use, 
and  in  many  other  shops  besides.    They  are  comparatively  recent  inventions, 
and  are  of  great  service  to  manufacturers. 


552 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


VKNKKKINd. 


use  of 
veneering. 


The  ancient  forests  of  IJra/il  and  other  parts  of  South  America  contain 
enough  trees  of  rare  nn«l  beautiful  cabinet-woods  to  give  the  whole  human 
race  furniture  of  solid  woods.  lUit  these  forests  cannot  be  utilized  at  present, 
and  will  not  be  brought  into  the  market  for  many  generations  ;  and  cabinet 
Economy  in  ^^''ods  of  great  beauty  arc,  therefore,  rare  in  the  general  market. 
an(4  costly,  rather  than  abundant  and  cheap,  as  they  might  be. 
About  fifty  years  ago  the  cost  of  cabinet-woods  was  so  great,  that 
three  logs  of  mahogany  sold  for  five  thousand  dollars  apiece  in  London. 
'I'he  expense  of  all  i\\\^  cabinet-woods,  and  the  actual  scarcity  of  some  varie- 
ties, led  to  the  art  of  sawing  up  beautiful  logs  into  thin  sheets,  and  of  covcriiig 
furniture,  doors,  picture-frames,  chests,  eVc,  made  of  (  heaper  woods,  with  these 
sheets  of  the  rarer  timber,  so  as  to  produce  the  same  effect  as  though  the 
articles  were  made  of  solid  cabinet-woods,  and  thus  to  gain  the  appearance, 
without  the  cost,  of  solid  wood.  It  was  an  application  to  cabinet-work  of  the 
idea  of  plating  an  inferior  substance  with  a  superior,  which  has  also  bieii 
utilized  in  silver-smithing,  glass-making,  and  other  industrial  arts.  Singulailv 
enough,  after  veneering  had  been  invented  and  practised  for  this  object,  it 
was  found  that  the  practice  had  a  great  nuTit  of  its  own  in  strengthening 
the  wood  veneered  by  preventing  it  from  splitting  and  cracking,  and  in 
enabling  the  workman  to  produvx'  a  number  of  panels,  i\:c.,  of  exactly  the 
same  graining  of  wood.  Its  utility  for  all  these  general  purposes  has  led  to 
its  general  and  increasing  employment. 

The  woods  which  are  sawed  up  for  veneering  are  rose-wood,  mahogau)-, 
ebony,  sandal-wood,  satin-wood,  bird's-eye-maple,  French  maple,  tulip-wood, 
Kinds  of  and  a  large  variety  of  the  South-American  cabinet-woods,  whose 
woods  used.  ,-,ames  are  so  strange  and  unjironounceable,  that  it  would  not  be 
desirable  to  reproduce  them  here.  The  best  ])ortions  of  the  tree  for  sawing 
are  those  where  tlie  branches  form,  because  the  twisted  and  gnarled  arrange- 
ment of  the  fibres  of  the  tree  in  those  parts  of  the  trunk  produces  a  wide 
variety  of  interesting  forms  in  the  graining  of  the  wood,  and  deci)ens  the 
color,  and  renders  the  wood  more  close  antl  compact.  The  \eneers  are 
sawed  out  very  thin  ;  but  the  thinness  varies  with  the  value  and  (itiality  of  the 
Thickness  of  wood,  from  an  eighth  to  a  hundredth  of  an  inch.  Saws  of  great 
veneering.  precision,  running  in  gangs,  arc  used.  Sometimes  a  diiferent 
l)roccss  is  used,  the  veneers  being  cut  off  in  a  broad  jieel  by  a  turning- 
lathe.  This,  however,  is  more  generally  resorted  to  in  cutting  sheets  of  bone 
and  ivory. 

The  veneers  arc  sent  to  the  cabinet-maker  rough,  because  the  rough  face 
Treatment  of  assists  in  glueing  them  down.  They  are  fastened  on  simply  with 
veneers.  good  gluc  ;  the  only  care  necessary  being  this,  that  they  nuist  be 

worked  down  so  thoroughly  as  to  expel  the  air  from  below  them.     'I'hey  are 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


553 


t.lampcd  down  uiUil  cool  and  dry.  Tlic  outer  surface  of  the  veneering  is 
then  polishcil,  and  treated  exactly  as  though  the  arti(  le  were  made  of  sohd 
cabinet-wood. 

Undoubtedly  a  pure  taste  would  dictate  a  preference  for  a  black-walnut  or 
common  maple  article  of  furniture  whicii  was  made  of  solid  wood,  and  was 
exactly  what  it  repiescnted  to  be,  than  a  much  more  splendid  and  showy 
artide,  apparently  of  bird's-eye-maple  or  rosewood,  which,  in  reality,  was 
veneered.  Hut  veneering  is  not  necessarily  a  cheat,  and  it  has  too  many 
valuable  uses  to  be  dispensed  with  altogether.  For  instance,  who  would  want 
a  piano  to  be  of  solid  rosewood  ?    \\\\q  could  afford  to  buy  one  of  solid  wood  ? 


CAKKIAC.KS    AND    CARS. 

The  forests  of  the  'Jnited  States,  once  so  magnificent,  are  now  being  swept 
away  with  a  ra|)i''.ity  which  has  alarmed  our  statesmen,  and  has  made  the  sub- 
ject of  replanting  the  devastated  fields  a  cpiestion  of  vital  impor-    Destruction 
tance.     The  demands  upon  the  timber-growth  of  the  country  are   ""ofest*. 
enormous.     Wood  is  wanted  for  millions  of  dwellings,  for  fences,  furnit'ire. 
sliipping,  railroad-ties,  fuel,  telegraph-poles,  machinery,  boxes,  for  exportation 
to  foreign  countries,  and  a  thousand  other  objects  ;    and,  instead  of  the  de- 
mand  falling  off  as  timber  grows  scarce,  it  i  i  the  fact,  that  in  many  cases 
the    demand    is   constantly   increasing.      The   recpiirements   of  the   car  and 
carriage  factories,  for  instance,  are  increasing  every  year.     In  the  days  of  our 
great-grand f;ithers,  the  occasional  ancient  coacl  ,  and  the  heavy  lumber-wagon 
in  which  the  freight-transportation  of  the  coun  ry  was  carried  on.  were  almost 
the  only  vehicles  that  rolled  along  the  road^.     The  people  did   contrast  be- 
not  own  private  carriages  themselves.     WIum  they  travelled,  they   tween  the 
took  to  the  coach,  or  rode  on  horseback,  tho  latter  being  the  more   "'''*"  """^ 

"  present  time. 

customary  plan.  The  jjurchase  of  a  private  carriage  was  such  a 
rarity,  that  such  an  act  was  sufficient  to  stamj)  a  man  as  an  aristocrat,  and  was 
very  likely  to  create  a  prejudice  against  him.  So  that  in  those  days,  although 
the  jjcople  fairly  lived  under  the  branches  of  boundless  and  a])i)arcntly  inex 
haustible  forests,  and  though  timber  was  as  cheap  as  dirt,  the  amount  of  wood 
cut  for  carriage-building  was  so  slight  as  to  make  no  perce])tible  impression 
upon  the  forests  whatever.  Hut  now  things  have  greatly  <-hange(l.  Within  the 
hundred  years  just  gone  by  an  era  of  railroad-building  and  carriage-owning 
has  come  in,  and  during  the  last  fifty  years  carriages  and  cars  have  been  build- 
ing in  increasing  numbers  year  by  year.  Now,  in  1S78.  the  demand  ui)on  the 
forests  of  the  country  for  the  stuff  with  which  to  build  these  vehi(  les  is  some- 
tiling  enormous  and  alarming.  I'pon  the  railroads  of  the  liiited  States  there 
now  roll  350,000  cars,  and  upon  the  highways  and  streets  15,000,000  carriages, 
stages,  trucks,  anfl  carts.  To  replace  the  old  and  sup])ly  the  demand  for  new 
vehicles  of  these  several  classes,  it  is  estimated  that  the  country  now  requires 


1 


i 


Ir' 

t  i 


554 


/A'/? f/S TRIA  r.    ///S 70 A'  Y 


the  growth  of  500,000  acres  of  timber  annuiilly.  These  figures  show  better 
tb.-in  any  tiling  else  can  the  enormous  development  reached  by  this  special 
industry  in  the  United  States. 

The  earliest  efforts  of  the  people  of  America  at  carriage-making  were  put 
forth  in  the  direction  of  building  rude  carts  and  wagons  without  springs  for 
First  efforts  "^'-'  '"  teaming  goods  to  and  from  the  mill,  from  the  farms  to 
in  carriage-  town,  and  vicc  vcrsit,  and  from  city  to  city.  The  wheels  for  thcrie 
malting.  vehicles  were  all,  or  nearly  all,  imported,  until  the  Revolutionary 

war ;  at  which  date  the  colonists,  for  the  first  time,  fell  to  making  them  gener- 
ally for  themselves.  'I'he  few  private  carriages  of  that  clay,  one  of  whi<  h 
Importation  was  owued  by  Washington,  were  imported.  They  were  heavy, 
of  carriages,  toach-like  affairs,  drawn  by  six  horses,  and  adapted  to  travelling 
on  the  bad  roads  of  that  period.     With  the  better  times  which  came  after  the 


WINUSOU    UAC.ON. 


Revolution,  and  particularly  after  the  war  of  181 2,  the  carpenters  turned  their 
hands  to  something  besides  heavy  wagons,  and  especially  to  a  new  style  of 
vehicles  (namely,  stage-coaches)  for  which  there  then  grew  uj)  a  great  dciuand. 
Stage-coaches  were  unknown  in  the  United  States  until  after  the  Revolution. 
There  were  only  1,905  miles  of  best  roads  in  the  country  in  1791,  and  the 
mail  was  carried  in  heavy  wagons.  Lines  of  stages  were  started  to  run  in 
every  direction,  however,  after  1791,  in  the  coast  States ;  and  the  requirements 
of  the  companies,  recorded  l)y  a  heavy  tariff  of  forty-five  per  cent,  soon  gave 
carriage-building  a  great  impetus  in  all  i)arts  of  the  country.  Very  little  was 
done  for  the  imiM-ovement  of  the  ordinary  freighting  or  Conestoga  wagon  for 
a  long  period  ;  but  tiie  models  and  arrangements  of  the  coach  were  things 
which  touched  the  people  closely,  and  this  class  of  carriages  received  a  great 


X, 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


555 


(leal  of  attention  accordingly.     Woods  were  sought  for  to  compose  the  axles, 
wheels,  and  body,  whi(h  were,  at  the  same  time,  the  toughest  and  lightest. 


The  scats  were  carefully  cushioned.  Mvcry  part  of  the  vehicle  was  carefully 
studied  and  improved  ;  and  the  whole  coach  was  made  light,  strong,  comforta- 
ble, and  serviceable  to  a  degree  which  had  never  been  known  before.     One 


556 


IND  US  Th'/A  I.    Ills  TO  A'  V 


factory  started  at  Troy,  N.Y.,  al)oiit    the  year  1815,  became  famous  in  the 

manufacture  of  a 
style  of  coach 
which  was  far  supe- 
rior to  the  ancient 
models  of  Kngland, 
J.nd  which  s(>oii 
came  into  general 
use  in  this  country 
u  n  d  e  r    tlie    name 

"Troy  of  the 

coach."  "Troy 

coach."  The  stage- 
coaches of  the  pres- 
ent day  are  still 
mainly  of  this  jjai- 
tern,  developed  at 
'i'roy,  N.  Y.  An- 
other firm,  at  Con- 

"  Concord  cord, 
wagon."  j»^T     PI 

became  famous  for 
another  style  of 
coach,  adapted  to 
summer  travel.  It 
had  the  three  scats 
and  the  boot  of  the 
regular  stage  ;  Init  it 
had  a  wagon-body, 
and  a  light  canvas 
top.  It  took  tlie 
name  of  the  "  Con- 
cord wagon,"  anfl 
is  still  known  by 
that  name  wherever 
manufactured. 

About  1830  still 
another  style  of 
coach  was  intro- 
duced, which  took 
the  name  of  "  om- 
nibus." It  was  an  extremely  long  vehicle,  a  sort  of  ark,  with  two  seats 
running  longitudinally  of  the   coach.     Invented   in    France   in   1827,  it  was 


OF    rifK    UX/TKP    STATES. 


557 


introduced  to  New  York  in  1830,  and  was  cmi)I()ycd  to  run  on  rej^ular 
routes  in  that  and  other  cities  for  th<"  a'  <  onimodation  of  people  going  up 
and  down  ami  about  town.  These  omnibuses  are  made  very  introduction 
much  smaller  now  than  formerly,  hut  are  still  run  in  most  large  i»  the 
cities.  Their  value  lies  in  the  fact  that  they  are  more  exclusive  *"""'  "** 
than  the  street-car,  and  they  su|)ply  the  fa(  ilities  for  city  tra\el  without 
injuring  the  streets  through  which  they  run  by  the  laying  of  an  iron  track. 

After  1830  the  business  of  carriage-buikling  developed  very  rapidly,  and 
many  new  ideas  were  introduced.     The  elliptical  spring,  invented  in    1825, 
began  to  be  employed.     Smiths  began  to  make  the  tires  of  their 
wheels  in  solid  rings,  and  to  shrink  them  on  by  cooling,  instead  of     '.''      ''.   , 

o  '  /ft'  velupmentoi 

making  them  in  pieces,  breaking  joints  with  the  fellies.     Hickory   carriage- 
came  into  general  use  for  wheels  and  frames  on  account  of  its   •'"'•'■'"k 

"^  since  1830. 

Strength  and  lightness.  Machinery  was  invented  to  make  the 
spokes,  hubs,  tops,  the  small  metal-work,  and  other  parts  of  wagons  and  car- 
riages, by  the  thousand  and  tens  of  thousands.  New  styles  of  wagons  were  con- 
trived, adapted  to  speci.il  needs.  The  business  developed  remarkably  fast ;  and 
improvement  followed  improvement  so  rapidly,  especially  in  the  construction  of 
pleasure-carriages,  that  particular  builds  of  wagon  became  antitpiated  in  less 
than  ten  years,  and  were  superseded  by  something  else,  lighter,  handsomer, 
stronger,  and  cheaper.  Hundreds  of  new  factories  were  starteil,  and  hundreds 
of  ingenious  brains  were  set  to  work  devising  new  ideas  in  pattern,  build, 
and  materials.  The  general  tendency  of  all  improvements  was  to  c  heai  en  the 
cost  of  carriages,  and  make  them  lighter  and  stronger.  The  reduced  cost, 
and  the  improved  roads  and  growing  wealth  of  the  t  ountry,  brought  about  a 
lively  demand  for  the  products  of  the  factories  ;  and  by  1850  the  manufacture 
and  sale  of  carriages  were  enormous.  The  American  patterns  were  very  much 
admired  in  ICurope.  They  were  largely  copied  in  luirope,  and  heavy  orders 
were  sent  here  for  the  carriages  themselves. 

The  factories  have  always  shown  a  readiness  to  change  the  styles  of  their 
work,  and  to  pass  from  one  thing  to  another,  according  as  fashions  or  the 
circumstances  of  the  times  have  changed.  Some  of  the  factories  shifted  to 
the  business  of  making  railroad  and  street  cars  when  railroads  came  into 
being,  and  discontinued  the  wagon-branch  of  the  business  altogether.  Many 
of  them  took  to  making  army-wagons  during  the  war.  lOxpress-wagons  were 
taken  up  by  many  of  them  at  one  period,  and  there  has  been  a  long  rivalry 
between  the  factories  for  the  production  of  the  wagon  which  should  ( arry  the 
largest  number  of  tons  of  goods  with  the  least  draught  upon  the  horses.  Some 
of  this  class  of  goods  are  now  made  to  carry  five  tons  of  goods.  Children's 
carriages  have  been  added  to  the  business  of  many  firms.  Some  factories  now 
make  from  three  hundred  to  five  hundred  styles  of  carriages. 

Large  numbers  of  the  different  styles  of  American  wagons  are  now 
exported  to  the  different  parts  of  the  world  ;    and  America,  which  once  was 


1 


I 


If 


11^ 


J!     ' 

Ml' 


II' 


Pf 


(|i(lv 


55« 


iND  US  Th'/A  L    HJH  TO  A'  Y 


l)c'h()l<kii  to  Iliiropc  for  licr  <  art-whccis,  now  in  those  latter  days  returns  the 
loinphiniiU  liy  sen<hng  hai  k  wheels,  steel    axles,  and  finished  carriages,  of 
workMiansliip  and  material  superior  to  any  thing  Kurope  herself  produces. 
The  growth  of  the  business  will  he  seen  hy  the  following  figures :  — 


VM  liiKIKS. 
<)3 

1  .\KHIAl,KS 
MADk. 

'.3.33' 

WOHKMEN. 

VAI.IIK  OF 
fMUUL'lT. 

I.S40 

2.274 

$t,70S,74I 

I.S50 

I,SJ.' 

9S.OOO 

14.900 

1  2,000,000 

|S(X3 

7.254 

270,000 

37.45'; 

3S,l>27,000 

IS70 

H.S47 

.Soo,ooo 

54.02S 

65,502,000 

1873 

IJ.5CO 

1, 000,000 

75,000 

100,000,000 

The  business  of  building  railroad  and  street  cars  has  all  grown  up  siiK  e 
1830.  It  has  centred  principally  in  the  Middle  States,  owing  to  the  necessity 
Railroad  and  <>f  pr(jxiniity  to  the  iron  and  coal  regions.  There  are  now  a  hun 
•treetcars.  ^\J^.^\  .jp,i  tluje  fai  tories  in  operation  in  the  United  States  and 
Canada,  six  of  them  being  in  (.'anda.  An  average  of  sixty  thousand  cars  are 
built  yearly,  the  majority  being  freight-  ars  of  the  four-wheeled  and  eight- 
wheeled  types.  The  passenger-cars  corstitute  less  than  one-twentieth  of  the 
whole  number  built,  though,  jjerhaps,  hdlf  the  total  value  of  cars  built.  These 
cars  are  of  the  eight-wheeled  and  twehe-wheeled  types.  The  early  railroad- 
cars  of  the  United  States  were  merely  slight  modifications  of  the  ordinary  stage- 
coach. As  soon  as  it  was  seen  that  thi  new  style  of  travelling  was  to  be  an 
established  thing,  however,  the  railroad-car  proper  was  immediately  invented. 
.'\t  first  the  car  was  merely  in  i)rinci])Ie  several  stage-bodies  joined  together,  the 
seats  lu'lng  arranged  in  compartments,  and  the  conductor  climbing  along  from 
one  compartment  to  the  others  on  a  foot-board  outside.  This  style  of  car  was 
the  common  basis  from  whit  h  the  .American  and  the  l-lnglish  car  of  the  jjreseiU 
day  has  been  developed.  The  l-'.nglish  people,  however,  improved  ujion  this 
ancient  sort  of  car,  merely  to  make  it  larger  and  more  comfortable,  retaining 
the  compartment  system  on  account  of  its  aristocratic,  exclusiveness.  The 
Americans,  on  the  other  hand,  improved  upon  the  parent  vehicle,  not  only  to 
render  it  larger  and  better,  but  to  make  it  more  democratic.  The  car  was 
elongated,  the  doors  ])laced  at  the  two  ends,  and  a  row  of  scats  jilaced  on  each 
side  of  the  car  ;  the  aisle  for  the  conductors  and  passengers  being  in  the  (  entre. 
and  the  whole  interior  of  the  car  being  free  from  comi)artments  and  partitions. 
Down  to  the  time  of  the  war.  the  American  cars  were  still  somewhat  crude  affairs 
They  frequently  leaked  during  rain-storms,  and  the  dust  from  the  locomotive 
and  ground  'bund  its  way  into  the  interior  through  the  cracks  at  the  windows. 
The  cars  were  poorly  ventilated,  and  the  seats  were  uncomfortable.  Since 
i860  tlie  cars  have  been  so  improved  as  to  be  luxuriously  comfortable,     'i'he 


m 


OF    THE    UMTEl)    STATES. 


559 


interiors  have  been  heautifiod  with  rare  w.»o<ls  and  ornninental  paintinHs  and 
gilding,  and  more  attention  has  been  paid  to  the  seats,  (leorjic  M.  I'ullnian 
in  1864  went  into  tlie  business  of  buildinj;  what  are  <  ailed  "  drawing-room  "  or 
*' palace  "  ears,  which  are  nowaddetl  to  all  express-trains  on  the  j,'reat  routes  of 
travel.  In  these  luxurious  coaches  the  traveller  can  secure  freedom  from  the 
crowd,  and  seats  as  comfi)rtable  as  in  his  own  drawinj,'-r(U)m  at  home  ;  and  he 
<  an  obtain  from  the  jjorter,  if  desired.  su(  h  refreshments  as  he  wants.  Sleepin^;- 
( ars  for  night-travel  have  also  been  intr»)du(  ed  since  1S64.  It  is  with  this 
class  of  cars  that  the  name  of  Wagner  is  associated. 

The  business  of  car-building  is  one  re(iuiring  great  capital  and  remarkable 
managerial  ability :  the  nimiber  of  concerns  engaged  in  it  is  therefore  small, 
as  we  have  seen.  The  number  engaged  in  the  highest  branch  of  the  busi- 
ness, that  of  buikling  passenger  and  palace  cars,  is  only  about  twenty.  .At 
least  fifty  distinct  trades  are  drawn  upon  to  share  in  the  construction  of  the 
best  class  of  cars ;  and,  in  the  decoration  of  them,  fine  art  itself  is  placed 
tmder  levy.  The  cost  of  cars  varies  from  $600  for  a  coal  or  platform  car  to 
;S  10,000  for  a  first-class  passenger-car,  and  $20,000  for  a  palace-car.  There 
are  palace-cars  on  the  broad-gauge  lOrie  Railroad  which  cost  $50,000. 


56o 


IND L'S  THIA  L    HIS  TON  Y 


CilAPri'K     XIII. 


CONCLUSION. 


roi 
ho 


manufac 
turea. 


Till')  foregoing  survey  of  American  manufactures  strikingly  exhibits  the 
variety,  magnitude,  and  excellence  of  this  great  department  of  human 
industry.  I'he  forces  anil  products  of  Nature  liave  been  drawn 
maBnitude  "1'^'^  '"f  ^1^^'  J*<-'rvice  of  nuui  to  an  ama/ing  degree  :  in  every  dircr- 
of  American  tion  almost  lias  he  stretched  out  and  appropriated  the  rii  h  wealth 
lying  aroimd  him.  Among  his  numerous  triumphs,  the  dis»  ovcry 
of  steam,  with  its  manifold  applications,  and  means  for  apply. ng 
it,  is  to  be  ranked  among  the  first,  both  in  the  order  of  genius  re(|uired  to 
utilize  It  effectively,  and  in  the  results  attained.  The  use  of  steam  for  rapid 
transit  is  certainly  one  of  the  grandest  achievements  of  civilization,  and  it 
will  doubtless  ever  continue  to  excite  human  admiration  and  awe.  Su(  ( ess 
in  this  direction  has  led  us  almost  to  overlook  the  service  rendered  by  steam 
Stationary  as  a  motor  for  manufacturing-purposes.  'I'he  stationary  engine 
engine.  certainly  merits  nearly,   if  not  (juite,  the  consideration  due  the 

locomotive.  Its  invention  does  away  with  the  necessity  for  locating  mills 
and  factories  beside  an  eligible  stream.  Such  establishments  may  now  be 
built  in  our  large  cities,  where  the  facilities  for  obtaining  helj),  transporting 
raw  material  anti  finished  product,  and  negotiating  purchases  and  sales,  afford 
the  manufacturer  marked  advantages.  Steam-power  is  much  more  reliable, 
too.  than  water-power,  and  free  from  certain  risks.  Neither  drought  nor 
freshet  interferes  with  its  operation  ;  and  so  Ijw  is  the  cost  of  fiiel,  compared 
with  these  advantages,  that  the  stationary  engine  is  rapidly  supplanting  tiie 
mill-dam. 

(Juite  as  much  ingenuity  has  been  devoted  by  inventors  to  the  improve- 
ment of  this  class  of  machines  as  to  the  jjcrfection  of  locomotives.  Their  aim 
Improve-  ^^'^^  bceii,  not  only  to  make  them  more  cheaply,  but  to  economize 
ments  in  space,  lessen  the  amount  of  fiiel,  simplify  construction,  and  insu'e 
machines.  gi^at^'r  safety.  A  great  many  experiments  have  been  tried  in  the 
way  of  making  safety-boilers  which  shall  never  explode,  and  several  inventors 
claim  to  have  reached  that   consummation ;    but,  as  no   such  boiler  has  yet 


fid 
nv 


OF    THE    UNITF.n    STATES. 


56' 


come  into  g^rnl    use,  the  prohlim  is  really  unsolved.     It  docs  not  seem, 
however,   to  ^beyond  the  reaih  of  lujuian  invention;   aiiU  we  may  con- 


li 


..3a 


i||ii1'gi*:gji^^^: 


fidently  hope  for  an  early  triumph  over  llie  many  difificulties  thus  ^ar  unsur- 
mounted. 


iM' 


562 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


\   It 


\  \ 


111 


There  are  five  kinds  of  stationary  engines, — the  beam  and  oscillating,  which 
are  in  use  upon  steamboats,  and  the  rotary,  steeple,  and  horizontal  engines. 
Kinds  of  These  all  have  innumerable  modifications.  In  addition  thereto, 
stationary  there  are  certain  portable  engines  for  such  temporar)  uses  as 
engines.  driving  piles,  hoisting  building-material,  and  threshing  grain.  The 
first  stationary  engines  in  this  country,  built  at  the  close  of  the  last  century  and 
in  the  beginning  of  this,  were  chiefly  designed  for  pumping  mines.  Their 
ai)])lication,  of  late  years,  has  l)cen  to  manufacturing.  American  inventors 
have  done  much  to  improve  these  machines.  J.  Eve,  a  native  of  this  country, 
obtained  a  patent  in  England  in  1825  for  a  valuable  improvement  in  rotary 
engines. 

A  vast  stride  in  advance  was  made  by  the  Messrs.  Corliss  &  Nightingale 
of  Providence  some  twenty-five  years  ago.  They  devised  a  new  way  of  ((jn- 
necting  the  governor  with  the  cut-off,  which  economized  the  power  of  steam, 
and  so  effected  a  great  saving  in  fuel.  The  marked  improvement  made  in 
this  respect  may  be  thus  illustrated  :  The  James  Mills  at  Newburyport,  engaged 
Economy  in  in  the  manufacture  of  cotton-goods,  had  a  pair  of  condensing 
use  of  fuel,  engines,  whose  cylinders  measured  twenty-four  inches  in  diameter 
with  a  four-foot  stroke.  They  consumed  10,483  pounds  of  coal  daily,  on  the 
average,  for  five  years  prior  to  the  contract  made  with  Mr.  Corliss ;  and  it  was 
thought  that  they  ran  to  good  advantage.  But  the  makers  offered  a  pair  of 
high-pressure  engines  in  their  stead,  on  these  terms  :  The  company  might  pay 
either  $10,500  in  cash,  or  five  times  the  value  of  the  coal  saved  the  first  year. 
the  choice  to  be  made  before  the  engines  were  put  in.  The  company  took 
the  latter  alternative,  and  were  obliged  to  pay  $19,734.22.  Since  then  the 
stationary  engine  has  been  still  further  improved. 

•  Another  phase  of  our  industrial  history  deserves  a  passing  notice ;  and  that 
is  the  substitution  of  iron  to  a  great  degree  for  the  softer  metals  in  conse- 
quence of  the  greater  ability  of  us  moderns  to  work  it.  In  ancient 
times  copper  was  very  extensively  employed  in  the  mechanic  arts. 
not  because  iron  was  unknown,  but  because  the  artisans  of  those 
days  did  not  understand  how  to  work  it.  An  illustration  in  point 
is  the  manufacture  of  weighing-apparatuses,  which  formerly  were  made  of  brass. 
and  have  only  recently  been  manufactured  of  iron. 

Originally  our  mechanisms  for  ascertaining  weight  were  either  a  pair  of 
scales  or  pans,  balanced  at  the  ends  of  an  evenly-divided  beam,  or  a  lever 
Scale-  with  unequal  arms  called  the  "  steelyard."     Now  these  instruments 

making.  X^-xwi  increased  in  variety,  delicacy,  and  scope,  so  that  so  light  a 

particle  as  ^-^fVcr  P^^rt  of  a  grain  can  be  detected  ;  while  a  car  containing  many 
tons  of  metal  or  other  heavy  freight  can  be  exactly  and  easily  weighed.  The 
big  beam  employed  by  the  country  butcher  is  but  a  form  of  the  steelyard. 
The  platform-scales  in  use  in  the  ordinary  grocery-store  are  operated  on  the 
same  principle.    The  larger  scales  for  hay,  coal,  and  railway-cars,  are  still  of 


Substitution 
of  harder 
for  softer 
metals. 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


563 


Our  letter- 


the  same  kind,  only  that  they  use  a  system  of  compound  instead  of  single 
levers.  The  town  of  St.  Johnsbury,  Vt.,  is  famed  for  the  manufacture  of 
scales  which  have  had  a  most  extensive  use  in  this  country.  It  has  almost  a 
monopoly  of  the  busmess  in  larger  apparatus.  The  more  delicate  balances 
employed  by  apothecaries  are  made  at 
more  numerous  points.  The  Danish  steel- 
yard, which  has  the  article  to  be  weighed 
stationary  (as  with  the  American  steelyard), 
but  with  the  other  weight  fixed  and  the  ful- 
crum movable,  has  never  come  into  use  in 
this  country.  Another  form  of  weighing- 
ajjparatus,  however,  has  an  extensive  use  in 
the  United  States ;  it  consists  of  a  coil  of 
brass  wire,  whose  elasticity  is  gauged  I)y  a 
movable  index  upon  a  graduated  scale. 
Tin-peddlers  and  fish-men  are  generally 
provided  with  this  kind.  A  variety  of  this 
same  kind  has  a  dial-plate  attached,  on  which  a  needle  rotates, 
scales  are  but  modifications  of  forms  already  described. 

We  cannot  close  this  history  of  American  manufacturing  industries  with- 
out a  brief  reference  to  three  kindred  processes  which  properly  come  under 
the  head  of  mechanic  art,  though  more  or  less  nearly  approaching  the  realm 
of  fine  art.  The  first  of  these  is  photography.  The  chemical  principle  on 
which  that  process  depends  —  namely,  the  discoloring  effect  of  sun-  photogra- 
light  upon  paper  coated  with  nitrate  of  silver  —  was  discovered  as  p^^^- 
long  ago  as  the  twelfth  century  ;  but  not  until  1840  —  the  year  after  Daguerre 
invented  the  process  of  taking  sun-pictures  on  silver-coated  plates,  and  Talbot 
simultaneously  devised  a  way  to  fix  a  picture  taken  on  paper  in  the  camera  — 
was  our  present  photographic  process  rendered  fairly  practicable ;  and  the 
largest  meed  of  praise  for  that  accomplishment  is  due  to  Professor  J.  W.  Draper 
of  the  University  of  New  York,  who  had  for  many  years  been  experimenting 
in  order  to  discover  a  way  to  set  the  picture  when  once  obtained.  The 
invention  has  worked  a  marvellous  revolution  in  portraiture,  and  put  it  within 
the  power  and  means  of  every  one  to  ha\f  faithfiil  fami'  likenesses.  In  the 
form  of  stereoscopic  pictures  it  iias  enabled  us  to  procure,  at  a  slight  cost, 
perfect  re))resentations  of  great  statues,  paintings,  distant  natural  scenery  and 
palaces,  and  all  that  is  wonderful  and  rare  in  the  way  of  display  in  nature  or 
in  art.  The  process  has  been  of  rare  value,  too,  in  obtaining  cheap  and  accu- 
rate i)ictures  of  mechanical  devices,  and  also  obtaining  permanent  views  of 
rare  transitory  phenomena,  like  solar  eclipses,  and  transits  of  planets  across  the 
sun's  surface.  The  art  is  constantly  undergoing  trifling  improvement  in 
process,  and  meeting,  with  a  wider  use  in  science  and  the  mechanic  and  fine 
arts. 


jl '! 


HI 
"hi 


III* 


!ll| 


564 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


The  word  "  lithography  "  means  the  art  of  printing  from  a  stone,  and  had 
its  origin  in  an  accidental  discovery  by  a  poor  Clerman  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
Lithogra-  eighteenth  century.  His  mother  asked  him  to  make  a  memoran- 
P'^y-  dum  of  the  family  washing ;  and,  not  having  a  piece  of  paper  at 

hand,  he  jotted  it  down  on  a  slab  of  peculiar  stone.  As  it  lay  before  him  he 
thought  of  inking  the  lines,  and  printing  therefrom.  His  subsequent  experi- 
ments met  with  a  success  that  attracted  world-wide  attention.  At  that  time 
etching  was  a  favorite  process  for  producing  pictures.  Lithography  somewhat 
resembles  it.  The  principle  involved  in  the  operation  is  the  refusal  of  an  oily 
ink  to  adhere  to  a  wet  surface,  and  its  affinity  for  a  greasy  surface.  A  design 
is  drawn  with  a  greasy  crayon,  prepared  with  great  delicacy  and  care  for  tlie 
purpose,  upon  a  variety  of  fine  porous  stone,  found  at  its  best  only  in  Ger- 
many. The  whole  surface  is  then  moistened  ;  but  the  moisture  clings  only  to 
the  clean  stone,  and  the  design  remains  dry.  An  ink-roller  being  applied,  the 
ink  is  rejected  by  such  of  the  surface  as  is  wet,  but  is  taken  by  the  lines 
inscribed.  From  the  plate  thus  inked  an  impression  may  then  be  printed. 
Of  course  there  are  many  minor  stages  in  the  process,  which  are  essential  to 
its  success,  which  are  not  here  detailed.' 

Lithography  was  introduced  into  this  country  in  1821,  and  applied  both  to 
fine-art  uses  and  to  map-drawing ;  its  expense  being  far  below  that  of  copper- 
plate engraving,  and  the  number  of  copies  that  could  be  obtained  from  one 
plate  being  far  greater.  It  has  met  with  many  improvements  and  applications 
Chromo-  in  the  United  States.  Within  twenty  years  the  art  of  chronio- 
lithography.  lithography  has  attained  a  great  development.  It  consists  of 
printing  the  different  parts  of  a  many-colored  picture  by  separate  plates  for 
each  color  very  much  as  calicoes   are   printed.      The  work  requires  great 

delicacy  of  adjustment,  and 
often  a  large  number  of 
plates,  to  produce  the  proper 
mixture  of  tints. 

A  combination  of  photo- 
graphy and  lithograpliy  has 
Photn-  been    made    still 

lithography,  more  recently. 
with  marvellous  results.  It 
has  been  found  that  a  film 
of  gelatine  can  be  sensitized 
by  the  use  of  bichromate  of 
potash,  so  that,  on  being  sub- 
jected to  exposure  under  a 
photographic  negative,  it  ac- 
quires the  essentir,'  characteristics  of  a  lithographic  stone.  The  chemical  effect 
of  the  sunlight  passing  through  the  light  farts  of  the  negative  is  to  toughen  the 


— ^=-t»/)n:wi.»t*S*' ' 


rArvnoiiUAiii. 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


565 


gelatine,  so  that  it  will  repel  water,  and  take  ink ;  and  the  parts  of  the  film  pro- 
tected by  the  dark  parts  of  the  negative,  and  subsequently  washed  free  from 
the  bichromate,  absorb  water,  and  repel  ink,  when  the  film  is  finally  mounted 
on  a  block,  and  subjected  to  the  printer's  roller.  This  process  of  photo- 
lithography has  been  adopted  by  "  The  New- York  Graphic  "  for  its  illustra- 
tions, and  with  various  modifications,  and  under  several  names,  is  coming  into 
extensive  use  for  book-illustrations  and  choice  facsimiles  of  rare  paintings. 

The  papyrograph,  which  was  introduced  into  this  country  from  France  in 
1876,  and  is  rapidly  coming  into  use  for  the  purpose  of  cheaply  reduplicating 
autograph-designs,  circulars,  price-lists,  &c.,  consists  of  a  sheet  of  papyro- 
paper,  varnished  with  a  water  and  ink  proof  coating,  and  written  Kf^ph. 
or  drawn  upon  with  an  ink  which  corrodes  the  varnish,  and  leaves  the  lines 
porous.  Being  properly  washed  and  dried,  and  laid  upon  a  flat  cushion 
moistened  with  ink,  in  the  bed  of  the  press,  the  sheet  becomes  a  sort  of 
lithographic  plate,  from  which  many  hundred  impressions  can  be  easily  taken. 


BOOK     III. 


SHIPPING   AND   RAILROADS. 


I 


CHAPTER     I. 


WOODKX    SHIPS. 

IN  the  age  in  which  Columbus  ventured  across  the  Atlantic  in  search  of  a 
new  route  to  India  the  ships  of  the  world  were  all  of  small  size  compared 
with  those  of  the  present  day.  No  such  exchange  of  commodities  by  sea  as 
we  observe  to-day  had  ever  yet  taken  place,  and  no  such  long  smaiisizeof 
voyages  were  undertaken.  (Commerce  was  simply  a  coasting-trade  vessels  in 
between  different  parts  of  Europe,  and  between  Europe  and  the  ^^"^  ^  ^^*' 
Mediterranean  coast  of  Africa.  Navigation  scarcely  ever  took  place  out  of 
sight  of  land,  except  in  the  northern  fisheries  and  on  the  peaceful  Mediterra- 
nean. For  such  objects  as  merchant-ships  were  recpiired  in  that  age,  ves- 
sels of  less  than  two  hundred  tons'  burden  were  of  ample  size  ;  and  the  vast 
majority  of  all  the  ships  afloat,  of  whatever  nationality,  were  of  less  than  that 
burden.  A  few  war-ships  in  France,  S[)ain,  Portugal,  England,  and  Italy,  were 
over  two  hundred  tons'  burden,  a  great  vessel  of  a  thousand  tons  being 
occasionally  seen.  The  merchant-ships  were  mere  fishing  and  coasting  ves- 
sels :  they  had  two  or  three  masts,  and  were  generally  rigged  with  square  sails. 
The  ships  in  which  Columbus  made  the  pioneer  voyage  across  the  Atlantic  in 
1492  are  described  as  being,  two  of  them,  light  barks  called  "caravels,"  without 
decks  in  the  centre,  and  rising  to  a  great  height  at  the  bow  and  stern,  with 
forecasdes  and  cabins  for  the  accommodation  of  the  crews.  The  third  is  said 
to  have  been  decked  throughout  her  whole  length.  In  1582,  of  the  1,232 
vessels  then  belonging  to  England,  only  217  were  larger  than  eighty  tons. 
'"The  Mayflower,"  which  brought  over  the  Pilgrim  Fathers,  was  of  a  hundred 
and  eighty  tons'  burden.  At  the  time  when  th'^  active  settlement  of  America 
l)egan,  the  Netherlands  was  the  great  shipping-country  of  the  world.  The 
Dutch  had  al)out  20,000  shi[)s  at  sea  to  about  2.000  owned  in  F^ngland.  The 
Spaniards  and  Portuguese  were  next  in  enterprise  to  the  Dutch.  Tlie  English 
did  not  begin  to  be  eminent  in  shipping  until  fifty  years  after  the  planting  of 
the  North-American  colonies,  and  it  was  the  carrying-trade  of  the  colonies 
that  made  them  so. 

Ship-building  may  be  said  to  have  been  the  first  industry  practised  in 

569 


nffi 


I 


ii 


ir{ 


I*  < 
i1  • 


Hi 


s 


l! 


M! 


!«!ft 


/^ 


57" 


/A'/>> d/^ TA'/A /,    ///5 70 A' r 


y^f^^ 


ROMAN    VESSEL. 


America  after  that  of  house-building.  The  beginning  was  as  early  as  1607, 
"The  wherj  the   I'opham   colonists   in   Maine    built   a   thirty-ton  vessel 

Virginia."  called  "  The  Virginia,"  which  subsecjuently  made  several  voyages 
across  the  Atlantic.  Though  the  Atlantic  has,  since  that  date,  been  crossed  in 
more  diminutive  craft  than  "The  Virginia,"  a  voyage  in  so  small  a  vessel  now 

would  be  considered  little 
short  of  madness.  No  ves- 
sel like  that  could  be  put 
into  ocean-trade  now.  and 
\)ay.  "  The  Virginia  "  was  a 
busy  litde  ship  during  its  ex- 
istence. It  came  to  .America 
with  the  dates  and  Somers 
expedition  in  1609,  and 
traded  back  and  forth  along  the  coast  and  to  England  for  many  years  quite 
diligently.  When  Lord  Delaware  arrived  at  I'oint  Comfort  in  Virginia,  in 
the  summer  of  16 10,  he  found  the  craft  there  along  with  tiiree  other  vessels, 
"  The  Discovery,"  "  The  Deliverance,"  and  "  The  Patience,"  which  had  been 
sent  over  by  the  London  Company. 

The  second  vessel  built  in  America  of  which  there  is  any  record  was  a 
Dutch  yacht  called  "The  Onrest,"  which  was  constructed  on  the  Hudson 
"The  River,  by  .Vdrian  Rlok,  in  1614.     This  yacht  is  antedated  only  by 

Onrest."  "The  Virginia."  It  used  to  be  a  saying,  that  no  matter  wiiere  an 
English  ship  sailed,  or  in  whatever  part  of  the  world  an  ICnglishman  kinded,  a 
Dutchman  and  a  Dutch  ship  were  sure  to  have  been  there  ahead  of  them. 
This  pioneer  yacht  of  North  America  fulfilled  the  old  saying  with  respect  to  a 
large  part  of  New  England;  for  in  1614,  six  years  before  the  arrival  of  the 
English  colonists  in  Massachusetts,  Adrian  Blok,  making  a  voyage  through 
Hell  Gate  and  Long-Island  Sound,  had  discovered  Block  Island,  and  Inspected 
the  coast  as  far  as  Cape  Cod.  In  16 16  he  had  explored  the  whole  coast  from 
Nova  Scotia  to  Virginia. 

The  same  year  that  the  ancient  Knickerbockers  had  thus  established  the 
naval  art  on  the  Hudson  River,  Capt.  John  Smith  landed  in  Maine,  <?«  ;vu/f 
from  England  to  Virginia,  and  built  there  seven  boats  to  engage  in  cod- 
fishing. 

The  abundance  of  timber  and  pitch-pine  in  this  country  led  to  systematic 
proceedings  in  the  way  of  ship-building  at  a  very  early  date.  Timber  was 
Facilities  ^^^V  ^^^^^  '"  England ;  and  the  trading-companies,  under  whose 
for  ship-  auspices  the  colonies  were  planted,  saw  that  it  would  be  advan- 
"'  '"*^'  tageous  for  them  to  have  their  ships  built  here.  The  Massachu- 
setts Company  acted  as  early  as  1629;  their  very  first  letter  to  the  governor 
and  council  of  the  colony  announcing  that  they  had  sent  out  shipwrights, 
six  in  number,  "  of  whom  Robert  Moulton  is  chief,"  to  introduce  this  branch 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


571 


of  business  in  the  New  World.  Mechanics  were  also  sent  to  Virginia  for 
the  same  purpose  ;  but  the  wonderful  fertility  of  Virginia  appears  to  have 
been  too  much  for  the  shipwrights,  and  they  found  tobacco-planting  a  much 
more  profitable  occupation  than  the  one  they  had  been  bred  to.  Ship- 
Imilding  began  the  soonest,  and  thrived  the  best,  in  Massachusetts.  The  fust 
vessel  built  in  this  colony  was  launched  into  the  Mystic  River  at  Medford, 
July  4,  1631,  for  (lov.  Winthrop,  its  owner,  who  called  it  "The  HIessing  of 
the  Bay."  This  prosperous  beginning  was  soon  followed  by  the  construction 
of  a  great  many  other  vessels  of  small  size,  at  different  points  in  the  colony, 
to  be  used  in  the  fisherie  rnd  to  trade;  and  by  1641  the  industry  had  grown 
to  such  importance,  that  a  regular  official  supervision  of  the  building  of  them 
was  ordered.  It  was  enacted,  that,  "  when  a  ship  is  to  be  built  within  this 
jurisdiction,  it  shall  be  lawful  for  the  owners  to  appoint  some  able  man  to 
survey  the  work  from  time  to  time,  as  is  usual  in  luigland.  ...  If  his  advico 
is  not  heeded,  then,  upon  complaint  to  the  governor  or  any  other  two  magis- 
trates, they  shall  api)oint  two  of  the  most  sufficient  ship-carpenters  of  this 
jurisdiction,  and  shall  give  them  authority  to  view  every  such  ship  and  all 
work  belonging  thereto,  and  see  that  it  be  performed  and  carried  on  accord- 
ing to  the  rules  of  the  art." 

Reg)  lar  ship-building  was  not  over  ten  years  old  in  the  colony  of  Massa- 
chusetts before  the  carpenters  undertook  vessels  which  were  of  large  size  for 
that  day.  Richard  Hollingsworth  began  one  at  Salem,  in  1641,  construction 
wiiich  was  of  three  hundred  tons'  burden.  Gov.  Winthop  refers  of  vessels  of 
incidentally  in  his  journal  to  the  size  of  the  vessels  which  were  "''bs'' ^'^s- 
now  undertaken.  He  writes,  "  'I'he  general  fear  of  want  of  foreign  commodi- 
ties, now  our  money  was  gone,  and  that  things  were  like  to  go  well  in  England, 
set  us  on  working  to  provide  shipping  of  our  own  ;  for  which  end,  Mr.  Peter, 
being  a  man  of  very  public  spirit  and  singular  activity  for  all  occasions,  pro- 
cured some  to  join  for  building  a  ship  at  Salcii,  of  three  hundred  tons;  and 
the  inhabi^^ants  of  Boston,  stirred  up  by  his  example,  set  upon  the  building  of 
another  at  Boston  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  tons.  The  work  was  hard  to  ac- 
complish for  the  want  of  money,  &c. ;  but  our  shipwrights  were  content  to  take 
such  pay  as  the  country  could  make."  "  Such  pay  "  meant  here  corn,  calicoes, 
and  commodities  of  all  kinds.  Lindsay,  in  his  "  History  of  Merchant-Ship- 
])ing,"  says  that  in  1572  "the  Largest  merchantman  that  sailed  from  the  port 
of  London  was  of  only  two  hundred  and  forty  tons'  register."  Yet  we  find  that 
in  1642  the  colonists  of  Massachusetts  had  built  one  of  three  hundred  tons, 
which  was  larger  than  any  the  wealthy  parent  kingdom  had  owned  seventy 
years  before.  This  is  in  reality  only  an  illustration  of  the  change  produced 
by  the  discovery  of  the  continent  of  America  upon  the  merchant-shipjiing 
of  the  whole  world.  With  the  planting  of  the  settlements  in  America,  and  the 
simultaneous  discovery  of  the  route  to  India  around  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope, 
commerce  ceased  to  be  a  coasting-trade  :  it  became  trans-oceanic  for  the  first 


Itlil' 


If 


U.l 


m 


J 


>  I 


i 

111 

■I 


i 


5  ■"% 


^^h^'^^l^': 


m 


572 


INDUSTRIAL    II  IS  TORY 


time  in  history,  and  every  country  which  had  any  active  trade  wliatcvcr  witli 
the  new  re},'i()ns  of  the  earth  was  obliged  to  build  a  new  and  larger  cl;'ss 
of  merchant-vessels  for  the  service.  'I'he  colonists  in  .\meri<  a  hiiill  for  the 
trans-oceanic  trade  from  the  start :  hence  the  size  of  their  ships  became  large 
rapidly.  Mention  is  made  of  one,  about  1643,  which  was  still  larger  than 
three  hundred  tons. 

In  1652  an  event  occurred  which  assisted  ship-buil<ling  in  this  country 
very  materially :  this  was  the  passage  of  the  famous  Navigation  .Act  under 
Navigation  C.'romwell,  the  law  being  reaffirmed  in  1660  under  Charles  II. 
Act  of  1651.  'I'lic  object  of  the  act,  as  far  as  .America  was  concerned,  was  to 
secure  the  whole  trade  across  the  ocean  to  IJritish  and  colonial  vessels,  to 
the  exclusion  of  the  I  Mitch  and  Spanish.  The  Dutch  were  about  engrossing 
the  carrying-trade  to  America  at  that  time.  As  early  as  1640  tlu-y  had  ;'b()iit 
an  e(|ual  share  of  it  with  the  English,  except  to  New  England  ;  an  indi(  alK)n 
of  it  being  the  memorandum  which  comes  down  to  us,  that  on  C'hrislmas 
Day,  1640,  there  were  in  the  ports  of  Virginia  twelve  ships  from  l",iig!,iii(l, 
tv/elve  from  Holland,  and  seven  from  New  iOngland.  The  New-i'lnglamUrs 
were  so  rich  in  shipping,  that  they  carried  on  almost  all  their  coinmcn  e  theni- 
bclves ;  l)ut  the  colonies  to  the  south  of  them  were  su])plied  with  JMiropcan 
wares  largely  by  Dutch  ships.  The  law  of  1651  secured  the  whole  trade  to 
the  royal  and  colonial  shii)ping,  and  the  latter  got  fully  half  of  it ;  the  conse- 
(luence  of  the  law  being  great  activity  at  the  colonial  ship-yards,  and  a 
corresponding  increase  of  colonial  tonnage. 

One  of  the  difficulties  of  the  colonists  in  building  sliips  was  the  general 
scarcity  of  money.  There  were  no  silver  or  gold  mines  of  any  account  in 
Scarcity  of  thc  Country,  and  the  colonists  had  only  a  limited  amount  of  hard 
money.  cash,  which  they  gained  by  sending  their  grain,  hides,  timber,  X:c., 

to  the  West  Inches,  ^^'hat  little  silver  they  got  in  this  way  was  ([uickly 
despatched  to  Murope  to  pay  for  the  manufactured  commodities  which  the 
colonies  were  obliged  to  import ;  so  that  there  was  a  constant  dearth  of  money 
here,  and  this  made  it  exceedingly  hard  to  pay  for  a  ship.  The  shifts  they 
had  to  resort  to  in  those  days  are  shown  l)y  a  contract  made  in  1741  at  Xew- 
buryport,  Mass.,  cited  by  Mr.  J.  J.  Currier  in  his  "History  of  Ship-F.uilding 
on  the  Merrimack."  The  owners  were  to  i)ay  as  follows:  "Three  hundred 
pounds  in  cash,  three  hundred  jwunds  by  orders  on  good  shops  in  Hoston, 
two-thirds  money,  four  hundred  i)0unds  by  orders  up  the  river  for  timber  and 
plank,  ten  barrels  of  flour,  fifty  i)ounds  of  loaf-sugar,  one  bag  of  cotton-wool, 
a  hundred  bushels  of  corn  in  tlie  spring,  a  hogshead  of  rum,  a  hundred- 
weight of  cheese ;  thc  remainder  part  to  be  drawn  out  of  said  Cummings  & 
Harris's  shop."  A  memorandum  in  Douglass's  "  Historical  and  Political  Sum- 
mary," dated  1748,  refers  to  one  sliip  which  had  been  so  nearly  i)aid  for  in 
calicoes,  that  its  owners  called  it  a  calico  ship.  The  builder,  taking  his  pay 
in  goods,  paid  off  his  workmen  in  the  same  way.     This  simple  mode  of  pay- 


[iilli. 


largo 
than 


OH    77/ E    UNITED    STATES. 


573 


ment  lasted  until  after  the  Revolutionary  war.  It  answered  very  well,  too,  in 
the  majority  of  cases  ;  tiie  largest  nuniher  of  vessels  biiiit  being,  of  course, 
from  ten  to  fifty  ton  shallops,  slijops  and  schooners  for  the  lisheries  and  coast- 
ing-trade. 'Ihe  shallop,  it  may  be  said  for  those  who  do  not  know  about  that 
class  of  vessel,  was  from  ten  to  twenty  tons'  burden,  and  was  dec  ked  from  end 
to  KiwX,  and  cariied  two  small  masts  with  lugsails.  The  schooner  was  piuely 
an  American  invention,  and  prcjbably  grew  out  of  the  embryo  of  the  sh;;lio|). 
It  is  related  that  a  new  vessel  rigged  like  a  modern  si  hooner,  having  been 
launchetl  at  Oloucester,  Mass.,  by  (!apt.  Andrew  Robinson  in  (714.  entered 
ihe  water  beautifully,  and  was  carried  I)y  her  mouKutiun  away  iVom  the 
shore  with  such  speed  as  to  show  her  to  be  a  fast  vessel.  Some  one  cried 
out  in  admiration,  "  See  how  she  s(  boons  I  "  and  the  captain  rejjlied,  "  .\ 
schooner  let  her  be  ;  "  and  this  class  of  merchantmen  look  that  name  accord- 
ingly. 

'I'iie   Revolutionary  war,  and  the  succeeding  years  until  the  war  of  1S12, 
constituted  a   trying   period    for  the   ship-buiUlers   and    ship-owners   of  this 
country.    During  the  war,  their  vessels  running  along  the  coast  and 
to  the  West  Indies,  and  such  countries  of  I'lurope  as  gave   them    Revolution- 
a  friendly  welcome,  were  cajjtured  in  large  numbers  by  the  l:Jiglish   ary  war 
ships  ;  and  many  a  merchant  was  ruined  by  the  loss  of  his  property   "''°"  ""*"■* 
in  this  way.     The  building  and  e(iuip[)ing  of  privateers  s.ton  took 
the  place  of  regular  commercial  enterprise  ;  and  large  numbers  of  vessels  were 
armed  and  sent  to  sea  from  the  New- England  p(Mts  every  year,  as  long  as  the 
war  lasted.     Scores  of  these  vessels  were  never  heard  of  again.     Some    of 
them  were  fortunate,  making   captures  of  rich    merc:hantmen,  and   bringing 
their  owners  .  .d  crews  great  wealth.     The  ships  of  one  New Mngland  mer- 
chant took  120  prizes  worth  $3,950,000,  and  others   had  brilliant  luck  of  a 
kindred  description  ;  but,  on  the  whole,  it  is  certain  that  the  shii»i)ing-interests 
of  the  country  suffered  more  than  they  gained.     Then,  after  the  war  was  over, 
and  peaceful  commerce  was  resumed,  a  period  of  thirty  years  ensued,  during 
which  England  assumed  the  right  to  search  and  detain  our  ships,  and  imiiress 
sailors  of  English  birtii.     In  1806  this  evil  was  aggravated  by  an   impress- 
English  blockade  of  France,  —  a  compliment  which  was  returned   ment  of  sea- 
by  France  by  a  ileclaration  blockading  the  I'ritish   isles.     Each   '^^"' 
of  the  two  powers  forbaile  neutrals  to  trade  with  the  other ;  and,  while  their 
bitter  dispute  continued,  each  interfered  regularly  with  American  ships,  cap- 
turing them  at  sea,  and  detaining  them  in  port,  and  often  confiscating  both 
ships  and  goods,  because  they  were  supposed  to  be  giving  aid  and  comfort   to 
the  enemy.     Many  of  the  captured  vessels  were  released ;  but  their  cargcjes 
often  became  worthless  during  the  detention,  and  the  owners  lost  heavily  upon 
them.     The  people  of  the  United   States  were    grievous   sufferers   by  these 
interruptions  of  their  commerce.     The  government  remonstrated  with  France 
and  England  against  them,  and  tried  to  bring  both  powers  to  reason  by  a 


574 


INDUSTKIAI.    HISTORY 


non-importation  act  in  1806,  an  cmharf^o  act  in  1807,  and  a  non-intercourse 
a(  I  in  if<o9,  jii«ij,'ing  that  what  tone  he<l  the  pockets  of  their  niert  iiants  woiiM 
produce  more  ell'ec  I  tlian  any  thinj,'  else.  For  llie  time  bein^,',  tliese  several 
laws  imposed  only  a  heavier,  though  necessary,  burden  upon  our  own  ship- 
builders and  ship-owners.  They  were  effectual,  however,  with  France,  and 
partially  so  with  Fngland.  In  1.S09  an«l  iSio  Norway  and  Demnark  had  iht 
auiLu  ity  to  imitate  their  i)iKKer  neighbors  by  seizing  our  ships  also  to  secure 
|)ayment  of  lolls.  My  1.S12  the  captures  of  American  vessels  hail  been  as 
follows  :  — 


I' 


!U!!:i 


War  of  181]. 


Taken  into  Danish  ami  Norwegian  port.s  (1809,  63;  1810,134)        .        187 

Captured  hy  Ijinland 917 

Capturcil  by  France 558 

•  ,       Total 1,602 

.J 

This  sort  of  thing  could  be  endured  no  longer,  and  ac  ( ordingly  this 
country  went  to  war  with  llngland  in  iSi2to  secure  protection  to  property 
on  the  hiu'h  seas  and  the  freedom  of  commerce.  Regular  track 
being  almost  impossible  during  tlie  war,  merchants,  with  the  con- 
sent of  the  government,  again  went  into  privateering.  'I'he  exploits  of  their 
ships  were  brilliant  and  romantic  in  the  extreme,  'i'he  I'nited  States  lost 
1,407  merchantmen  and  270  armed  ships  during  that  war,  but  captured 
2,360  from  the  enemy  (750  of  them  being  retaken,  however)  ;  tlvis,  011  'he 
whole,  making  a  very  good  thing  of  it.  Most  of  the  prizes  taken  by  our  ships 
were  rich  merchantmen,  wliile  most  of  the  vessels  we  lost  were  toasting  and 
fishing  craft. 

The  L'nited  States  gained  two  advantages  with  respect  to  shipping  by 
these  two  wars  and  the  intervening  period  of  European  interference  and 
Advantages  aggrcssion.  The  first  was,  that  the  nec:essity  of  building  fast  ships 
gained  by  was  imposed  Upon  our  builders,  and  they  were  forced  to  i)ay  gre.it 
t  e  war.  attention  to  their  models.  No  one  wanted  to  send  a  ship  to  sea 
unless  she  was  capable  of  sailing  rapidly  away  from  a  hostile  c:ruiser  if  pursueil 
and  obliged  to  run.  .As  early  as  1782  a  ship  had  been  built  in 
New  England,  the  frigate  "  Alliance,"  which,  being  chased  l)y  a  fast 
Fnglish  ship,  was  able  to  run  fifteen  knots  by  the  log,  with  the  wind  abeam, 
in  making  her  escape.  Our  builders  displayed  great  ability  and  originality  in 
meeting  the  reciuirements  of  tiie  age.  They  ignored  the  rules  prevalent  in 
Furope,  and,  rejecting  the  short,  deep  hulls  and  bluff  bows,  made  their  vessels 
long,  with  sharp  and  concave  bows,  and  stems,  whicli  permitted  the  water  to 
flow  away  from  them  freely.  Sometimes,  at  first,  more  attention  was  paid  to 
speed  than  steadiness;  and  a  sixteen-gun  ship,  '"The  Neptune,"  is  known 
to  have  c-apsized  and  sunk  at  Newburyport  the  moment  she  had  crossed  the 
bar  on  iier  first  voyage.     l.>ut  by  1812  earlier  faults  had  been  corrected,  and 


"  Alliance." 


\i 


\^.^'^-.»^,, 


or>  riiK  I'MTEn  siates. 


575 


576 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


'II  J 


i 

w- 

3       ,"' 

1  i(  '■•  t) 

1  JiJi'" " 

1 11 

1 

IJ... 

the  ships  of  the  United  States  were  the  handsomest  and  swiftest  in  the  world. 
'I'here  was  great  compensation  in  that,  wlien  peace  came,  for  tlie  years  (jf  ri;,k 
and  loss  which  had  preceded.  The  second  advantage  above  referred  lo  was 
more  immediately  the  result  of  the  brilliant  victories  of  the  wa.  of  1S12. 
Upon  the  return  of  peace  the  United  States  demanded  that  her  ships  should 
be  permitted  to  sail  the  seas  unmolested,  and  that  they  should  be  received  in 
European  ports  upon  the  same  footing  as  the  ships  of  "the  most  favored 
nations ;  "  or,  in  other  words,  that  navigation  should  be  conducted  on  a  basis 
of  exact  reciprocity.  The  prestige  which  this  country  had  gained  in  that  war 
prompted  England  to  accede  to  the  demand  at  once ;  and  the  other  nations 
of  the  world  entered  into  treaties  of  maritime  reciprocity  soon  after,  or  else 
passed  laws  which  had  the  same  effect.  It  had  been  customary  in  Europe  to 
tax  American  ships  entering  port  a  heavier  tonnage  duty  than  native  ships. 
We  had  returned  the  compliment  in  1 789  by  taxing  foreign  ships  entering 
our  ports  fifty  cents  a  ton,  and  American  ships  only  six  cents  a  ton.  These 
discriminating  duties  were  repealed  in  181 5  with  respect  to  England,  and 
during  the  next  twen'^v  years  with  respect  to  most  other  maritime  powers ;  and 
trade  was  placed  upon  an  equal  and  reciprocal  footing.  The  good  effects 
Superiority  ^^^'"^  ^°^'^  Seen.  American  ships,  being  swifter,  stancher,  and 
of  American  better  managed  than  those  of  any  other  commercial  nation,  got 
^  '''^"  possession  immediately  of  almost   the   entire  foreign  commerce 

of  this  country,  and  the  shipping  and  carrying  trade  of  the  country  increased 
very  fast.  Our  grain,  cotton,  timber,  tobacco,  rice,  naval  stores,  hides,  pro- 
visions, and  other  crude  products,  began  to  go  abroad  in  very  large  quantities ; 
and  the  wants  of  this  growing  country  made  it.  necessary  to  bring  to  our  shore 
from  Europe  immense  cargoes  of  cloths,  clothing,  iron-manufactures,  steel, 
chemicals,  &c.,  and  tens  of  thousands  of  emigrants.  American  ships  obtained 
the  principal  part  of  the  carrying ;  and,  as  commerce  and  travel  increased, 
shipping  increased  too. 

The  only  locality  which  was  at  all  famous  for  its  ship  building  south  of  New- 

Ship. build-  ^^'"^  ^'^y*  '"  t'''^  ^^""'y  P^^^  of  this  century,  was  the  Chesapeake 
ing  at  Chesa-  Bay.  The  schooners  and  ships  of  this  region  were  among  the 
pea  e  ay.  handsomest  and  swiftest  flying  our  flag  or  any  other.  They  took 
the  name  of  "  clippers ; "  and,  though  the  beautiful  models  upon  which  they 
were  constructed  were  soon  adopted  all  along  the  coast,  the  Balti- 
more clippers  were  thought  slightly  superior  to  all  others,  and  were 
regarded  far  and  wide  as  having  attained  the  acme  of  the  ship-building  art. 
The  lines  of  packets  which  were  started  after  181 5  to  ply  from  New  York, 
Boston,  and  other  cities,  to  the  European  ports,  and  which  continued  to  run 
until  about  the  time  of  the  war  of  1861,  were  of  the  clipper-model;  and,  in 
fact,  all  American  ships  were  built  of  that  pattern,  except  a  few  of  large 
capacity,  constructed  expressly  to  carry  cotton,  which  were  organized  solely 
with  a  view  to  cargo-room,  and  had  queer  hulls  bulging  below  the  water-line. 


"  Clipper*." 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


577 


The  performances  of  the  clippers  have  been  remarkable.  The  Liver[)ool 
packets  from  New  York  and  Boston  (varying  from  six  hundred  to  nine  hundred 
tons'  burden)  used  to  make  the  trip  across  the  sea  regularly  from  twelve  to 
twenty  days.  As  early  as  1825  the  ship  "Oliver  Ellsworth"  ran  from  New 
York  to  Liverpool  in  thirteen  days.  "  The  Independence,"  one  of  whose 
sailing-days  was  March  5,  which  annually  took  out  the  President's  message, 
once  made  the  run  across  the  ocean  in  nine  days,  showing  a  speetl  which  is 
rarely  exceeded  at  the  present  time  by  an  ocean-steamer.  "  The  Flying 
Scud"  of  the  Australian  packet-line  from  New- York  City  (1,703  tons'  burden) 
was  accustomed  to  make  the  whole  voyage  to  Australia  in  seventy-six  days 
with  a  cargo,  and  in  1S54  once  ran  four  hundred  and  forty-nine  nautical  miles 
in  twenty-four  hours  (over  eighteen  miles  an  hour).  No  modern  steamer  can 
beat  that :  the  clipper-schooners  alone  have  beaten  this  time.  "  The  Clipper 
City"  (a  hundred  and  eighty-five  tons),  a  fast-sailing  lumber-vessel,  built  in 
1854  for  the  trade  of  Lake  Michigan,  ran  regularly  eighteen  knots  an  hour, 
and  has  been  known  to  make  the  astonishing  speed  of  twenty  knots.  These 
are  not  exceptional  cases  :  they  are  merely  instances  of  the  speed  of  the  fast- 
sailing  ships  of  the  United  States. 

About  1830  there  began  to  be  a  perceptible  increase  in  the  size  of  the 
ships  of  the  country,  owing  to  the  large  coasting-trade  which  was  springing 
up.  The  exchange  of  products  between  different  parts  of  the  ship-buiid- 
seaboard  was  becoming  very  large.  Cotton,  rice,  sugar,  and  to-  '"£ '"  '^3°* 
bacco  were  coming  North  :  cloths,  iron  and  steel  manufactures,  carriages,, 
tools,  fertilizers,  India-goods,  &c.,  were  going  South.  Barks  and  ships  were, 
in  consequence,  built  for  the  trade,  varying  between  five  hundred  and  eight 
hundred  tons'  burden,  in  plnce  of  the  hundred  and  fifty  and  increase  in 
three  hundred  ton  schooners-  and  brigs.  The  foreign  trade  was  ®"*- 
at  the  same  time  becoming  very  heavy,  and  thousand-ton  merchantmen 
began  to  make  their  appearance.  When  gold  was  discovered  in  California, 
and  the  famous  stampede  of  that  and  the  suljsequent  five  or  ten  years  began, 
shipping  took  another  step  forward  ;  and  huge  clipper  freight-ships  of  a  special 
class  were  built  for  the  long  voyage  around  Cape  Horn  to  the  new  regions 
on  the  Pacific,  to  which  the  whole  world  was  rushing.  By  1850  sixteen- 
hundred-ton  vessels  were  employed  in  the  California  trade ;  and  the  tonnage 
of  the  vessels  increased  year  by  year,  until  (in  1878)  there  are  sailing-ships 
])lying  to  San  Francisco  from  New  York  of  twenty-five  hundred  tons'  burden. 
One  gigantic  clipper,  called  "The  Ocean  King"  (a  four-master,  owned  in 
Boston),  is  of  four  thousand'  tons  burden:  another,  "The  Great  Republic," 
is  of  the  same  size.  The  Californiamen,  in  flict,  now  figure  in  the  American 
merchant  marine  very  much  as  the  East-Indiamen  have  always  done  in  the 
English  marine  :  they  are  the  great  ships  of  the  sailing-fleet.  This  trade, 
being  a  part  of  the  coasting-trade  of  the  United  States,  is  expressly  reserved 
to  our  flag. 


..«i«fei4*iWi4j 


f  £1 


S7S 


IND  US  TRIA  L    HIS  TOR  Y 


}5y  1 86 1  the  shipping  of  the  United  States  had  reached  a, very  interesting 
development.  Beginning  in  1783  with  about  a  hundred  thousand  tons  of 
ships,  —  few  of  which  were  more  than  three  hundred  tons'  burden,  and  the  vast 
majority  of  which  were  under  a  hundred,  —  the  national  wealth  in  ships 
increased  (luite  steadily,  in  spite  of  all  disadvantages,  until  in  1861  the 
total  tonnage  of  the  country  had  reached  the  enormous  figure  of  5,539,813. 
I'lngland  alone  exceeded  us.  The  American  shipping  comprised  the  finest 
and  largest  under  sail  afloat,  and  the  assortment  of  types  they  included  was 
perhaps  the  most  extensive  under  the  sun.     The  special  wants  of  different 


parts  of  the  coast  and  of  different  trades  had  given  rise  to  different  classes 
of  vessels :  among  the  number  were  the  Gloucester  fishing-boat  ;  the  Block- 
Island  double-enders  ;  the  New-England  sharpy,  flat-bottomed  and  cat-rigged  : 
the  Long-Island  and  Hudson-river  sloops ;  the  clipper  brigs,  barks,  and 
ships  ;  the  "  kettle-bottomed  "  cotton-ships  ;  the  Boston  ice-ship,  for  the 
Panama  and  South-American  trade ;  the  lumber-schooner,  carrying  the  most 
of  its  load  on  deck  ]  the  fishing-dory ;  and  the  pleasure-yacht,  the  appearance 
of  whose  model  in  English  waters  in  1S51,  in  "The  America,"  built  at  New 
York,  revolutionized  pleasure-boating  immediately.  The  war  of  1861  caused 
a  decrease  in  our  shipping.  In  the  first  place  it  threw  about  a  million 
tons   of  shipping  out  of  employment,  owing  to  the  blockade  of  the  South- 


*l'*Ui^^'j' 


,1!     ul 


r  interesting 
md  tons  of 
md  the  vast 
th  in  ships 
n  1 86 1   the 

f  5>539'8i;v 

d  the  finest 

nchuled  was 

of  dilTerent 


cal-ngged 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


579 


cm  ports,  and  'led  to  the  sale  or  lease  of  the  ships  to  the  government,  and 
tlie  destruction  of  a  large  proportion  of  them  in  the  war.     Then 

1  ,  .  .         ,        r        ■  Effect  r  f 

Confederate  cruisers  began  to  capture  our  ships  in  the  foreign   ute  war 
trade  and  whale-fisheries,  and  burn  them.     Maritime  ventures  be-   "p°"  s*^'P- 

11-  f      1  I  building. 

came  so  hazardous  in  consequence  of  the  captures,  that  our 
merchants  were  afraid  to  sail  their  ships  upon  the  open  sea  any  longer  under 
the  American  flag;  and,  finding  a  ready  market  for  them  in  England,  they 
sold  a  great  part  of  them  to  Englishmen  and  others,  the  sales  amounting 
to  774,652  tons,  the  transfers  during  the  four  years  of  the  war  exceeding 
the  sales  to  foreigners  for  forty  years  preceding.  A  large  part  of  the  tonnage 
in  the  foreign  trade  was  recalled,  and  put  into  coasting.  The  war  was  a 
terrible  blow  to  our  carrying-trade ;  and,  although  it  is  now  thirteen  years 
since  the  war  ended,  we  have  not  yet  recovered  the  ground  lost  during  that 
struggle.  We  are  getting  it  back  slowly  ;  but  it  will  be  several  years  yet  before 
the  merchant  marine  of  the  United  States  stands  where  it  did  in  1861. 

The  following  table  of  selected  years  will  show  the  growth  statistics  of 
and  changes  which  have  taken  place  since  1 789,  the  first  year  in  growth  and 
which  the  tabulation  of  accurate  statistics  began  :  —  ^  anges. 


17S9 
1790 

•795 
I  Sod 

iS;o 

1S13 

IS. 5 
iSjo 
1S25 
.S;,o 
1S40 
IS  50 
1S60 
iS6i 
1S65 
1S66 
TS70 

1S76 


TONNAGK  Ri:(,IS- 
TKKICI)  I'Oli  THK 
I-OHEIGN  ThAin;. 


i-3.'593 
346.^54 
529,47  [ 
667,107 
981,019 
672,700 
854,295 

5«3-657 ' 
667,40s 

537.563 ' 
762,838 

1,439,694 

--379.396 
2,496,894 
1,518,350 
1,387.756 
1,448,846 


'5.59''' 


..I'j'.'i 


1,592,821 


T<iNN.\(;p:  IN 

TONNACi:  IN 

COASTlNC-rHAUE. 

FISllIiKIKS. 

68,607 

9,062 

201,652 

103,775 

2S.34S 

478,377 

184,398 

34,096 

747,965 

272,492 

3-.S93 

972,492 

405.347 

38,417 

1,424,783 

470,109 

23.819 

1,166,628 

475,666 

38,167 

1,368,128 

588,025 

108,485 

1,280,167 

640,861 

114,841 

1,423,110 

516,979 

137.234 

1,191,776 

1,176,694 

241,232 

2,180,764 

1.797,8^5 

297.935 

3.535.454 

2,644,867 

329,605 

5.353.86S 

::.704.724 

33S.I95 

5.539.S13 

3.3^1.5-^ 

197,010 

5.096,782 

2,719,621 

203,401 

4.310,778 

-,595.3^8- 

159,414 

4,246,507 

3,169,687 

118,436 

4,853.732 

2,609,323 

77.3'4 

4.279.458 

*  The  reduction  in  these  two  years  is  only  apparent:  it  is  chic  to  a  correction  of  the  tables  by  dropping 
vessels  wrecked,  condemned,  or  sold  to  foreii;ners,  which  had  been  carried  on  the  register  for  years. 

-  The  reduction  here  is  due  to  the  larijer  employment  of  steamers  in  the  coasting-trade  since  tlie  war,  one 
Meamer  doing  the  wori<  of  three  sailing-vessels. 


'%\ 


Si 


iifn 


ii'"^'  ■ 


^t'  :■:»* 


5  So 


/JVD  US  TRIA  L    HIS  TOR  Y 


The  ship-building  of  the  country  has  concentrated  chiefly  in  the  New- 
England  States,  owing  to  the  superior  industry  of  the  people.  'Ihere  does 
c,..    ^  ..J       not  ai)i)ear  to  have  been  any  other  special  reason  for  it,  because 

Ship-build-  '  '  -^  ' 

inginthe        Other  States  have  just  as  large  sup[)lies  of  building,  copper,  iron, 
New-Eng-      cordagc,  and  naval  stores,  and  some  of  them  a  great  deal  more 

land  States.  °   '  ,  "^ 

of  one  or  all  of  them,  rrom  1607  down,  however,  more  thau 
one-half  of  all  the  vessels  of  every  description  launched  in  American  waters 
have  been  built  in  the  New-England  yards.  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  Dela- 
ware, Maryland,  and  Virginia  have  been  building  States  also.  South  of 
Virginia  there  appears  to  have  been  little  or  no  effort  in  this  direction.  Since 
1840  there  has  been  more  or  less  of  the  building  of  craft  for  the  inland  waters 
on  the  (ireat  Lakes  and  the  Western  rivers. 

A  ship  is  a  marvellous  fabric.  Costing,  for  first-class  oak  vessels,  now  about 
fifty  dollars  a  ton,  nine-tenths  of  which  expense  is  for  labor,  the  ship  calls  into 
requisition  the  services  of  forty  or  fifty  distinct  trades,  and  demands  the  highest 
engineering  and  mathematical  ability  on  the  part  of  the  designer,  and  the 
ablest  workmanship  on  the  part  of  the  builder. 

"  Ah  !  what  a  wondrous  thing  it  is 
To  note  how  many  wheels  of  toil 
One  thought,  one  word,  can  set  in  motion  I 
There's  not  a  ship  that  sails  the  ocean, 
But  every  climate,  every  soil, 
Must  bring  its  tribute,  great  or  small. 
And  help  to  build  its  wooden  wall." 

The  construction  of  ships  is  one  of  the  most  profitao.e  branches  of  industry 
a  country  can  carry  on.  They  belong  to  that  peculiar  class  of  i)rodiicts  in 
Profitable-  which  the  raw  material  forms  the  most  insignificant  part,  and  the 
nessof  the  wages  of  the  workmen  the  largest  jjossible  proportion,  of  tiie  cost 
in  ustry.  ^^  ^^^  completed  work.  Besides  that,  a  ship  once  built  recjuires 
continual  repair,  and  the  repair  of  ships  on  a  large  scale  is  even  more  profit- 
able to  a  country  than  is  the  building.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  all  the  gov- 
ernments of  the  world  with  a  sea-coast  strive  to  have  their  own  ships  built  by 
their  own  people,  and  to  promote  as  much  as  possible  the  building  of  ships  for 
other  nations.  The  iJnited  States  have  always  recjuired  American  ships  to  be 
built  in  American  yards.  The  enormous  profits  of  the  carrying-trade  lead 
governments  also  to  legislate  in  favor  of  their  own  shipping.  The  United 
States,  for  instance,  have  always  reserved  the  whole  business  of  the  coasting  of 
this  country  to  our  own  fiag ;  and  for  a  period  of  fifty  years  it  imposed  an 
extra  duty  upon  all  goods  coming  from  China,  Japan,  and  the  East  Indies,  in 
foreign  ships,  so  as  to  secure  that  trade  to  our  own  vessels.  Furthermore,  our 
laws  tax  all  foreign  ships  entering  our  ports  fifty  cents  a  ton  as  compared  with 
a  six-cent  tonnage  tax  on  our  own  vessels,  whenever  the  foreign  government  to 
which  the  ships  belong  discriminates  in  any  way  against  our  vessels. 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


5-^1 


The  cost  of  wooden  ships  has  varied  a  great  deal  since  1607,  owing  to  the 
changes  in  the  wages  of  labor,  and  other  causes  aflecting  the  general  range  of 
prices  of  all  commodities.  A  contract  at  Salem,  Mass.,  in  1661,  c^st  ^f 
mentions  tlie  price  per  ton  of  a  shi})  as  three  pounds  five  shillings,  wooden 
or  about  si.xteen  dollars.  In  1825  first-class  shi[)s  were  buililing  ^  ''^*" 
ill  the  United  States  for  thirty  or  forty  dollars  a  ton.  In  1S40,  which  was  the 
best  year  the  race  of  ship-owners  then  living  had  ever  known,  —  when  tonnage 
was  in  great  demand,  and  many  vessels  paid  their  cost  in  clear  profits  of 
freight, — the  cost  was  about  fifty  dollars  a  ton.  About  1848  the  price  had 
risen,  possibl)  because  large  shi))s  of  the  new  type  were  fitted  up  very  elabo- 
lalely,  the  captain's  cabin  being  as  richly  furnished  as  a  palace-car  ;  so  that 
ships  cost  as  high  as  seventy  dollars  a  ton  (the  average  price  was  fifty  dollars). 
In  i860  a  first-class  thousand- ton  oak  ship  built  at  New- York  City  would  bring 
sixty-five  dollars  a  ton,  gold,  'i'hc  same  vessel  could  be  built  in  Maine  for 
forty-eight  and  fifty  dollars  a  ton.  Up  to  this  point  in  the  history  of  the 
country,  the  cost  of  American  ships,  whatever  it  might  happen  to  be  in  any  one 
year,  was,  ne.ertheless,  from  five  to  fifteen  dollars  a  ton  less  than  that  of  vessels 
built  in  iMigkmd.  After  1861  the  derangement  of  prices  caused  by  the  war 
made  American  wooden  ships  the  most  exi)ensive  in  the  world.  The  price 
rose  in  1869  to  eighty  dollars  a  ton  for  a  thousand-ton  oak  ship  fitted  for  sea 
with  one  suit  of  sails,  the  price  varying  somewhat  with  the  part  of  the  coast  on 
wliich  it  was  built.  In  some  yards  in  Maine  such  a  ship  could  be  launched 
for  sixty-five  dollars  a  ton.  At  tiie  jiresent  time  prices  have  found  their  old 
level,  and  oak  vessels  are  constructed  for  fifty  dollars  a  ton.  Canadian  vessels, 
built  of  soft  woods,  and  therefore  shorter  lived,  are  sold  for  forty-five  dollars  a 
tun. 

A  very  notable  change  is  going  on  in  the  substitution  of  steam  craft,  or  boats 
towed  by  steam,  for  the  old-fashionetl  coaster  in  the  transportation  of  merchan- 
dise.   When  steamboats  first  came  into  practical  use,  it  was  proi)he- 
sictl  that  they  would  speedily  drive  off  all  coasting-vessels,  because   between  '° 


their  trips  would  be  made  with  greater  regularity.      They  could    steam  craft 
not    carry  so  cheaply,  though  ;     and  consecpiently  sailing-vessels   ^"    ^°°  ^" 
have  retained  easily  enough  until  now  a  very  large  portion  of  their 
ground,  steamboats  taking  only  the  more  cosdy  freights  and  those  requiring  as 
rapid  transit  as  possible,  leaving  the  transportation   of  coal  and  other  coarse 
commodities  to  the  slower-sailing  carriers.     \\'ithin  a  few  years,  however,  this 
])rovincc,  too,  has  been  invaded,  as  we  have  just  described  ;  and  so  rapidly  are 
the  canal  barges  and  other  vessels  towed  or  propelled  by  steam  gaining  the 
canying-trade   of  coal,  grain,  and  all  commodities    not    transported   by   the 
regular  lines  of  steamboats,  as  seriously  to  imperil  the  business  of  the  sailing- 
vessels  :  indeed,  it  is  highly  probable  that  in  a  few  years  they  will  be  driven 
from    a   large    portion    of   American    waters    by    their    too    Ibrinidable    com- 
petitors. 


%\ 


^til 


ii 


f 


582 


Statistics  of 
the  world's 
tonnage. 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 

According  to  the  last  report  of  the  Bureau  Veritas  of  Paris,  it 
being  for  1866-67,  the  sea-going  merchant  sail-vessels  of  the 
workl  were  distributed  as  follows :  — 


l-l-AliS. 

VESSELS. 

TONS. 

(ireat  Hritain 

20,265 

5.''^07.375 

United  States . 

7,288 

2,390,521 

Norway  . 

4.749 

1,410,90} 

Italy 

4,601 

1,292,076 

Oermany 

3.4  5^> 

375-995 

France     . 

3.'S5>S 

725.0^3 

Spain 

2,915 

557.3-0 

(Ircecc     . 

2,121 

426,925 

Holland  . 

M43 

399.903 

Sweden    . 

2,121 

399. 1  jS 

Russia     . 

'.785 

391,95s 

Austria    . 

9>*^3 

33'^6S4 

Denmark 

•.34S 

i8S,95S 

Portugal . 

456 

107,016 

South  America 

273 

59.45^ 

Central  America 

153 

59-944 

Turkey    . 

305 

48,209 

lielgium  . 

55 

23.344 

Asia 

42 

16,019 

Africa  (l^iberia) 

3 

454 

Total 

58,208 

i5.553.'^'-'^ 

English  eminence  has  grown  up,  in  part,  from  the  employment  in  her  trade 
of  iron  sailing-vessels,  which  she  found  she  could  build  cheaper  than  she  could 
wooden  ones.  No  iron  sailing-ships  have  been  built  in  the  United  States, 
except  one  only,  "The  Iron  Age,"  constructed  at  Wilmington,  Del.,  about  ten 
years  ago. 


^lliW.. 


OF    THE    UXITED    STATES. 


583 


s  of  Paris,  it 
sscls   of  tlie 


TONS. 

5.807,375 
2,390,521 

1,410,903 

1,292,076 

37  5,9';S 
725,0-13 
557,320 
426,925 
399-903 
399,i2'S 
39 ',95''^ 

33''^,6-S4 
188,958 

107,016 

59,45*5 
59-944 
48,209 

23,344 
16,019 

454 


i5,553>''5y''5 

in  her  trade 
an  she  could 
lited  States, 
1.,  about  ten 


CHAPTER     II. 


STEAMBOATS. 

ONE  of  the  most  imposing  spectacles  of  this  or  any  other  age  is  the  cahii 
and  impressive  manner  in  which  lOngHsh  writers  claim  "  the  glory  of 
having  introduced  steam-navigation  to  the  attention  of  the  world,"  Fulton  and 
and  the  coolness  with  which  they  say  that  tiiis  invention  —  having,  ^'"=''- 
like  daylight,  fresh  air,  and  other  objects  of  great  utility,  been  born  in  Eng- 
land—  finally  left  its  inventors  "  to  irradiate  the  names  of  others  who  reaped 
the  benefit  of  their  labors,"  the  most  prominent  of  the  "irradiated"  being 
l'"ulton.  The  first  liritish  steamboat  splashed  its  way  around  a  lake  at  1  )alwin- 
ston,  for  the  first  time,  in  the  middle  of  October,  i  788,  the  event  accruing  to 
the  great  edification  of  the  fiirm-hands  of  the  regions  adjacent,  who  came 
down  to  see  a  boat  "driven  by  smoke"  at  the  rate  of  four  miles  an  hour. 
Vet  experiments  hud  then  been  making  with  steamboats  in  America  for  thirty- 
eight  years  ;  and  in  1785,  three  years  before  the  first  English  boat  was  tried, 
John  Fitch  had  navigated  the  Schuylkill  in  a  shallop,  with  a  paddle-wheel  at 
the  stern,  driven  by  steam  ;  and  in  1786  he  had  made  eight  miles  an  hour  with 
a  second  and  new  steamboat  on  the  Delaware.  The  idea  of  propelling  boats 
by  some  mechanical  device  even  was  not  at  all  new  with  ICngland.  The 
ancient  PZgyptians  had  galleys  which  were  worked  by  paddle-wheels  propelled 
by  oxen,  the  power  being  transmitteil  somewhat  on  the  principle  employed  in 
a  modern  threshing-machine.  The  Romans  had  the  same  style  of  craft  to 
carry  corn  and  soldiers  to  Sicily  in  the  days  of  the  commonwealth.  It  was 
proposed  at  l?erne  to  work  vessels  on  the  iluck-principle,  by  constructing  two 
tremendous  web-feet,  which  should  open  and  shut  like  uml)rellas,  and  be 
operated  by  steam.  One  ingenious  luiropean  had  also  proposed  to  propel 
boats  by  firing  big  cannon  from  the  stern,  it  being  ascertained  by  experiment 
that  a  moderate-sized  ship  might  be  driven  at  the  extraordinary  velocity  of  ten 
miles  a  day  with  thirty  barrels  of  gunpowder.  In  the  romantic  tale  of  "  Amadis 
of  Gaul  "  the  unknown  author  had  described  a  fiery  vessel  rushing  over  the 
ocean  with  the  speed  of  the  wind,  in  a  way  which  really  answered  very  well 
as  a  prediction  and  as  a  description  of  a  modern  Mississippi-river  steamboat 


m^$, 


^%^i^M*'><MiM-' 


;  H  f 


584 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


racing  down  stream  witli  a  rival  vessel,  with  a  huntlred  and  fifty  pounds  press- 
ure on  the  boiler,  and  burning  pitch-pine  knots  and  turpentine.  The  whole 
idea  of  forcing  a  vessel  through  the  water  without  the  agency  of  human  labor, 
and  independently  of  wind  and  tide,  was  ages  old  when  lOngland  invented  a 
little  twopenny  four-knot  vessel  to  splash  around  the  precincts  of  Dahvinston 
Lake,  and  anuise  the  louts  (jf  the  adjacent  hillsides.  ICngland's  sole  credit  in 
the  way  of  jjriority  is  for  the  invention  of  the  steam-engine,  l-'or  that  great 
machine,  all  hail  to  I'lngland  !  \\c  nuist  i)ut  our  hats  on  again,  however,  when 
mention  is  made  of  the  steamboat. 

There  is  a  great  deal  of  romance  about  the  ancient  style  of  propulsion. 
The  Indian, 

"  Skimming  Ontario's  waters  I)Iiie 
Like  the  swallow's  wiiii;  in  his  hark  canoe," 

and  the  Venetian  in  his  stately  galley  rowed  with  tlouble  and  triple  banks  of 
oars,  and  the  Yankee  with  his  wonderful  clipper  and  its  clouil  of  cainas, 
have  been  a  constant  theme  for  poets  and  historians.  But,  after  all,  steam 
speaks  to  poets  and  prose-writers  alike  with  a  more  glorious  voice  than  oar  or 
sail :  — 

"  For  lire  is  chief  like  haughty  gold, 
.•\ntl  with  its  glow- 
Fills  all  the  night  with  tlame." 

So  old  Pindar  sang:  and  the  saying  is  far  more  true  than  ever  Pindar 
dreamed  ;  for  fire  and  steam  have  given  us  the  greatest  ships  of  all  time,  whose 
achievements  are  of  indescribable  magnitude,  and  whose  influence  is  more 
far-reaching  and  important  than  that  of  any  other  material  agency  under  the 
control  of  maii. 

When  the  discovery  of  the  steam-engine  had  set  all  the  worlil  thinking  of 
a  new  way  to  accomplish  all  mechanical  work,  and  long  before  the  ideas  of 
Watt  were  perfected,  it  was  proposed  to  api)ly  steam  to  the  propulsion  of  boats. 
As  early  as  1750  it  is  said  an  experiment  of  some  kind  had  been  attempted 
in  America,  at  Reading,  Penn. ;  and  Oliver  lOvans,  who  in  1768  i)ro]K)sed  a 
steamboat,  also  made  experiments  at  Philadelphia.  Shortly  after  the  Revulu- 
tionary  war,  two  Americnn  iuvLiitjrs  who  had  been  simullaneously  slud\ing 
the  new  idea  —  John  itch  of  Connecticut,  and  James  Rumscy  of 
Maryland  —  both  brought  out  patterns  of  boats  to  be  proj^elled  by 
steam.  Rrunsey's  first  idea  was  to  construct  a  boat  which  should  go  up  a 
river  by  the  force  of  the  current  acting  "  on  setting-poles."  He  showed  a 
model  of  a  boat  for  navigating  rivers  on  this  principle  to  (}en.  Washington  on 
the  Potomac  in  17S4,  and  in  17S5  he  got  a  ten-years'  monopoly  for  building 
such  boats  from  the  Assembly  of  the  State  of  Pennsylvania.  Fitch  experi- 
mented from  the  beginning  with  steam.  His  first  vessel  had  a  paddle-wheel 
at  the  stern,  and  was  tried  successfiilly  on  the  Schuylkill  in  17S5.     In  17S6  a 


Rumsey. 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


5S5 


larger  and  more  practical  stcaiiiljoat  w.is  tried  l)y  him  on  tlie  Delaware, 
making  eight  miles  an  hour.  'l"hi.->  \va^  heforc  tiie  adoption  of  the  FecK'ral 
Constitution,  and  while  patents  were  issued  only  by  the  several  States;  so  that 
l''itc:h  had  to  apply  to  such  of  them  as  he  thought  would  give  him  a  favorable 
hearing  each  by  itself.  Pennsylvania  gave  him  a  fourteen-years'  j)atent  in 
1787;  and  Delaware,  New  York,  and  \'irginia  followed  her  example.  In 
1787  Ramsey  brought  out  an  invention  ibr  moving  steamboats  by  means  of  a 
])ump,  water  being  drawn  in  at  the  l)ow,  and  expelled  violently  at  the  stern. 
This  was  the  plan  of  Dr.  .Mian  in  Mngland  also,  that  gentleman  believing  tliat 
tlie  boat  would  be  rapidly  propelled  ;  "  thereby  imitating  \ery  accurately  what 
llie  Author  of  Nature  has  shown  us  in  the  swimming  of  fishes,  who  proceed 
by  protru.;ion  with  their  tails."  Rumsey  tried  his  plan  on  the  I'otomac,  and 
then  took  it  to  I'lngland,  where  it  worked  well  on  the  Thames,  making  four 
miles  an  hour.  The  inventor  died  in  1793,  before  he  had  reajjcd  any  substan- 
tial reward  for  his  invention.  Tlie  next  invention  was  by  Fitch,  and  was 
nothing  less  than  the  ocean-i)ropeller,  —  a  contrivance  which  most  people  yet 
believe  to  be  an  English  affair,  and  which  tlie  English  themselves,  in  their 
large  and  comprehensive  way,  definitely  claim  to  be  the  originators  of.  The 
craft  maile  use  of  for  Fitch's  experiment  with  a  propeller  was  a  common  long- 
boat eighteen  feet  in  length.  The  boiler  was  a  ten  or  twelve  gallon  pitch's 
iron-pot,  with  a  thick  plank  lid  firmly  fastened  down  upon  it.  The  invention 
steam-cylinders  were  of  wood,  barrel-shaiied  outside,  and  firmly  ^^"^'''''e''- 
lioo[)ed.  The  connecting-rods,  beam,  and  crank  were  of  ecjually  simple  con- 
struction. 'I'he  propeller  was  a  regular  iron  screw,  the  blade,  or  flange,  taking 
three  turns  around  the  shaft.  A\'ith  this  device  Fitch  made  six  miles  an  iiour, 
the  sheet  of  water  on  which  it  was  tried  being  Collect  Pond,  ninety  feet 
deep,  which  covered  the  ground  where  the  Tombs  now  stands  in  New-York 
City,  and  a  large  area  in  the  vicinity.  The  boat  was  afterwards  abandoned 
on  the  banks  of  the  pond,  and  allowetl  to  decay.  The  tlate  of  the  experiment 
is  stated  as  i  796. 

In  1S04  Mr.  Stevens  of  Hoboken,  N.J..  made  a  number  of  trips  on  the 
Hudson  River  with  a  small  steamboat  propelled  by  a  wheel  at  the  stern.  He 
afterwards  did  a  great  many  valuable  things  in  the  way  of  perfecting  the 
steam-engine. 

So  far  there  had  been  nothing  done,  except  in  trying  experiments.  Fitch, 
ill  1 790,  had  run  a  boat  between  I'hiladelphia  and  Purlington  to  carry  pas- 
sengers, which  was  operate<l  by  paddles  at  the  stern,  liut  this  was  only  an 
experiment,  and  was  soon  abandoned  ;  and  Fitch  had  died  in  1798  a  broken- 
hearted man,  owing  to  the  want  of  i)opular  appreciation  of  his  Fulton's  ex- 
inventions.  P)Ut  steam-navigation  was  now  to  be  made  a  success  pcnments. 
by  Robert  Fulton,  a  native  of  LitUe  Britain,  Penn.,  who  had  gone  to  I''uro]>e 
in  1786  to  perfect  his  mechanical  education,  and  push  his  fortune.  Fulton 
made  a  great  many  curious  experiments  in  locomotion  in  I'^urope,  one  of  them 


-^>:^.'JS 


I 

ill 
If  I 

1 1- . 


it    -• 


586 


liXDUSTRlAl.    IIISTOKY 


\'X'\^ 


l)cing  an  attempt  to  blow  up  the  I''nglish  ships  Ijlockading  Bu'st  in  1801,  with  a 
suhmarino  torpedo,  in  behalf  of  Napoleon.  He  reiuained  inuler  water  four 
hours  and  a  half;  and  would  have  blown  up  an  Mnglish  seventy-four,  except 
that  she  nioveil  out  of  the  way  just  in  time  to  avoid  him.  He  did  not,  in  the 
end,  blow  up  a  siiip.  He  afterwards  tried  to  sell  to  the  English  a  patent  to 
blow  up  the  French;  without  success,  however.  In  1803  Fulton  launched  a 
steamboat  on  the  Seine  below  I'aris,  in  behalf  of  himself  and  Chancellor 
Livingston,  our  minister  to  l'"rance,  the  latter  of  whom  had  taken  great 
interest  in  Fulton's  e\i)eriments.  This  pioneer  boat  of  Fulton's  met  willi  an 
astonishing  mishap.     The  builder  had  miscalculated  the  strength  of  the  vessel ; 

and,  when  the  machinery  was 

:>•  •  ^^tta,^  placed  in  the  centre,  she  broke 

in  two  in  the  middle,  and  the 
whole  concern  went  to  the 
bottom.  John  Scott  Russell, 
vice-president  of  the  Society 
of  Arts  for  Scotland  in  1S41, 
who  relates  this  incident,  says, 
"'I'he  shatlereil  vessel  was 
raised,  and  was  found  to  be 
almost  entirely  broken  up. 
How  achnirable  are  the  les- 
sons inculcated  by  a  thorough 
fiiilure  !  The  American  steam- 
boats have  ever  since  been 
distinguished  by  the  excel- 
lence of  the  strong  and  light 
framing  by  which  their  slender  vessels  are  enabled  to  bear  the  weight 
and  strain  of  their  large  and  powerful  engines."  Fulton,  nothing  daunt- 
ed, fished  out  his  machinery  from  the  mud  of  the  Seine,  and  in  the 
fall  of  the  same  year  placed  it  in  another  vessel,  sixty-six  feet  long  and 
eight  feet  wide.  The  vessel  had  paddle-wheels,  but  moved  sc  slowly  (only 
three  miles  an  hour)  as  to  be  thought  at  first  a  failure ;  but  Livingston  and 
Fulton  both  learned  from  it  valuable  lessons,  and  they  prepared  to  carry  the 
benefit  of  their  discoveries  back  to  their  native  land  immediately.  They  at 
once  ordered  an  engine  to  be  built  by  Bolton  and  Watt,  to  be  forwarded  to 
New  York,  to  begin  practical  steam-navigation  in  American  waters.  Li\ing- 
ston  got  a  patent  from  New- York  State  for  the  right  to  navigate  its  waters 
"The  by  steam   for  twenty  years;    and  in  1807  "The  Clermont"  was 

Clermont."  launched,  under  Fulton's  direction,  on  the  F^ast  River  at  New 
York.  She  was  of  a  hundred  and  sixty  tons'  burden,  and  was  supplied  with 
side  paddle-wheels.  A  more  astonished  crowd  of  human  beings  had  never 
collected  on  the  shore  of  Manhattan  Island  since  the  days  when  the  open- 


I-II.TON  S    mUTIiri.ACli, 


.,-{'S? 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


5.^7 


moiitlicd  red  man  saw  Hcndridc  Eludson  sail  up  the  bay,  and  cast  anchor  off 
slujro,  tluin  were  assembled  the  da)'  " 'I'he  ClermiMit"  made  its  first  trial-trip. 
Everybody  had  said  the  experiment  would  fail.  The  boat  had  been  called 
"  Fulton's  I'olly  ; "  and  the  whole  scheme  had  been  the  standing,'  joke  of  the 
town.  "The  Clermont"  had  not  gone  a  hundred  yards  from  shore,  however, 
before  the  multitude  which  was  looking  on  became  a  prey  to  the  li\elie>t 
surprise  and  admiration,  which  almost  deepened  to  alarm  as  they  heard  the 
racket  of  her  machinery  and  the  terrific  splashing  of  the  water,  and  saw  the 
fire  and  smoke  pouring  out  of  her  chinmey.     The  boat 

"Walked  tlic  waters  like  a  thing  of  life," 

and  left  the  overwhelmed  spectators  behind  her  at  a  speed  of  five  miles  an 
hour.  She  made  that  first  trip  to  Albany,  against  tlie  current,  in  thirty-two 
iiours,  scaring  the  boatmen  and  iarmers  along  the  Hudson  dreadfiilly,  especiallv 
at  night,  by  her  roaring  and  her  fires.  This  vessel  made  regular  trips  to  and 
from  Albany,  and  was  joined  in  1X07  by  a  second  boat,  built  by  the  same 
owners,  called  "The  Car  of  Neptune,"  and  later  by  a  third,  called  "'ihe  Par- 
agon." The  two  latter  were  of  three  htmdred  and  three  himdred  and  fifty 
tons  respectively. 

Steam-navigation  was  now  a  success,  complete,  practical,  and  triimiphant ; 
and  the  achievement  took  |)lace  in  the  New  \\'orld,  and  through  the  energy 
and  genius  of  Americans  alone.     It  was  not  imtil  181 2  that  "The   ...j.,,g  comet 
Comet  of  the  Clyde,"  the  first  trading  steam-vessel  of  I';uro])e,  was        of  the 
launched,  and  taken  out  for  a  trial-trip.     John  Scott  Russell  con-  ^  *' 

gratulates  America  upon  the  benefits  arising  from  l'"ulton's  enterprise,  and 
says,  "  Although  America,  in  common  with  the  rest  of  tiie  world,  will  look  to 
this  country  as  the  source  from  which  she  derived  this  benefit,  yet  wt;  heartily 
join,"  &c.  Really  America  must  be  excused.  R.  L.  Stevens  of  Hoboken, 
who  had  already  perfected  a  practicable  steamboat,  would  have  accomplished 
steam-navigation  before  Henry  bell  did  on  the  Clyde  in  1S12,  had  Fulton 
done  nothing  about  the  matter ;  and  even  if  Fulton  was,  in  fact,  jirecedcd 
by  the  people  on  ])alwinston  Lake,  and  if  he  really  jjrofited  by  their  experi- 
ments, it  was  his  own  peculiar  and  original  genius  vhich  accomi)lished  what 
they  could  not,  and  that  was  something  for  which  he  was  not  indebted  to 
F'nglish  inventors. 

The  navigation  of  the  Hudson,  though  patented  to  Fulton  and  Li\  ing- 
ston,  was  thrown  open  to  the  public,  by  a  compromise,  in  18 15.  Other 
people  wished  to  build  steamboats,  and  iniblic  sentiment  was  un-   „    .  „..  „ 

'       '  '  '  Navigation 

favorable  to  the  monopolizing  of  the  water-courses  of  the  cotm-   of  the  Hud- 
try  by  anybody.      Fulton  at  first  claimed   the  monopoly  of  the   son  thrown 
^Vestern  rivers ;   but  his  claim  was  disputed,  and  carried  to  the 
courts,  and  beaten;  so  that,  after  1S15,  the  rivers  of  the  country  were  as  free 


I 


H 


\\ 


;WU.ifu»4JiJl 


588 


IND  VS  TRIA  I.    II /S  TOR  Y 


1  i<f  E 


Ills 


to  wlioovcT  nii.uhl  chooso  to  navigati'  thoin  by  stcnm  as  they  hnd  previously 
l)cc'U  to  vessels  imdiT  sail. 

Steamboats  made  their  appearancx'  in  the  West   in    1S12.     'I'he  iiioiieir 

()oat  was  "'I'he  New  Orleans."   built  at   i'ittsbiirj,'h  by    ImiIioii   at  a  cost   of 

.^40,000,  and   i)ro\ided  with  a  stern-wheel  and  sails.     She  was  of 

Appearance         t    '         '  i 

ofHteam-        between  three  hundred  and  four  hundred  tons'  burden.     In  ( )(t()- 
boatsinthc     1,^,^^   \'^\2,  she    made  the    trip  from    ritl>,bur,L,'h    to    Louisville  in 

seventy  hours  :  she  then  made  several  trips  to  ('incimi.iti,  and  in 
December  went  to  New  Orleans,  and  was  there  \i\\\.  into  llie  trade  betwciii 
that  city  and  Natchez.  She  was  wrecked  on  a  sna;;  in  1S14.  This  boat  paid 
for  half  her  cost  the  first  year.  The  second  boat  was  "The  Comet,"  built 
at  l'ittsburjj;h  in  iSi  5  by  Mr.  I).  l''rench,  whi(  h  found  her  way  to  New  Orleans 
ii^i  1S14,  and,  after  two  trips  to  Natchez,  went  out  of  existence,  her  machiiu'iy 
being  taken  out  and  i)ut  into  a  cotton-mill.  The  third  boat  was  "The 
Vesuvius,"  also  built  at  Pittsburgh  by  l'"ulton  for  a  ( ompany.  'I'his  vessel  was 
of  three  hundred  and  forty  tons.  She  went  to  New  Orleans  with  the  others, 
and  was  burned  in  i.St6.  None  of  these  boats  had  been  able  to  ascend  the 
Mississippi  River.  They  went  down  stream  well  enough.  " 'i'he  Vesuvius  " 
had  trieil  to  return,  but  failed.  'I'he  ascent  was  not  accomplished  until 
1815.  when  "The  Enterprise,"  a  small  boat  of  only  seventy  tons'  burdi.'n,  with 
a  single  wheel  at  the  stern,  for  the  first  time  made  the  voyage  up  the  rivers 
from  New  Orleans  to  Cincinnati,  arriving  there  in  twenty-eight  da)s.  She 
readied  Louisville  in  twenty-five  days,  and  stopped  there  in  order  to  piriiiit 
a  i)ul)lit;  dinner  to  be  given  in  honor  of  the  event. 

The  first  steamer  in  the  coasting-traile  was  built  by  the  Stevenses  at 
Hoboken,  while  Kult(jn  still  had  a  monopoly  of  the  Hudson,  and  was  run 
by  the  outside  route  to  Philadelphia. 

There  now  remained  only  one  field  for  the  American  steamboat-men  to 
coniincr  :  that  was  the  home  of  old  Neptune  himself,  —  the  open  ocean.  The 
stcamboa.-  <^russing  of  the  Atlantic  was  altogether  a  different  matter  from  a 
ing  across,       voyage  along  the  coast  and  np  and  down  a  great  river.     American 

builders  and  merchants  hesitated  to  altemjit  the  midertaking  for 
many  years.  At  length,  however,  the  experiment  was  tried.  A  \essel  called 
"The  Savannah,"  three  hundred  and  eighty  tons'  burden,  ship-rigged,  with 
Crossing         horizontal  engine  anil  paddle-wheels,  was  built  at  Corlear's  Hook, 

N.Y.,   by  Crocker  tS:   l'"iikitt,   for  a  company  of  genllenu'n.  who 

])roposed  to  send  her  across  the  ocean  for  sale  to  the  Lmpemr 
of  Russia.  She  sailed  from  New- York  City  in  1S19  for  Savannah,  (la., 
making  the  trip  in  seven  days,  four  of  them  under  steam.  From  Savannah 
she  went  direct  to  Liverpool,  making  the  voyage  in  twenty-two  days,  during 
fourteen  of  which  she  was  under  steam,  moving  the  rest  of  the  time  under 
sail.  Ller  arrival  in  Great  Britain  created  a  great  commotion.  When  about 
entering  St.  Ceorge's  C'hannel,  off  the   city  of  Cork,   the  commander  of  the 


of  "The 
Savannah 


\  i 


iyiil 


or    77/ A'    UNITED    STATES. 


589 


Tkitish  lloft,  seeing,'  a  Iuij,'o  cloud  of  smoke  rising  from  the  vessel  aiid  <  ()veriii(,' 
llic  sky,  scut  off  two  cutters  iiiunediitcly  to  save  lier  passeiiyers  and  ( rcw 
from  tiie  destruc  ti()i:  whi<  l\  he  supposed  was  threateuiuj,'  theuj.  'I'he  steauar 
paid  110  attention  to  the  cutters;  anil  tlic  I'.nj^Iishmen.  exasperated  hei  ausc 
tiieir  benevolence  was  not  accejjted,  rowid  furiously  alonj,'side  several  times, 
and  fired  several  guns  across  the  steamer's  how,  and  finally  hove  her  to  and 
boarded  her.  Tlie  officers,  finding  tli.it  the  steamer  was  all  right,  finally  kl 
her  go,  and  she  bore  away.  At  I.iserpool  her  arrival  (  reated  a  tremendous 
sensation.  ;\s  she  ( anie  up  the  harbor  with  sails  furled  and  the  Amerii  an 
colors  Hying  the  piers  were  thronged  with  people,  who  greeted  the  siiii)  with 
enthusiastii.  cheers.  A  great  many  persons  of  distinction  visited  lur.  She 
filially  went  on  to  St.  Petersburg.  She  was  an  objee  t  of  great  curit)sityat  every 
port  at  which  she  stopped,  but  was  not  sold  as  expected  ;  and  accordingly 
she  set  sail  for  home.  'I'he  King  of  Sweden  offeretl  Si 00,000  for  her,  pay- 
able in  hemp  and  iron  delivered  in  the  I'niteil  States;  but  the  cash  was 
wanted,  and  the  offer  was  not  atceiiied.  'The  ship  ran  home  from  Norway 
in  twenty-two  days.  Her  machinery  was  then  taken  out,  and  she  bee  ame  a 
sailer.  She  subse(iuently  went  ashore  on  Long  Island,  and  was  completely 
wrecked.  The  owners  of  the  vessel  are  said  to  have  lost  over  550,000  by  their 
voyage  to  l'!urope.  The  trouble  with  "The  Savannah"  was,  that  her  engines 
were  imperfect.  They  consumed  so  much  coal,  that  the  ship  could  not  carry 
enough  fuel  for  the  voyage,  and  there  was  no  room  for  cargo  whate\er.  It 
was  about  twenty  years  before  the  steam-engine  was  so  perfected  as  to  make 
ocean  navigation  profitable  ;  and,  when  that  time  arrived,  the  I'.nglish  were  the 
fi'"st  to  take  advantage  of  it;  the  jjioneer  ships,  "The  Sirius  "  and  "The 
Great  Western,"  entering  New-York  harbor  almost  together  on  the  23d  of 
April,  1838.  The  honor  of  the  first  crossing  of  the  Atlantic  remains  with  our 
own  countrymen  ;  but  the  credit  of  estal)lishing  vessels  in  trade  ^  .  ^r  h 
belongs  to  the  English.  The  Royal  Mail  (or  Cunard)  steamers  ment  of 
began  running  from  Halifax  to  Boston  in  1S40.  anil  they  have 
never  ceased  to  run  to  the  present  day.  Other  lines  were  after- 
wards started,  and  at  the  present  time  Mngland  has  about  a  hundred  and 
twenty-five  steamers  running  to  the  I'nited  States.  The  Mills  line  to  Bremen 
(.American)  was  started  in  1847,  ami  the  Collins  line  to  Liv-  Growth  of 
crpool  in  1850,  as  also  the  Garrison  line  to  Brazil  in  1S65,  —  all  other  lines, 
from  New- York  City.  The  Pacific  Mail  line  to  China  was  started  in  1865 
also.  When  1865  came,  however,  haigland  had  a  hundred  and  twenty 
steamers  running  to  this  country,  and  had  virtually  monopolized  the  steamship 
traffic,  her  lines  being  supported  by  the  patronage  of  the  government.  (Jur 
own  lines  to  Europe  had  been  withdrawn.  The  only  line  we  have  to  I'',uroi)e 
to-day  is  that  of  the  American  Company  of  Philadelpiiia,  which  employs  four 
three-thousand-ton  steamers  in  the  trade. 

In  1 818  the  first  steamboat  was  built  for  the  trade  of  the  Great  Lakes,  thea 


first  line  of 
steamers. 


\ 


1 


590 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


'"""'"^ii'*;i 


beginning  to  be  considerable.  It  was  "The  Walk  in  the  Water,"  named  after 
a  celebrated  Indian  chief  in  Michigan.  She  was  built  at  Black  Rock,  N.Y., 
on  the  Niagara  River,  her  engines  being  brought  up  from  New- York  City  by 
sloops  to  Albany,  and  thence  despatched  by  six  and  eight  horse  teams  over- 
land to  the  Niagara  River.  The  different  parts  of  the  engine  arrived  from 
Albany  in  fifteen  to  twenty-five  days'  time.  "  The  AN'alk  in  the  Water  "  was 
brig-rigged,  and  of  three  hundred  and  sixty  tons'  burden.  Being  lost  in  a 
gale  in  182 1,  she  was  replaced  by  "  The  Superior."  The  owner  of  the  two 
boats  was  Dr.  I.  B.  Stuart  of  Albany.  As  trade  on  the  lakes  increased,  more 
steamers  were  put  into  the  business  by  other  people  at  all  the  large  ports. 

These  were  the  beginnings  of  steamboating  in  America.     They  have  been 

described  with  great  minuteness,  because  the  United  States  was  the  pioneer 

country  of  the  world  in  utilizing  the  power  of  steam  in  the  prac- 

America  the  •'  o  i  i 

pioneer  in  tical  transportation  of  freight  and  passengers,  and  the  history  of 
early  efforts  is  thus  especially  interesting ;  and  also  >because  in  the 
beginnings  of  an  enterprise  is  infolded  its  whole  subsequent  his- 
tory, just  as  truly  as  every  characteristic  of  a  tree  is  outlined  and  predicted  in 
the  little  sprout  that  has  just  poked  its  way  out  of  the  soil.  No  enterprise 
can  be  understood  unless  its  origin  is  known.  If  the  origin  be  thoroughly 
c:omprehended,  the  intermediate  steps  by  which  the  enterprise  attains  its  final 
development  are  of  small  account :  they  are  merely  a  repetition  of  the  steps 
first  taken. 

Steam  was  put  to  service  upon  the  water  in  this  country  about  thirty  years 
before  it  was  employed  in  traffic  overland;   and  it  played  a  most  important 
part  in  the  development    of  the   country,  and  in  cementing  to- 


jteam- 
boating 


Importance 
of  steam- 
navigation 
to  this 
country. 


gether  its  various  communities.     It  brought  the  distant  territories 


in  the  North-West  and  at  the  nioui'i  of  the  Mississippi  River  at 
once  into  immediate  and  patriotic  relations  with  the  okler  com- 
munities, and  was  the  means  of  building  up  a  thriving  exchange 
of  coi  imodities,  and  unity  of  sentiment,  between  them.  The  same  was  true 
of  the  different  parts  of  the  Atlantic  coast.  In  the  settlement  of  the  West 
and  South  the  steamboat  greatly  assisted ;  and  so  well  adapted  was  this  new 
agency  to  the  work  of  threading  the  chain  of  lakes,  and  to  overcoming  the 
vast  distances  of  the  great  rivers,  that  by  1835  the  building  of  steamboats  in 
the  West  liad  become  \ery  large,  and  by  1856  there  were  more  than  a  thou- 
sand of  this  style  of  craft  actively  engaged  in  the  traffic  of  that  portion  of 
our  domain.  The  steam-tonnage  of  the  Mississippi-river  Valley  at  that  time 
eijualled  the  magnificent  steam-ton. lage  of  the  whole  enii)ire  of  (^reat  Brila'n. 
About  1850  the  old-style  steamboat  of  the  West  and  North,  ranging  from  two 
hundred  to  tour  huntlred  tons  in  size,  began  to  be  found  inadecjuate  to  the 
wants  of  trade  because  of  its  small  size.  The  builders  then  began  to  enter 
upon  the  construction  of  larger  craft ;  and  they  enlarged  their  vessels  year  by 
year,  until  the  latter  have,  in  1878,  attained  a  size,  in  the  trade  of  the  Missis- 


\m^' 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


59^ 


sippi  at  least,  equal  to  that  of  the  colossal  trans-Atlantic  steamers.     One  of 
these  huge  Western  boats  will  be  referred  to  hereafter. 

On  the  coast  a  steam-packet  was  running  between  New  York  and  Philadel- 
phia as  early  as  1814,  and  a  regular  line  was  plying  from  New  York  to  CMiarles- 
ton  as  early  as  1832.     After  1S30  the  wiiole  coast  b-^came  alive    ^  ,  . ,.  . 
with  steamboats.     Lines  were  started  in  Long-Island  Sound  to  ply   ment  of  coast 
in  the  routes  to  Boston,  Hartford,  and  other  New-lCngland  cities.   ''"^^  °' 

steamboats. 

the  steamers  connectmg  at  proper  points  with  stage-lines  on  the 
mainland,  just  as  they  now  do  with  railroad-lines.  Lines  were  started  in 
Chesapeake  Bay,  in  the  waters  of  Virginia,  and  in  every  large  river  leading 
from  the  interior  of  the  Southern  States  to  the  coast.  The  coasting-steamers 
finally  crept  as  flxr  to  the  southwanl  as  to  Savannah,  to  which  point  a  line  began 
running  about  1848.  \\\  1848  steamers  began  running  between  Charleston 
and  Havana  in  Cuba,  under  the  patronage  of  our  government.  The  greatest 
coasting-line  of  all  was  authorized  to  be  established  by  the  Act  of  Congress  of 
March  3,  1847,  in  order  to  flicilitate  intercourse  between  the  Fastern  States 
and  our  newly-accjuired  territor;':^s  on  the  Pacific  Ocean.  We  had  just  obtained 
all  that  vast  territory  lying  west  of  the  Ro^rky  Mountains  by  cession  from 
Mexico.  With  the  existing  inadecjuate  means  of  transportation,  that  region 
was  practically  as  far  away  from  the  Atlantic  centres  of  ])opulation  as  though 
it  had  been  buried  in  the  interior  of  the  continent  of  Asia.  In  order  to 
settle  tnis  new  territory,  it  was  necessary  to  have  steamers ;  and  so  Congress 
aathorized  lines  to  be  started  in  the  same  patriotic  spirit  in  which  it  afterwards 
originated  the  Pacific  railroads.  Two  companies  were  formed.  —  the  Uniteil- 
States  Mail,  to  run  from  New  York  to  Aspinwall  on  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  a 
distance  of  .^,000  miles ;  and  the  Pacific  Mail,  to  run  from  Panama  on  the 
Pacific,  3,300  miles,  to  San  Francisco.  The  pioneer  steamer,  '"The  pacific  Mail 
^'alifoinia,"  1,058  tons,  left  New- York  City  Oct.  5,  1848,  being  steamship 
followed  within  a  month  by  the  ''Panama"  and  "Oregon,"  1,087  "'"P^"^' 
and  1,099  tons,  all  three  steaming  for  the  Pacific  by  way  of  Cape  Horn.  The 
first  steamer  of  the  other  line  to  i)ly  to  Asi)inwall,  "'J"he  Falcon,"  891  tons,  left 
New  York  in  December  of  the  same  year.  This  line  touched  at  New  Orleans 
en  route  by  contract.  It  is  seldom  in  the  history  of  the  world  tha*:  a  great 
agency  for  the  performance  of  a  specific  work  is  created  so  opi-ortunely  as 
were  these  two  lines.  While  '•  Tiu  California"  was  peacefiillv  wending  its 
way  across  the  tropical  seas  eii  route  for  its  distant  ser\ice,  and  its  officeis  were 
wondering  what  on  earth  they  would  find  at  Panama  to  carry  to  California,  the 
exciting  story  came  to  the  Fastern  States  tliat  gold  had  been  discovered  in  tiie 
Sacramento  Valley  in  extraordinary  ([uantities.  The  officers  of  the  two  steam- 
ship lines  at  New  York  were  at  once  besieged  widi  applications  for  passage  to 
California.  "The  Falcon  "  went  out  loaded ;  and  when  ''The  California" 
came  into  the  harbor  of  Panama  to  get  advices  from  home,  before  going  on 
northward,  she   foi'nd  a  multitude  of  eager  gold-bcekers  there  awaiting  her 


li 


imvi 


592  INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 

arrival,  and  she  went  on  her  way  loaded  down  to  the  water's  edge  with 
passengers  and  freight.  Her  consorts  had  the  same  experience.  Both  steam- 
ship lines  were  a  magnificent  success  from  the  start;  and  they  themselves  did 
more  to  build  up  our  cjiipire  on  the  Pacific  rapidly  than  a  thousand  sailing- 
vessels  slowly  working  their  way  around  Cape  Horn  could  have  done.  Ijy 
1 85 1  there  were  nine  large  steamers  in  the  Atlantic  line  (one,  "The  Illinois," 
being  of  2,123  tons'  burden),  and  six  in  the  Pacific  line,  one  of  the  fleet,  '''I'hc 
Golden  (iate,"  being  of  2,068  tons'  burden.  The  two  lines  consolidated  into 
one  in  1865,  and  then  sent  out  steamers  to  China.  Since  the  foundation  t)f 
this  great  enterprise  other  coasting  steam-lines  have  been  started,  and  the 
number  of  them  now  is  legion.  They  ply  on  all  parts  of  the  three  coasts,  and 
between  all  principal  commercial  cities. 

The  growth  of  steam-tonnage  in  the  United  States  will  be  shown  by 
Statistics  of  the  following  table,  the  figures  beginning  in  1823,  because  the 
steam-ton-      stcam-tonnage  was  then  first  recorded  separately  :  — 

TONNAGE. 

IS23 24,879 

1830 64,472 

1840 202,309 

1850 525.434 

i860 867,937 

1870 1,075.095 

1876 1,172,372 

The  distribution  of  th's  tonnage  in  1876  was  as  follows  :  — 


NUMBER. 

TONNAGE. 

Atlantic  and  Gulf 

coasts 

2,081 

665,879 

Pacific  coast    . 



270 

78,439 

Northern  lakes 

. 

921 

201,742 

Western  rivers 



1,048 

226,312 

Total 



4.320 

I. '72,372 

The  principal  troul)le  of  the  early  builders  of  steamboats  in  this  country 
was  in  devising  a  proper  way  of  transmitting  the  power  of  the  steam-engine  to 
Difficulties  ^'^^'  water.  Fitch  tried  paddle-whcr;ls,  a  bank  of  oars,  and  a  screw- 
of  early  propeller.     Rumsey  tried  a  jet   oi  water.     Subsequent   inventors 

tried  a  vast  variety  of  d.nices.  One  was  an  endless  chain  carrying 
a  long  row  of  paddles  to  play  in  the  water  at  the  sides  of  the  boat  or  under- 
neath the  flilse  keel.  Another  was  the  side-fan  or  duck-foot  propeller :  boats 
were  supplied  with  a  whole  set  of  fins  on  each  side.     Another  plan  was  the 


«^-^<j' 


this  country 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


593 


triple-crank  paddle,  —  a  (jiteer  combination  of  paddles,  guiding-rods,  cranks, 
lVc,  the  object  of  which  was  to  employ  three  sets  of  paddles,  and  make  them 
(lip  straight  down  into  the  water,  describe  the  segment  of  an  ellipse  in  the 
water,  and  come  straight  out  again.  Any  number  of  devices  of  that  description 
were  tried.  Tlien  the  circular  paddle-wheel  was  experimented  with  in  a  hun- 
ilred  forms.  The  several  paddles  were  made  to  revolve  so  as  to  dip  into  and 
come  out  of  the  water  perpendicularly.  They  were  made  to  feather  in  the  air, 
to  fold  up,  and  perform  a  variety  of  other  gymnastic  feats.  Paddles  of  all  sorts 
of  geometrical  forms  were  tried,  —  tiiangular,  oblong,  pointed,  isic,  —  inventors 
being  possessed  ■■.•'ih  the  idea  that  an  imitation  of  the  tails  of  fast-swimming 
fishes  ought  to  be  had.  One  (jucer  invention  was  a  paddle-wheel  which  was 
intended  to  go  without  steam  by  a  pendulum  apparatus.  It  was  a  rival  of 
I'ulton  who  conceived  this  brilliant  thought.  The  wheels  of  his  boat  revolved 
like  fury,  indeed,  when  the  boat  was  on  the  stocks ;  but  when  it  was  launched, 
and  the  machine  set  in  motion,  the  boat  did  not  move  an  inch.  The  builders 
finally  settled  down  on  the  common  paddle-wheel  and  the  screw  as  the  only 
useful  and  practical  devices  ;  and,  though  all  the  old  ideas  are  being  continua"v 
re-invented,  nothing  has  ever  been  found  to  supersede  the  ones  named. 

Five  different  types  of  steamboats  have  grown  up  in  American  waters,  two 
of  them  peculiar  to  America,  and  without  equals  in  their  way  in  the  world. 
The  five  types  are  those  of  the  common  double-ender  ferry-boat,   „    . 

J  i-  ■'  '    Various 

driven  by  a  powerful,  quick-acting  engine  and  paddle-wheels ;  styles  of 
tlie  tug-boat,  a  little,  deep-hulled  craft,  with  engines  powerful  architect- 
enough  to  enable  them  to  handle  an  ocean-steamer,  sometimes 
demonstrating  four-hundred-horse  power  and  a  speed  of  fifteen  knots ;  the 
great  freight  and  passenger  propeller,  often  of  four  thousand  tons'  burden, 
driven  by  a  screw  at  the  stern,  for  ocean-service ;  the  American  side-wheel 
river-steamer ;  and  the  high-pressure,  side-wheel  Mississippi-river  steamer. 
The  American  river-steamers  are  models  of  beauty  and  speed,  and  are 
unequalled  anywhere  in  the  w^orld.  They  have  fine  clean  runs,  with  long, 
sharp  bows  as  keeu  as  razors.  They  divide  the  water,  instead  of  raising  it  into 
a  swell  like  the  old  style  of  Dutch  and  English  hulls,  and  allow  the  waves 
^^radually  to  unite  again  at  the  stern,  so  as  to  leave  scarce  any  other  swell 
behind  them  besides  that  raised  by  the  churning  of  the  wheels.  They  are 
remarkably  long  and  narrow,  being  often  twelve  times  as  long  ?is  they  are 
broad.  The  hull  is  built  for  lightness.  The  draught  is  generoMy  moderate. 
Tlie  great  weight  of  the  machinery  and  Iwilers  in  the  centre  is  supported  by  a 
truss,  somewhat  on  the  principle  of  a  bridge.  The  arches  of  the  truss  rise  high 
in  the  air  above  the  vessel,  and  give  to  the  structure  a  wonderful  rigidity.  The 
engines  are  low-pressure,  and  work  on  the  principle  of  the  Cornwall  pumping- 
engines,  with  a  remarkably  long,  quick  stroke  of  the  piston,  the  steam  being 
used  expansively.  The  American  river-])istons  often  travel  from  five  hundred 
to  six  hundred  feet  a  minute  ;  while  in  England  the  usual  rate  is  not  over  two 


594 


IND  US  TR I  A  L    IlfS  TOR  Y 


i<« 


is  ;l: 


•. 


Mi*''; 
I  •''1 


hundred  and  fifty.  The  boats  are  capable  of  a  speed  from  twenty  to  thirtv 
miles  an  hour.  Many  of  the  early  steamers  of  the  Collins,  Mills,  Vanderhilt. 
and  other  ocean  and  coasting  lines,  were  substantially  of  this  class  of  vessel, 
though  built  a  little  more  substantially  to  meet  the  strain  of  the  ocean-swells. 
The  magnificent  "Adriatic,"  Collins's  last  ship,  —  a  vessel  330  feet  long,  ex- 
ceeding 5,000  tons'  burden,  and  costing  over  $1,400,000,  built  in  1856,  —  had 
a  hull  more  of  the  present  lashion  of  ocean-steamers,  and  fairly  confirmed  the 
latter  style  of  hull  in  ocean-service.  The  Long-Island-Sound  steamers  are  of 
the  river  pattern,  and  are  now  the  hantlsomest  specimens  of  their  class  in  the 
country.  They  are  about  three  hundred  and  twenty-five  feet  long.  One 
peculiarity  of  the  river-steamers  is  their  huge  wheels  and  the  wheel-houses 
which  enclose  them.  On  tiie  Hudson  River  "  The  New  World  "  had  wheels 
forty-six  feet  in  diameter  ;  and  "  The  Thomas  Fowell,"  forty-feet  wheels.  The 
Sound  steamers  have  from  thirty-five-feet  to  forty-feet  wheels.  Large  wheels 
allow  the  blades  to  enter  and  leave  the  water  more  nearly  vertically,  and 
diminish  the  concussion. 

The  Mississippi-river  steamers  are  equally  long,  narrow,  and  sharp  witli 
those  just  described  ;  but  they  generally  have  high-pressure  engines,  and  they 
are  somewhat  larger,  and  of  lighter  draught.  Their  upper  works  are  some- 
what differently  arranged  ;  and  their  decks  are  broader,  in  order  to  secure 
more  cargo-room.  In  1876  there  was  launched  at  St.  Louis  one  of  those 
craft,  "The  Great  Republic,"  which  was  three  hundred  and  forty  feet  long, 
from  ten  to  seventeen  feet  hold,  fifty-seven  feet  beam,  and  a  width  of  deck  of 
a  hundred  and  three  feet.  Her  capacity  of  cargo  was  four  thousand  tons  ;  and 
she  could  carry  also  two  hundred  and  eighty  passengers,  and  then  ha\e  a 
draught  of  only  two  and  three-fourths  feet  forward,  and  four  feet  aft,  —  the 
peculiar  and  necessary  feature  of  Western  travel.  Her  wheels  were  thirty-se\  en 
feet  in  diameter,  and  her  cost  $200,000.  She  was  the  largest  river-steamboat 
in  the  world. 

The  screw-propeller  has,  within  the  last  twenty  years,  grown  very  popular 
for  ocean-travel.  Though  in\'ented  in  the  United  States,  it  was  neglected 
The  screw-  there  from  the  beginning.  In  1839  iMigland  took  up  the  idea,  and 
propeller.  gradually  introduced  \\  into  her  transatlantic  service.  Since  1861 
all  the  American  ocean  and  outside  coasting-steamers  have  adopted  propellers, 
and  the  side- wheelers  have  now  disappeared  from  the  ocean-service.  Only 
one  or  two  steamers  on  the  coast  still  retain  the  paddle. 

Very  recently,  however,  another  invention  has  appeared,  in  which  propul- 
sion and  steering  are  combined  in  the  same  apparatus.  The  screw  is  tlie  instru- 
ment employed  ;  but  it  is  so  adjusted  and  operated  as  to  perform  both  fimc- 
tions.  One  great  advantage  claimed  for  it  is,  the  course  of  a  vessel  may  be 
almost  instantly  changed,  thus  lessening  the  danger  of  collision  and  other 
similar  perils.  This  is  an  American  invention  ;  and  the  story  is  told,  that, 
during  a  recent  trial  in  British  waters,  one  of  the  persons  on  board  the  trial 


OF    THE    UMTED    STATES. 


595 


steamer,  being  desirous  of  knowing  how  (luickly  the  course  of  the  vessel  could 
be  changed  by  this  new  apparatus,  was  told  to  give  the  signal  tor  making  the 
ciiange,  when  his  curiosity  would  be  gratified.  Soon  after,  he  gave  the  signal ; 
and  the  course  of  the  steamer  was  so  suddenly  altered  as  to  lay  him  out 
sprawling  on  the  deck.  Recovering,  and  picking  himself  up  as  soon  as  he  was 
able,  he  declared  that  he  was  perfectly  satisfied  of  the  great  merits  of  the 
invention. 

According  to  Martin's  "  Year- Book,"  the  steam-tonnage  of  the  world  in 
1877  was  as  follows:  — 


Nl'MIlEK. 

TONNAGE. 

England 1,465 

1,470,158 

United  States 

.... 

I ,  I  76,000 

France     . 

522 

194,546 

(jcrmany 

i                   253 

167,633 

Portugal  . 

39 

36,000 

Austria    . 

78 

57,265 

Italy 

1           118 

37,810 

Belgium  . 

24 

30,397 

Netherlands 

86 

76,827 

Denmark 

123 

27,381 

Greece     . 

16 

6,048 

Chili 

22 

9,641 

China  and  Japan 

.... 

.<y^^i4^jf 


596 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


and  iron 
steamships 


CHAPTER   III. 

IRON    STEAMSHIPS. 

DURING  the  days  of  the  ocean-races  between  the  ships  of  the  Collins 
and  Cunard  steam-lines,  plying  between  New- York  City  and  Liverpool, 
two  splendid  steamers  left  England  the  same  week  for  the  run  to  America. 
Wooden  ^"^  ^^^^  "  ^''"^  Persia,"  of  the  Cunard  line  ;  the  other  the  magnifi- 
cent side-wheeler,  "  The  Pacific,"  of  the  Collins  line.  On  the  way 
across,  the  two  vessels  met  with  floating  ice.  The  sharp  bow 
of  the  iron-hulled  "  Persia  "  cut  the  ice  like  paper,  and  passed  through  in 
safety.  "The  Pacific,"  a  timber-ship,  was  broken  up  by  the  encounter,  and 
took  its  place  with  the  "  thousand  fearful  wrecks  "  which  strew  the  bottom 
of  the  sea  under  the  ocean  fury.  This  melancholy  event  called  the  attention 
of  the  two  continents  to  the  sea-going  qualities  of  iron  hulls ;  and  from  that 
day  to  the  present  the  steam-tonnage  which  has  been  launched  to  brave  the 
dangers  of  the  open  sea  has  been  built  in  greater  and  greater  degree  of  iron, 
until  at  present  wooden  steamers  for  deep-sea  navigation  are  built  nowhere  in 
the  world. 

Attention  was  turned  to  iron  ship-building  in  this  country  almost  simul- 
taneously with  the  rise  of  the  art  in  Phigland.  The  first  iron  boat  was  probably 
First  iron  imported  from  England  for  trial;  but  as  early  as  1825,  only  four 
craft  in  years  after  the  first  iron  steamboat  was  built  in  Europe,  a  little  craft 

merica.  ^^  similar  design  and  material  was  launched  at  York,  Penn.,  for 
plying  in  the  trade  on  the  Susquehanna  River.  This  little  vessel  was  "  The 
Codorus."  It  had  a  wooden  frame,  and  drew  twelve  inches  of  water.  This 
was  the  first  iron  boat  ever  constructed  in  America.  The  bars  in  the  Suscjuc- 
hanna  at  low  water  seriously  interfering  even  with  the  trips  of  so  light  draught  a 
vessel  as  "  The  Codorus,"  she  was  sent  South  to  i)ly  on  some  river  in  llint 
section  of  the  country,  and  where  she  was  destined  to  a  long  cart'cr  of  useful- 
ness. The  buoyancy  and  strength  of  this  jr.  "'iminary  boat  led  to  the  con- 
struction of  several  others  in  Pennsylvania  and  New  York  for  river-navigation 
within  the  next  ten  years.  They  varied  from  a  hundred  to  three  hundreil  tons' 
burden. 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


597 


)ugh  ill 


E 


In  1839  a  steamer  entirely  of  iron  was  constructed  at  Pittsburgh,  Penn, 
called  "  The  Valley  Forge."  Her  hull  and  lower  deck  were  entirely  of  iron, 
the  former  of  fourth-inch  plates,  the  latter  of  eighth-inch  plates.    , 

TT         r  r  I  1  """^  Steamer 

Her   frame    was   of   angle    and   '1    iron.      '•  The  Valley   Forge "   constructed 
was    a    rapid    boat,    easily    managed,    and    ])assed    successfully  "*  P'"s- 
through  several  encounters  with  snags  which  would  have   sunk  a     ""^  " 
wooden  boat.     She  ran  until  the  summer  of  1845  as  a  packet-boat  between 
Nashville  and  New  Orleans,  and  was  then  withdrawn,  and  cut  up  into  mer- 
chant-iron, nails,  spikes,  &c.     She  was  broken  \\\),  not  because  she  was  an  iron 
l)oat,  but  because  Western   trade  then   required  a  larger  class  of  steamers. 
"  The  Valley  Forge  "  carried  only  two  hundred  tons  of  freight,  whereas  thou- 
sand-ton vessels  were  beginning  to  be  needed. 

By  1842  there  was  a  line  of  iron  steamboats  in  the  coasting-trade  between 
Hartford  and  Philadelphia,  a  line  of  five  iron  boats  on  the  Savannah  River, 
(ia.,  and    a   con- 
siderable  number 
of  iron   tugs  ply- 
ing in  the  harbors 

of    the     Progress 

North,  "':tiii842. 
and  on  the  Dela- 
ware and  Raritan 
Canal.  The  light- 
er frames  and 
hulls  and  general 
tlurability  of  these 

boats  recommended  them  to  shipping-men.  The  l)uilding  of  them  stopped 
shortly  before  the  war  of  1861,  however,  for  the  reason  that  our  foreign, 
coastwise,  and  internal  commerce  had  grown  to  enormous  pro'portions,  and 
required  the  use  of  vessels  of  great  size,  for  the  construction  of  which  iron  was 
so  costly,  that  vessels  built  of  that  material  could  not  compete  with  wooden 
vessels  for  freights.  Besides  that,  few  builders  owned  the  capital  necessary 
for  putting  up  the  expensive  shops  and  powerful  machinery  suited  to  the 
business. 

The  war,  so  great  a  calamity  to  the   country  in  diverting  from  peaceful 
industry  and  agriculture  for  four  years  millions  of  the  flower  of  om-  population, 
and  leaving  behind  it  desolated  homes  and  a  great  debt,  was  a   ^^^^^^  ^j 
great  stimulus  to  many  inqjortant  branches  of  national  industry,   war  upon 
Iron   ship-buildiiii^t  was  one   of  tiiem.     (lovernment  contracts  for  ,"^°."  ^'^'''' 

'  "  building. 

constructing  the  monitors   and  iron  floating- batteries  of  the  war 
enabled  various    builders    in    places  adjacent  to   the   iron-regions   to  supply 
themsehes  with  rolling-mills,  machine-sliops,  and  apparatus  of  great  power 
and  value,  which,  with  the  advent  of  peace,  could  be  employed  in  construct- 


STEAMSHIP.  —  IINARD    LINE. 


,iu>.-,tiJ,ysJ|.^ 


I  ■'  > 


<!i-1 


i ;  V} 


I!'     h 

III         '1 


598 


/A'l>  US  TR I A  L    HIS  TOR  Y 


ing  merchant-ships  of  every  class.  At  the  dose  of  the  war,  pig-iron  was 
fifty-eigiit  (h)lkirs  a  ton;  by  1868  it  had  dropped  to  thirty-eight  dollar^  a 
ton.  'l"he  general  advantages  of  iron  nierehant-ships  having  (hsposed  the 
mercantile  community  toward  tliat  ty|)e  of  vessels,  orders  were  tivjn  giviu 
for  the  construction  of  several ;  and  the  art  has  ever  since  been  practised  on 
a  continually-growing  scale.  Since  1868  nearly  all  of  the  steamships  built 
for  (he  coasting-trade  of  the  United  States,  all  of  those  for  the  foreign  tradr, 
and  many  for  sound,  river,  and  lake  navigation,  have  been  built  of  inm. 
It  is  evident,  that,  in  all  these  trades,  iron  hulls  must  eventually  supersede 
those  (jf  the  more  perishable  material.  They  are  lighter,  and  last  twii  c 
as  long.  American  iron  has  superior  (lualities  for  the  purpose  ;  it  permits 
the  use  of  lighter  frames  and  plating. 

The  years    1873  and    1873   constituted   a  new  era   in  the  history  of  this 

The  years       industry.     The  I'ennsylvania  Railroad  had  resolved  to  establish  a 

1872-73-  hue   of  first-class  ocean-steamships  to    run  from   Philadelphia  in 

Liverpool,  to  ft)rm   the   sea-division  of  its   line   of   communication  betwcni 

the  fruitful  and  i)opulous  interior  of  the  United  States  and  lun-onc. 

American  '     '  ' 

line  of  Its  interest  in  the  matter  induced  a  number  of  merchants  of  Phila- 

steamers  to  jlL-jphia  to  or^aui/c  a  comi)any  to  build  a  line  of  American  ii  11 
Europe.  '  '^  '        •' 

Steamers  to  run  Irom  that  tity  m  competition  with  tne  foreign  lines 
from  New  York.  The  railroad  company  became  a  stockholder,  ai.d  guaran- 
teed the  bonds  of  the  new  organization  to  the  amount  of  $1,500,000.  Under 
this  arrangement,  proposals  from  builders  were  asked  for.  William  Uramp  i\; 
Sons  of  Philadelphia,  a  firm  whose  yard  had  been  established  in  1830,  were 
the  successful  bidders.  They  agreed  to  lay  the  keels  of  four  iron  steamships 
of  3,016  tons'  burden,  355  feet  long,  to  draw  twenty  feet  six  incnes  in  fresh 
water,  capable  of  carrying  920  passengers  and  a  full  cargo,  at  a  speed  of 
eleven  knots  and  a  half  per  hour,  with  a  consumption  of  forty  tons  of  coal 
per  day,  for  $2,080,000.  The  firm  comprised  men  of  long  experience  ;  but 
they  fortified  themselves  before  beginning  the  ships  by  an  examination  ot' 
the  yards  on  the  River  Clyde  in  England  and  the  best  specimens  of  foreiL;n 
steam-shipping.  They  resolved  to  build  four  ships  which  should  in  evriy 
respect  excel  those  of  foreign  construction  employed  in  the  traffic  of  the 
Atlantic,  and  they  did  build  them  in  a  thorough  manner.  "  The  Pennsyl- 
vania "  was  launched  Aug.  15,  1872;  "The  Ohio,"  Oct.  30,  1872;  "The 
Indiana,"  March  25,  1873;  and  "The  Illinois,"  June  15,  1873.  The  line 
went  into  operation  in  July,  1873.  This  is  now  the  only  line  of  steamships 
carrying  the  American  flag  across  the  Atlantic.  Its  captains  are  under 
positive  orders  never  to  incur  risk  for  the  sake  of  making  a  quick  passage.  — 
a  policy  followed  liy  the  Cunard  line,  the  oldest  in  the  Atlantic  trade,  and 
successfid  in  an  eminent  degree  in  inspiring  the  confidence  of  the  travelling 
community.  The  ohips  have,  nevertheless,  made  better  average  time  than  the 
foreign  steamers  running  out  of  the  same  port.     The  passage  to  Liverpool 


I  1) 


(-iron  was 
<l()llar^  ;i 

»)SL'(1    lllc 

i'.vii  j,M\rii 
;irlisf(l  (111 
lii|)s  built 
igii  traik'. 
t  of  in.ii. 
su|)crs(.(l(.' 
1st  twice 
it  pcniiits 

>ry  of  tliis 
establish  a 
Uclphia  lo 

K'tWf  I  II 

.  I']iir()|n.'. 

of  I'liila- 
rican  ir  n 
cign  liiiis 
d  gtianm- 
Undn- 

Cramp  A; 
S30,  were 
iteamsliips 
s  in  fresh 
si)eed  of 
IS  of  coal 
:ncc;  hut 
nation  of 
if  foreign 

in  every 
fie  of  the 

Pennsyl- 
2;  "'J  he 
The  line 
eamships 
re  nnder 
issage,  — 
ade,  and 
travelh'iig 
than  the 
Liiverpool 


O/-     TIIK    IWITED    STATES. 


599 


averages  eleven  flays  nine  hours.  More  favorable  rates  of  insurance  have 
been  granted  to  these  steamships  than  to  any  others  in  the  Atlantic  service, 
two  t 'unarders  alone  excepted.  The  vessels  have  been  a  success  '  .oth 
financially  and  mechanically. 

While  the  American  line  was  building,  two  iron  steamships  of  large  size 
were  constructing  at  the  yard  of  Joiin   Koach  (S:  Son,  a  short  distance  helow 
tlie  city,  —  the  largest  works  of  the  kind  in  the  coiuitry.     These 
were  "The  City  of  Peking  "  and  " 'I'iie  City  of  Tokio."  ordered    shlps^Jor*"" 
by  the  Pacific  Mail  Steamship  Company  for  its  transT'acific  service    Pacific  Mail 
to  Japan  and  China.     They  were  to  be  the  largest  iron  merchant-   ^teamship 

•     '  ■'  "  Company. 

steamers  in   tiie  ocean  carrying-trade  of  the  world.     '' 'i'iie  (Ireat 
Eastern  "  was  the  only  iron  vessel  which  excelled  tliein  in  si/.e  ;  but  that  vessel 
was  a  commercial  failure,  and  was  not  actively  employed  in  trade.     The  build- 
ing of  these  two  vessels  excited  that  extraordinarv  interest  in  the  United  States 


"— .■.>^^^iieir^-><i*3'fe8-# 


sT^:AM^m^.  —  \vihti>s tak  line. 

which  daring  enterprise,  and  any  effort  for  the  supremacy  of  the  national  flag 
ai  sea,  have  always  aroused.  The  launching  of  "The  City  of  Peking"  in  March, 
1S74,  was  made  the  occasion  of  a  great  celebration,  which  was  attended  b\'  a 
delegation  from  both  houses  of  Congress,  and  by  merchants  from  the  leading 
cities  of  the  counlrv.  "•The  City  (jf  Tokio  "  was  launched  soon  afterwards. 
Both  ships  have  since  been  ein])loycd  with  eminent  success  in  the  trade  (A 
the  Pacific.  They  each  carry  over  5,000  tons  of  freight  and  1,650  passengers, 
and  are  crack  ships  in  every  respect.  They  are  423  feet  long.  "  The  City  of 
Peking"  made  the  fastest  trip  ever  made  across  the  Pacific  in  1S75,  burning 
forty-five  tons  of  coal  a  day  ;  while  the  vessels  of  the  Occidental  and  Oriental 
line,  which  run  in  competition  with  her,  owned  anfl  built  in  England,  burn 
sixty  tons  a  day,  running  on  schedule  time.  These  vessels  have  engines  of 
5,000  horse  power,  and  are  driven  ordinarily  at  a  speed  of  fifteen  knots  and  a 
half  per  hour.  They  can  run  to  Hong  Kong  from  San  Francisco  in  twenty- 
two  days. 


! 


»:  :.{ 


'IH 


1 


I 


?"l 


! 


H 


m 

..j'i'i , 


„.  .*; 


m 


m 


'iii:, 


built  since 
1866 


600  INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 

These  ships  placed  upon  the  building  of  iron  incrrhant-stcamcrs  in  the 
United  Stales  the  final  stamp  of  success,  and  they  initiated  tiie  era  of  large 
MaBniflcence  ^''^'"riers  running  at  great  speed  with  a  small  consumption  of  coal. 
of  new  Since  they  were  unilertaken,  the  number  of  wooden  steamers  for 

steamers.  ^|^^,  coasting  and  foreign  trade  built  in  this  country  might  almost 
be  counted  on  one's  fingers.  No  one  now  builds  of  any  thing  e.xccpl  iron  for 
those  trades.  Some  magnificent  vessels  of  the  river  type  of  steamer,  of  wood, 
jiave  been  pnxhiced  for  the  traflic  tlnough  Long- Island  Scjund  between  New 
York  and  the  cities  of  New  Mngland.  liut  this  is  not  coasting-navigation 
projjcr :  it  is  more  like  river-navigation.  The  hulls  of  some  of  these  vessels 
are  of  iron,  however. 

The  class  of  steamship  which  has  been  building  for  the  coasting-trade  is 
unlike  any  other  in  use  in  the  world.  It  has  the  beautifiil  bow  and  run  which 
Ships  for  the  ^^''^^''-'  ''^l^^'-'^y^  characterized  American  vessels.  Hull,  frame,  and 
coasting-  generally  bodi  decks,  arc  of  iron.  'I'hey  are  fitted  with  scrcw- 
^^^  '■  jiropellers,   water-tight    bulkheads,   comi)ound    engines,   and    two 

masts,  though  sometimes  three,  and  range  from  1,800  to  2,500  tons'  burden. 
„     .       .      Tliey  are  of  light  draught,  so  as  to  enter  Southern  harbors  witii 

Number  of  -'  '^  "      ' 

iron  vessels  facility;  and  some  of  the  recent  vessels  built  at  Chester  contain 
tanks,  to  be  filled  with  sea-water  and  enii)tied,  to  assist  them  over 
the    bars   when    needed.     Tlie   number  of  iron  vessels  built  for 

American  owners  since  1866  was,  in  June,  1877,  as  near  as  can  be  computed, 

250.     They  ranked  as  follows  :  — 

Less  than  100  tons 57 

From  100  to  500  tons "j-x, 

From  500  to  1,000  tons 40 

P'roni  1,000  to  2,000  tons 61 

From  2,000  to  3,000  tons 9 

From  3,000  to  4,000  tons .  8 

Over  5,000  tons 2 

The  total  tonnage  June  30,  1877,  was  191,490.  Of  the  whole  number, 
only  three  were  sailing-craft.  In  addition  to  the  above,  a  number  of  small  iron 
steamboats  were  built,  and  exported  to  South  America  to  run  on  the  Amazon 
and  other  rivers. 

Iron  ship-building  keeps  naturally  in  the  vicinity  of  the  iron  and  coal 
mines  :  it  is  leaving  Boston,  New  York,  and  other  cities  distant  therefrom, 
Location  of  and  Concentrating  on  the  Delaware.  While  the  business  is  des- 
business.  tined  to  reach  such  proportions  eventually  as  to  require  the  open- 
ing of  iron  shipyards  in  all  parts  of  the  country,  particularly  on  the  Missis- 
sippi River  and  the  \\'estern  lakes,  there  are  at  present  only  four  firms  of 
prominence  in  the  business,  and  not  over  ten  in  all.  The  oldest  is  that  of 
William  Cramp  &  Sons  at  Philadelphia.     This  yard  was  established  in  1830  :  it 


'^|jj»^..^ 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


60 1 


was  engaged  in  Iniilding  of  wood  until  1860,  when  it  construrted  "The  New 
Ironsides"  ant]  a  niunber  of  ironclads,  and  has  been  engrossed  with  iron-work 
ever  since.  Since  completing  the  iron  steamers  for  the  American  line  to 
I'iiirope,  it  has  produced  six  iron  colliers  for  the  Reading  Railroad,  of  1,200 
tons'  capacity  each,  and  224  feet  long;  "'l"he  Columbus,"  an  iron  screw 
vessel  of  1,850  tons  for  the  coasting-trade,  the  larj^'est  which  in  1874  had  then 
been  built  for  that  service  ;  and  a  number  of  other  coasters  and  tugs,  besides 
doing  a  large  amount  of  government  re[)airing.  'l"he  works  vvill  emi)loy  12,000 
men.  At  Wilmington  are  situated  tlie  yards  of  the  Harlan  iV  Hollingsworth 
Company,  and  Pusey,  Jones,  &  Company.  'I'he  former  concern  is  also  e.xten- 
sively  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  railroad-cars,  arid  employs  1,000  men. 
It  has  built  several  of  the  Pacific  mail-steamers,  and  some  of  the  finest  boats 
on  the  coast.  The  latter  firm  has  made  a  sj)ecialty  of  work  for  the  South- 
American  rivers.  The  principal  firm  of  iron  ship-builders  is  John  Roach  & 
Son  of  Chester,  Penn.  Over  $2,000,000  has  been  invested  by  Miis  concern  in 
shops  and  machinery ;  and  the  most  powerful  mechanical  appliances  in  the 
country  are  to  be  seen  at  the  yard  at  Chester  and  the  engine-works  in  New 
York.  Over  $15,000,000  has  been  paid  out  by  the  firm,  from  1872  to  the 
present  time,  for  wages  and  materials  ;  and  thirty-five  iron  ocean-steamers  have 
l)een  built,  besides  extensively  repairing  and  overhauling  the  government  iron- 
clads. Thirteen  iron  steamers  were  built  by  this  yard  in  1877,  from  1,800  to 
2,500  tons'  burden,  to  ply  in  the  trade  to  Southern  ports,  the  Wes^  Indies,  and 
Brazil.  The  firm  employ  1,800  men.  Tiie  Penn  Iron-Works  at  Philadeljihia 
have  also  been  engaged  in  building  iron  ships  for  several  years.  In  addition  to 
these,  the  Reading  Railroad  Company  has  invested  a  large  amount  of  capital 
in  shops  at  Port  Richmond  on  the  Delaware  for  the  purpose  of  buildmg  iron 
colliers  for  its  large  distribution  of  coal  to  points  on  the  coast.  The  intention 
is  to  have  a  fleet  of  fifty  iron  colliers.  Fourteen  of  these  have  been  built  t  the 
other  shipyards  on  the  Delaware.  They  range  from  525  to  1,500  tons'  burden. 
The  boats  which  are  to  be  built  in  the  future  will  belong  to  the  larger  class. 
At  Buffalo  the  construction  of  iron  tonnage  for  the  trade  to  the  West  has  been 
going  on  for  five  years.  A  number  of  lar':e  and  stanch  propellers  have  been 
built  for  the  Anchor  line  of  teamers  plying  between  I'>ie  and  the  Western 
cities  in  the  grain,  provision,  and  passenger  traffic,  which  are  in  all  respects 
superior  vessels.  In  1872  13,000  tons  were  built  at  Buffalo,  and  20,000  tons 
in  1874.  The  past  year,  f>nly  two  tugs  have  been  produced.  A  yard  has  also 
been  opened  at  Wyandotte    Mich.,  and  one  at  New  Orleans. 

It  is  believed  that  iron  hulls  will  eventually  replace  the  old-fashioned  style 
in  the  general  business  of  the  Ohio,  Mississippi,  and  other  great  Western 
streams.  Experience  has  shown  the  wisdom  of  changing  to  iron.  Future  of 
In  a  wooder  /essel  of  3,000  tons'  burden,  500  tons  of  freight-  "■°"  vessels, 
room  are  sac.ificed  by  the  thicker  beams  and  shell  of  the  vessel.  A  ship  of 
the  same  outward  size  built  of  iron  carries  500  tons  more  freight.     Besides 


I 


,  iU,  4,  ^.iiuyl ' 


6oa 


IND  US  TRIA  L    HIS  TOR  Y 


fir 


\\\\\ 


this  ^Tcat  ndvantaRC,  another  is  j^ained  from  the  fart  that  the  iron  ship  lasts  so 
nuich  loD^^Tr.  Those  now  l)ein^'  produced  by  tiie  American  yards  secure  tlir 
rating  of  A  i  lor  twenty  years,  and  are  liable,  at  the  end  of  twenty  years,  to  In- 
useful  for  ten  years  Kjnger  at  least.  A  gootl  stanch  ship  will  last  the  men  ham 
until  he  is  ready  to  retire  from  business,  antl  turn  over  the  affairs  of  his  house 
to  a  younger  generation.  Iron  vessels  have  now  been  tried  for  fifty  years, 
under  all  cirrimistances  of  storm  and  tempests,  collisions  with  ici-,  stranding 
on  tlie  coast,  and  accidents  of  every  description.  'I'hey  have  constantly  slioun 
their  superiority,  and  have  saved  to  theii  owners  millions  of  dollars  whu  li 
would  have  been  lost  in  wooden  vessels  subjected  to  the  same  trials.  'I'Irsc 
facts  have  rendered  them  popular  with  the  commercial  world.  No  one  now 
thinks  of  building  of  wood  for  the  open  sea<  any  more  than  of  hunting  buff.iK) 
witli  pop-guns. 

The  fall  in  the  price  of  iron  since  the  war  is  giving  a  great  stimulus  lu  tins 
business.     It  has  a  brilliant  future  before  it. 


'US' 


iWH|i| 

h^hmi^ 

f  m 

\  \}X--\ 

m^^H^^HB 

c      •'< 

jii':'' 

I^I^^^hUhjIV^h 

nffiH^MULugi 

jlili 

'  ■''';  i 

^jj^Mfw 

\'-l^\ 

•MIBtom 

\\X^  :> 

HmIm^  iI 

HHuHf 

I  :,,;-'| 

Im 

^^1 

^Hl 

mm 

Ol-     rill:     IMTKD    STATES. 


Ooj 


C'lIAI'Ti.K    IV. 


\ 


\ 


(AX  A  IS. 

Til I'l  project  of  iiniliiij,'  thf  dillfiuiU  parts  of  our  conmion  domain  with 
artificial  water-ways  occurred  very  distinctly  to  tlie  minds  of  the  states- 
men of  the  Revolutionary  period,  who,  not  beinj;  so  embarrassed  Condition  of 
as  the  public  men  of  the  present  day  with  current  ([uestions  of  e»riy  roads- 
vast  and  immediate  importance,  had  more  time  to  think  of  tiie  future,  and  tin- 
directions  which  ^^!lOuld  be  ^(iven  to  development  and  public  effort.  The 
wagon-roads  of  the  country  in  Revolutionary  days  were  in  a  shockin,!,^  (ondi- 
tion.  None  of  them  were  what  would  be  called  good  roads  at  the  prestnt 
day;  and  the  majority  were  in  a  dreadful  state,  full  of  ruts  .md  pit-holes  where 
the  track  was  dry,  and  corduroyecl  with  trunks  of  large  trees  wherever  the 
trac  k  was  wet.  V<i\\  streams  were  bridged  ;  and  the  crossings  of  all  of  them, 
by  constant  use,  were  so  worn  as  to  be  difficult  and  dangerous.  The  Cones- 
toga  wagons,  which  did  the  overland  freighting  of  the  country,  were  continually 
beinr,  nired  ;  and  there  was  scarce  a  highway  in  the  land  whi(  h  did  not  have, 
as  a  part  of  its  regular  and  necessary  furniture,  a  large  supply  of  rails  lying  .it 
the  roadside,  to  be  used  in  prying  unfortunate  teams  out  of  the  mud.  The 
need  of  some  better  plan  of  transportation  wp.-,  fiiliy  realized  by  the  men  of 
the  day,  and  canals  were  among  the  earliest  expedients  suggested.  'J'he 
improvement  of  such  highways  as  were  a\ailable  for  foot-routes  received  the 
earliest  attention  of  Congress  ;  but  canals  were  discussed  by  the  people  in  the 
several  States,  and  their  value  was  fiilly  appreciated.  Massachusetts  proposed 
a  canal  from  IJoston  to  the  Connecticut  Riveras  early  as  1792.  and  a  large 
number  of  schemes  were  originated  in  all  the  States.  The  lack  of  public  and 
I)rivate  capital,  however,  i^revcnted  any  diing  being  done  for  their  construction 
in  the  Revolutionary  period. 

The  war  of  181 2  made  our  people  see  the  danger  of  delaying  the  improve- 
ment of  the  internal  ways  of  communication  any  longer.  It  became  a])|)arent 
that  recourse  could  not  be  had  to  the  open  sea  to  reach  different  parts  of 
the  coast  in  times  of  war,  and  that  wagon-roads  were  iiiadecjuate  to  the 
needs  of  the  country  in  such  emergencies.     At  the  close  of  the  Revolution 


F-  "HI 


6oA 


IND  US  TRIA  I.    HIS  TOR  Y 


\\ ;.  11 


llf-  "•  A 


:8!j'l 


• V> 


M 


Eri"  Tsnal. 


Mr.  Morris  had  suggested   tlie  union  of  the  cliain  of  Great  Lakes  with    the 

Effect  of  Hudson   River,  and    in    1812   he  again  advocated  it.     De  Witt 

war  of  i8i2  Clinton  of  New  York,  one  of  the  most  vahial)le  men  of  his  day, 

upon  the  ^^qj^        ^j^j^  \^\^Qr^  ^nd  brought  the  leacHng  men  of  his  State  to  lend 

subject.  ' 

him  their  support  m  pushuig  it.  lo  dig  a  canal  all  the  way  from 
Albany  to  Lake  lOrie  was  a  pretty  formidable  undertaking :  *he  State  of  New 
Yor';  accordingly  invited  the  Federal  Ciovernmcnt  to  assist  in  the 
enterprise.  The  canal  was  as  desirable  on  national  grounds  as  on  any 
<)<  her.  The  proposition  met  with  a  rebuff,  however ;  and  then  the  Empire  State 
iesolved  to  bu'ld  the  canal  herself.  Surveyors  were  sent  out  to  locate  a  line  for 
it,  and  on  the  4th  of  July,  181 7,  ground  was  broken  for  a  canal  by  De  Witt 
Clinton,  >vho  was  then  governor  of  the  State.  The  canal  (363  miles  long)  was 
built  in  eight  years,  at  an  original  cost  of  $7,143,789.  The  completion  of  the 
work  in  1825  was  the  occasion  of  great  public  rejoicing.  A  boat  loaded  with 
distinguished  guests  started  from  Lake  Erie,  fi'-st  taking  on  board  some  of  the 
water  of  the  lake.  Its  progress  to  the  Hr  .'.son  River  was  attended  by  a  con- 
stant succession  of  public  demonstrations  of  the  most  enthusiastic  character. 
When  the  boat  had  reached  the  Hudson  River,  and  Lake  Lrie  was  for- 
mally wedded  to  that  stream  by  pouring  the  waters  of  the  lake  into  the  river, 
the  event  was  signalized  by  the  firing  of  a  gun  ;  and  the  nevs  was  carried  all 
the  way  back  to  Buffalo  the  same  day  by  the  sound  of  signal-guns,  which  were 
Champiain  ready  for  the  event  all  along  the  line,  and  which  passed  the  news 
Canal.  along  westward  by  firing  a  i-.alute.     The  same  year  that  the  I'.rie 

Canal  was  begun,  ground  was  also  broken  in  New-York  State  for  a  canal  from 
Lake  Champiain  to  the  Hudson,  sixty-three  miles  in  length.  This  work  was 
completed  in  1823. 

The  cjnstruction  of  these  two  water-ways  was  attended  with  the  most 
interesting  consequences.  Even  before  they  were  completed,  their  value  had 
become  clearly  apparent.  Itoats  were  placed  upon  the  Erie  Canal 
aj  fast  as  the  different  levels  were  ready  for  use,  and  set  to  work 
in  active  transportation.  They  were  small  affairs  compared  with 
those  of  the  present  day,  being  about  fifty  or  sixty  tons'  burden, 
the  modern  canal-boat  being  a  hundred  and  eighty  or  two  hun- 
dred tons.  Small  as  they  were,  they  reduced  the  cost  of  transportation 
immediately  to  one-tenth  what  it  had  been  before.  A  ton  of  freiglit  by  land 
from  Buffalo  to  Albany  cost  at  that  time  a  hundred  dollars.  When  the  canal 
was  opened  its  entire  length,  the  cost  of  freight  fell  from  fifteen  to  twenty- 
five  dollars  a  ton,  according  to  the  class  of  article  carried ;  and  the  time 
of  transit,  from  twenty  to  eight  days.  Wheat  at  that  time  was  worth  only 
thirty-three  dollars  a  ton  in  Western  New  York,  and  it  diil  not  pay  to  send 
it  by  land  to  New  York.  When  sent  to  market  at  all,  it  was  floated  down 
the  Susquehanna  to  Baltimore,  as  being  the  cheapest  and  best  market.  The 
canal  changed  that.     It  now  became  possible  to  send  to  market  a  wide  vari- 


Effect  of 
canals  in 
cheapening 
transpoita- 
tion. 


\  li 


OF    THE    UNITED    SJA'r^s. 


605 


ety  of  agricultural  produce,  —  fruit,  grain,  vegetables,  &c.,  —  which,  before  the 
canal  was  built,  eitlier  had  no  value  at  all,  or  which  could  not 
l)e  disposed  of  to  such  good  advantage.     It  is  claimed  by  the   market  (or 
original  promoter^  of  the   iOrie  Canal  who  lived  to  see  its  bene-   vast  quan- 
ficial   effects   experienced    by   the    peoi)le   of    t'e   country,    that  *'*''?  °' 

'  •'  '        '  ^  prodi'ce. 

that  work,  costing  less  than  $8,000,000,  and  paying  its  whole 
cost  of  construction  in  a  very  few  years,  added  $100,000,000  to  the  value 
of  the  farms  of  New  York  by  opening  up  good  and  ready  markets  for  their 
products.  The  canal  had  another  result.  It  made  New-York  City  the 
commercial  metropolis  of  the  ountry.  An  old  letter,  written  by  a  resident 
of  Newport,  R.I.,  in  that  age,  has  lately  been  discovered,  which  speaks 
of  New- York  City,  and  says,  "  If  we  do  not  look  out.  New  York  will  get 
ahead  of  us."  Newport  was  then  one  of  the  principal  seaports  of  the 
country :  it  had  once  been  the  first.  New  York  certainly  did  "  get  ahead 
of  us  "  after  the  ICrie  Canal  was  built.  It  got  ahead  of  every  other  y^^^^  j^  ^^_ 
commercial  city  on  the  coast.  Freight,  which  had  previously  fected  New- 
gone  overland  from  Ohio  and  the  West  to  Pittsburgh,  and  thence  °^^  "*' 
to  Philadelphia,  costing  $120  a  ton  between  the  two  cities  named,  now  went 
to  New  York  by  way  of  the  Hudson  River  and  P'rie  Canal  and  the  lakes. 
Manufactures  and  groceries  returned  to  the  West  by  the  same  route,  and  New 
York  became  a  flourishing  and  growing  emporium  immediately.  The  l'>ie 
Canal  was  enlarged  in  1835,  so  as  to  permit  the  passage  of  boats  of  a  hundred 
tons'  burden  ;  and  the  result  was  a  stiP.  further  reduction  of  the  cost  of  freight- 
ing, expansion  of  traffic,  and  an  increase  of  the  general  benefits  conferred  by 
the  canal.  The  Champlain  Canal  had  an  effect  ujjon  the  farms  and  towns  lying 
along  Lake  Champlain,  in  Vermont  and  New  York,  kindred  in  character  to 
that  above  described  in  respect  to  the  Erie  Canal.  It  brought  into  the  market 
lands  and  produce  which  before  had  been  w v  ••thless,  and  was  a  great  blessing 
to  all  concerned. 

The  effect  of  the  example  of  New-York  Stxte  was  magical.  All  th -;  old 
projects  in  New  F.ngland,  Pennsylvania,  and  '  ne  South,  for  water-ways  from 
point  to  1  tint  in  the  domains  of  the  several  States,  and  to  unite 
the  people  of  one  State  with  those  of  another,  bloomed  again  into      „  .     .   „ 

11  '  o  construction 

being,  as  though  the  naked  woods  and  sear  hillsides  had  felt  the  of  the  Erie 
breath  of  a  celestial  spring.     Tiie  consecpienccs  of  the  building      t"j  1^"' '"" 

of  the  Erie  Canal  were  foreseen  by  everybody  before  the  work  was  building  of 

completed  ;  and  public  men  did  not  wait  to  hear  the  firing  of  the  ^'miiar  un- 

'  '  '  °  dertakings. 

guns  over  the  achievement  of  l)e  Witt  Clinton's  great  idea  before 
they  set  about  planning  similar  works  for  the  good  of  their  own  States.  It 
took  several  years  of  agitation  before  much  was  accomplished  ;  but  the  stimulus 
afforded  by  the  building  of  the  Erie  Canal  succeeded  in  bringing  about  tiie 
execution  of  a  great  many  important  works.  No  less  than  twenty  branch 
canals  were  planned  at  once  in  New-York  State.     Among  those  projectetl  in 


How  the 


.-aAituj^Ji 


■■  m, 


\PM"fl 


iimi 


.*  m 


11)''  ■  '^^* 


B^P  t    lill'^'fj 


6c6 


INDUSTRIAL    I U  STORY 


Other  States  were  one  from  Boston  to  the  Connecticut  River ;  one  from 
Worcester  to  Providence,  "on  whicn,"  it  was  said,  "there  would  be  a  mighty 
transpoaation,"  it  Ijcing  estimated  that  "a  hundred  tons  of  cheese  and  seven- 
ty-five tons  of  pork  would  annually  find  an  outlet  in  it ;  "  a  canal  from  Balti- 
more to  Pittsburgh ;  others  from  Long-Island  Sound  across  the  State  of 
Maryland,  and  from  the  Ohio  River  to  Lake  Erie ;  and  yet  others  in  Virginia 
and  Pennsylvania.  It  was  a  i)eriod  of  great  excitement  and  public  effort ;  and 
time  would  fail  to  tell  of  the  brilliant  and  extensive  schemes  which  filled  the 
minds  of  all  the  people  at  that  time,  and  whose  merits  were  the  constant  theme 
of  popular  discussion.  Some  of  these  works  were  never  built,  as  the  capital 
could  not  be  commanded  to  construct  them.  Many  of  them  were,  however, 
completeil,  to  the  great  benefit  of  the  several  States. 

Pennsyhania  was  one  of  the  first  in  the  field  in  practical  work.  She 
resolved  to  build  a  canal  to  the  western  part  of  the  State  for  the  double  pur- 
Karrisburgh  P^^'^  ^^  gi^'ing  an  impetus  to  the  agricultural  and  manufacturing 
and  Pitts-  interests  of  her  own  State,  and  also  in  order  to  secure  to  the  city 
burgh  Canal,  ^j-  Philadelphia  a  share  of  the  trade  with  the  West.  A  line  of 
communication  from  Philadelphia  to  Pittsburgh  was  accordingly  planned,  and 
undertaken  at  the  State's  expense.  The  project  was  agitated  for  several  years 
before  the  people  at  large  could  be  brought  to  the  point  of  sustaining  a  route 
of  such  magnitude;  and  it  was  not  until  1826,  therefore,  that  ground  was 
finally  broken  for  a  canal;  but  earth  was  turned  at  Harrisburgh  July  4,  1826, 
and  the  work  was  thereafter  prosecuted  with  vigor.  A  good  canal  was  in 
operation  from  Columbia  on  the  Susquehanna  to  Pittsburgh  by  1836,  the  route 
being  interrupted  at  HoUidaysburgh  with  a  portage-road  of  thirty-six  miles  to 
Johnstown,  which  did  not  prove  fatal  to  the  value  of  the  canal.  Other 
water-ways  were  planned  in  other  parts  of  the  State,  —  local  affairs  for  coal  and 
grain  transportation,  —  and  many  of  them  were  built  during  this  period.  The 
canal-route  from  the  West  was  pieced  out  at  the  eastern  end  by  a  railroad  from 
Columbia  to  Philadelphia,  and  Pennsylvania  thus  had  her  through-route  to  the 
West.  It  reduced  the  cost  of  freight  from  Pittsburgh  to  the  Delaware  River 
frcm  a  hundred  and  twenty  dollars  a  ton  to  thirty  dollars ;  and,  though  the 
city  never  got  back  the  trade  which  New  York  had  taken  from  her.  she  gained 
by  the  new  works  immensely.  These  works  were  afterward  sold  to  the  Penn- 
sylvania Railroad. 

Ohio  was  building  two  canals  at  the  same  period.  —  one  from  Portsmouth  on 
the  Ohio  to  Cleveland,  which  was  finished  in  1833  ;  the  other  from  Cincinn;  li 
to  Lake  Erie,  which  was  finished  in  1843. 

Massachusetts  orilered  survej's  for  a  water-way  west  from  Boston  in  1825, 
and  the  engineers  did  a  good  deal  of  i)reliminary  work  in  examining  the 
Massachu-  ground  out  toward  the  Connecticut  River ;  but  nothing  was  ever 
setts.  accomplished    by  Massachusetts    in    this    class   of  public   works. 

Public  attention  was  distracted  to  another  style  of  transportation-route,  —  the 


'li'lij 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


C07 


River 
project. 


railroad  ;  and  tlie  energies  of  the  State  were  diverted  from  canal-building,  and 
applied  to  the  work  of  constructing  railroads. 

One  of  the  ancient  projects  had  been  for  a  canal  from  Baltimore  west  to 
the  Ohio  River.  Washington,  Charles  Carroll,  and  other  eminent  men  of  the 
Revolution,  had  favored  this  idea,  and  had  talked  about  it  a  great   „  ,  . 

'  '  <^  Baltimore 

deal.  It  had  slumbered  for  forty  years,  owing  to  the  scarcity  of  and  ohio- 
means  of  the  young  republic  ;  and  only  when  tlie  Erie  Canal  had 
been  begun  was  Maryland  aroused  to  a  new  and  realizing  sense 
of  the  value  of  the  idea.  Congress  was  finally  induced  to  vote  $1,000,000  for 
a  canal  from  Ceorgetown  to  Pittsburgh ;  and  Virginia  and  Maryland,  as  well 
as  the  cities  of  Washington  and  Alexandria,  having  subscribed  $1,250,000 
more,  the  work  was  put  under  way  in  1828,  Charles  Carroll  and  John  Q. 
Adams  turning  the  first  earth.  The  canal  was  very  hard  to  build,  and  did  not 
uiake  that  rapid  progress  which  its  projectors  desired.  It  was  not  until  1850 
that  the  work  reached  Cumberland,  Md. ;  and  when  it  arrived  at  that  city  it 
stopped.  It  had  cost  $16,000,000.  Surveys  have  been  recently  made  with  a 
view  to  going  on  with  it  to  Pittsburgh.  It  will  undoubtedly  be  carried  on  to 
that  city  at  some  time  or  other. 

The  Farmington   Canal  in  Connecticut  was  built  during  this  period  of 
excitement,  the  Dismal-Swamp  Canal  in  Virginia,  and  a  number  Farmington 
of  other  short  local  affairs  in  different  parts  of  the  country.     All  Canai. 
these  enterprises  repaid  their  cost  to  the  public  a  hundred  times  over. 

After  the  first  speculative  era  of  canal-building  had  passed  by,  a  number  of 
other  important  canals  were  opened  by  different  States,  whicli  still,  like  the 
Erie  and  the  Chesapeake  and  Ohio  Canals,  play  a  part  in  the  Building  of 
general  transportation-business  of  the  country.  One  was  the  other  canals, 
canal  from  Lake  Michigan  at  the  city  of  Chicago  to  the  Illinois  River,  a  dis- 
tance of  102  miles,  which  was  completed  in  1852.  Another  was  wabash  and 
the  Wabash  and  Erie  Canal,  projected  by  the  State  of  Indiana,  ^"^  Canals. 
which,  after  many  reverses  and  stoppages,  was  finished  about  1850,  and  was 
the  means  of  creating  another  connection  between  the  trade  of  the  lakes  and 
the  streams  of  the  Mississippi  Valley.  Another  great  route  which  has  not 
been  fully  utili  ;ed  even  yet  was  across  the  State  of  Virginia.  The  idea  was 
to  connect  Kie.  Kanawha  River,  a  branch  of  the  Ohio,  with  the  James  River 
leading  iiuo  the  sea.  Over  five  million  dollars  was  spent  in  trying  to  connect 
these  two  rivers  ;  but  the  work  was  not  finished,  and  still  remains  uncompleted. 
Congress  has  aided  in  pushing  tills  work,  and  it  will  probably  be  finished 
during  the  next  decade.  It  will  open  the  shortest  poss  .^  water-route  to  the 
sea  from  the  grain  States  of  the  West,  and  especially  the  central  States  of  the 
Mississippi  Valley ;  and  there  is  not  the  shadow  of  a  doubt  but  that  it  will  have 
a  great  traffic,  and  will  probably  change  Richmond  into  a  great  commercial 
emporium.  Railroad-building  has  since  1835  largely  diverted  the  energies  of 
the    country   from    the    construction   of   canals ;    but    experiment    has    only 


'tlte   l\ 


..uy„iu^ 


I*.  .:i 


;i  '.f-i 


60S 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


%i 


W%:^: 


demonstrated  the  wonderful  value  and  imperative  necessity  of  such  canals 
Effect  of  ^^  those  wliich  have  l)een  particularly  mentioned.  Wherever  llicy 
railroads  are  built,  they  nre  the  cheapest  route  for  the  transaction  of  a 
upon  canals.  ]^^,,^^.y  frcight-tratiic,  and  by  their  cheapness  they  exercise  a  regu- 
lating inlluence  of  the  most  wliolesome  tlescription  upon  the  cost  of  trans- 
portation on  tlie  railroads. 

It  is  noA-  hekl  by  the  statesmen  of  the  country  that  tiie  building  of  the 
Erie  Canal  was  the  wisest  and  most  far-seeing  enterprise  of  tiie  age.  It  has 
Wisdom  of  ''■''^  '^  permanent  and  indelible  mark  upon  the  face  of  the  republic 
building  Erie  of  the  Unitctl  States  in  the  great  communities  it  has  (Uiv(  tiy 
assisted  to  build  uj)  at  the  West,  anil  in  the  jHipulous  metropolis  it 
created  at  the  mouth  of  the  Hudson  River.  None  of  the  canals  which  lurve 
been  built  to  compete  wiUi  it  liave  yet  succeeiled  in  regaining  for  their  States 
what  was  lost  to  ihem  when  the  I'aie  Canal  went  into  operation.  This  water- 
route  is  still  the  most  important  artilicial  one  of  its  class  in  the  country,  and  is 
only  eipialled  by  the  Welland  Canal  in  Canada,  which  is  its  closest  rival.  It  is 
now  proposed  to  make  the  Mrie  Canal  a  tree  route,  open  without  tolls  to  ail 
who  may  wish  to  navigate  it.  If  the  lanal  is  really  made  free,  it  will  retain  its 
position  as  the  most  popular  water-route  to  the  sea  from  theCreat  West.  The 
Mississippi  River  will  divert  from  it  all  the  trade  flowing  to  South  America  and 
Mexico  ;  but  for  the  North-West  it  will  be  the  only  water  highway  to  tiie 
ocean. 


»  !!■ 


Wa 


Ol-     THE    UNITED    STATES. 


609 


CIlyM'Ti:  R     V. 


'11  IK  kisiiI':rii;s. 


Venice. 


INTIMA'ri'",r,Y  roniiL'ctcd  witli  llic  subjects  of  shipping  and  transportation 
is  tiiat  (jf  the  fisiieries.  A  large  part  of  the  tonnage  of  all  prosperous  mari- 
time nations  is  employed  in  the  catching  of  (jcean-fish,  and  it  has  frecjuently 
happened  that  a  nation  has  owed  all  its  maritime  jjrosperity  to  the  schooling  in 
navigation  wliich  its  peo[)le  ac<iuired  in  this  special  field  of  employment. 
\'enice  was  originally  only  a  collection  of  huts  of  fishermen,  who, 
finding  nothing  io  support  them  on  the  uarren  islands  where  For- 
tune had  destined  them  to  reside,  were  obliged  to  live  on  the  fish  they  could 
get  out  of  the  sea,  which  they  either  consumed  themselves,  or  peddled  to  the 
inhabitants  of  the  neighboring  coasts.  Their  mode  of  getting  a  living  led 
them  naturally  into  trade  by  sea,  and  this  was  the  origin  and  the  secret  of  all 
their  wonderhil  eminence.  The  Dutch  were  mariners  and  traders  for  the  same 
reason.  They  did  not  live  on  an  island  :  but  their  country  was  so  inhospitable, 
that  they  found  it  more  profitable  to  fish  than  to  farm  ;  and  in  1600  these 
industrious  jjcople  already  had  as  many  as  three  thousand  boats,  or  busses,  at 
sea,  catching  herring,  white-fish,  and  whales.  To  market  the  catch  to  neighbor- 
ing countries  retiuired  six  thousand  vessels  more ;  and  the  Dutch  built  up 
the  great  city  of  Amsterdam  on  a  foundation  of  herring-bones,  and  made  it, 
besides,  a  centre  of  trade  lor  all  Kurope.  The  ICnglish  also  fished  very 
early  ;  antl  it  is  an  interesting  fact,  now  almost  forgotten,  diat  the  Scots,  who 
fished  more  than  the  laiglish,  were  once  so  superior  to  them  in  Legislation 
ship[)ing.  that  the  .Anglo-Saxons  were  very  much  alarmed  about  it,  of  Angio- 
—  so  nuich  so.  that,  in  order  to  equalize  things,  the  King  and  J'ar-  ^''°"^- 
liainent  offered  heavv  bounties  \.o  their  own  fishermen,  and  ordered  all  the 
people  of  the  kingdom  to  eat  fish  on  two  days  of  the  week,  so  that  the  Fnglisli 
might  liave  llshing-boats,  a  trade,  and  a  trading-marine,  as  well  as  their  ri\  als. 
In  our  own  country  the  ocean-fisheries  have  borne  an  important  relation  to 
tile  general  shi|>ping-interests  of  the  several  States.  The  men  brought  up  on 
the  coast  where  cod,  mackerel,  and  whales  have  abounded,  ha\e  supplied 
our  trading-marine  with  the  best  sailors  it  has  ever  had  ;   and  it  was  that  class 


I 


■ij 


do 


IND I 'S  TKIA  r.    HIS  7\  M' ) ' 


W> 


E 


of  wcb-footcd  men  —  who  hail  learned  fearlessly  to  encounter  all  the  perils  of 
the  sea  and  comiuer  them,  and  who  always  sailed  their  ships  in  the  heaviest 
weather,  and  "  never  struck  a  .jpsail  as  lon^;  as  there  was  a  mast  to  lly  it 
from"  —  that  won  for  our  republic  its  na\al  triumphs  in  iiSi2.  They  are 
to-day  still  the  most  \aluable  element  in  the  personnel  of  our  wiiole   maritime 


!  i   ? 


c.itabiishment.  Their  ships  ha\-e  ever  been  the  pu:;neers  and  reconnoitring 
l)ariies  of  our  trading-marine.  They  have  explored  every  corner  of  the  earth, 
and  always  been  first  in  the  field.  The  first  time  the  American  flag  was  ever 
seen  in  I''ngland  was  at  the  head  of  a  whaling-ship  which  entered  the  Thames. 
The  early  voyagers  along  the  coast  o'"  North  America  remarked  the  abuii- 
ilance  offish  in  the  vicinitv  of  the  shore  from  the  verv  start.     ^Vhales  were  very 


f^ 


I: 


OF    THE    rxlTED    STATES. 


6ii 


numerous  ;  and  great  shoals  of  them,  of  the  largest  and  best  kinds,  ranie  along- 
side of  the  ships  of  the  discoverers,  and  played  sportively  in  tlie  billows,  some- 
times to  the  great  consternation  of  the  seamen,  whose  vessels  were  not  very 
large,  and  who  dreaded  being  rim  into  by  the  big  fellows  and  sunk.  I'lvcn 
before  the  settlement  of  the  continent  by  the  English  began,  the  mariners  of 
ICurope,  having  learned  that  there  was  an  abundance  of  fish  in  America, 
flocked  out  with  their  vessels  to  the  Hanks  from  all  parts  of  tlie  Old  World.  It 
was  not  an  uniuual  sight,  as  early  as  r6oo,  to  see  six  hundred  or  seven  hun- 
dred vessels  off  tU  '  coasts  of  New  Kngland  taking  fish.  The  (  ity  of  liristol 
in  England  ac([uired  great  prosperity  from  these  new  discoveries.  Her  ])eoplc 
soon  learneil  to  send  out  boats  to  America,  and  their  profits  made  a  sensation 
in  shii)i)ing-circles  in  ICngland  kindred  to  a  modern  gold  stampede  or  an  oil 
excitement.  Whole  fleets  were  sent  out  to  rea])  a  part  of  the  new  harvest. 
'I'liese  boats  were  of  about  a  hundred  Ions'  burden.  'I'hey  took  back  to  i'lng- 
land  loads  that  were  worth  three  thousand  pounds,  of  which  two  thousand 
pounds  was  ])ure  gain.  Portuguese,  Dutch,  Spanish,  and  Italian  ships  fre- 
quentetl  the  Hanks,  along  with  the  others,  for  a  long  jjcricd  of  time. 

It  is  said  that  one  of  the  main  ideas  in  founding  settlements  in  Massa- 
chusetts was  to  build  u])  a  colony  of  fishermen.  There  is  no  doiibl  but  that 
the  utilization  of  the  fislieries  entered  into  the  ])lans  of  the  origi- 
nators of  the  colony.  The  cha.ter  of  Massachusetts  contains  a 
clause,  saying.  "Wee  have  given  and  graimted  .  .  .  all  fishes  — 
royal   fishes,  whales,   balan,  stur^^eons,   and   other  fishes,  of  wluit   ^°  ""^  °f 

^  '  nshermen. 

kinde  or  nature  soever,  that  sliall  at  any  tyme  hereafier  ])e  taken 
in  or  within  tlie  saide  seas  or  waters,  or  any  of  them,  by  the  said  ''  .  .  . 
[the  grantees  being  here  named],  ''or  by  any  ]ierson  or  jiersons  whatsoever 
there  inhabiting."  To  take  advantage  of  tlie  lislieries  was  one  of  the  first 
enterprises  of  the  colonists,  and  it  was  to  assist  tliem  in  doing  so  lliat  the 
conipaiu' in  Loudon  sent  over  shii)wriglits  to  build  vessels  on  the  coasts  of 
Massachusetts,  ^\']lales  llien  swam  along  within  sight  of  land,  in  sucli  num- 
bers, that,  eveii  if  there  had  been  no  ])remedilated  purjiose  witli  resi)ect  to 
the  fisheries  in  sending  the  colonists  to  the  barren  coast  of  New  England,  the 
settlers  woul<l  have  been  tempted  to  engage  in  o('e;in-fishing  at  a  very  early 
day,  merely  by  the  spectacles  wliich  passed  before  their  ey(.'s.  Hut  the  fish- 
eries being  known  before  they  came,  and  'he  patrons  of  the  colony  doing 
their  utmost  to  encourage  the  settlers  to  embark  in  fishing  enterprises,  it  is 
not  surprising  that  Massachusetts  became  a  colony  of  fishermen  and  mariners 
from  the  beginning  of  its  existence.  Nor  w:is  Massachusetts  alone  in  this. 
The  other  New-l'higland  colonies  followed  closely  in  her  footstep's,  and 
fished  as  well  as  farmed  from  the  date  of  their  settlement.  l'",\ery  island 
alouLT  the  coast  became  a  centre  of  nshiuLr  activitv.  therefore,  at  a  verv  earlv 


Massacliu- 
setts  settled 
to  build  up 


<lay, 
of  •,  iii.u 


I'.verv  iavored  jjort  became  crowded  with  l)oat  and  ship  yards.     A  row 


.prang  up  along  the  beach  from  New- York  City  to  the  St.  J 


onn  s 


\ 


ilf 


'!  I 


'••  '\S 


6l2 


IXDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


M?'; 


.  1 


Effect,  of 
wars  of  T7v0 
and  i8<2 
upon 
fisheries. 


River,  devoted  exclusively  to  piscatorial  pursuits  ;  and  some  of  them,  like 
Gloucester,  afterwards  attained  to  a  great  prosperity  and  reputation.  As  early 
as  1 731  Massachusetts  had  six  hundred  vessels  and  six  thousand  sailors  at 
sea,  half  ui  them  in  the  fisheries.  'I'iie  New-ICnglanders,  by  their  su[)eriur 
advantages,  and  their  hostility  to  die  French,  Spanish,  and  Dutch,  soon  got 
complete  control  of  the  off-shore  banks,  and  drove  all  other  adventurers  awav. 
Soon,  obtaining  more  fish  and  whale  oil  and  bone  than  they  could  themselves 
consume,  they  carried  them  to  the  other  colonies  on  the  continent  and  to 
Europe,  and  iaid  the  foundation  of  the  connnerce  and  maritime  eminencr 
which  have  never  since  departed  iVom  thciii.  'l"he  fisheries  were  twice  anni- 
hilated by  vvar, --  namely,  at  tlv  time  ol  the  Revolution,  and  fittin 
i.Sij  to  1815;  and  the  whaling-interest  suffered  a  severe  blow 
again  when  petroleum  was  discovered,  and  when  the  Confederate 
cruisers  sailed  in  among  the  lleet  in  the  No''h  Pacific  and  burned 
a  large  number  of  the  ships  These  reveiv,.  s  were  no  more,  how- 
ever, than  all  pursuits  are  sure  to  encounter  from  time  to  time  in  their 
history;  and  they  hap)  ly  were  iKjt,  ii  general,  permanent  in  their  influence. 
In  most  cases  the  fis'i^'ries  revived  within  a  few  years  after  the  reverses  took 
place.  The  whale-fishery  was  the  only  exception.  There  was  one  time 
when  the  fishing-ca[)tains  of  New  ICngiand  were  one  of  the  most  prosperous 
classes  in  the  country ;  namely,  from  18 15  to  i860.  A  fre(iucnt  occurrence 
during  that  period  was  the  migration  of  fishing-captains  from  New  IJedfonl, 
Nantucket,  and  other  fishing-towns,  to  the  flirms  and  cities  of  the  interior 
of  the  country,  to  New-York  State,  and  elsewhere,  where,  with  their  families 
and  their  snug  accumulation  of  well-earned  profits,  they  passed  the  latev  years 
of  their  existence  in  the  peaceful  enjoyment  of  inland  life.  It  may  be  said. 
also,  that  no  more  valuable  citizens  were  found  in  the  inland  havens,  where  the 
captains  took  shelter  after  their  voyages  were  over,  than  these  same  hardy, 
npright,  and  intelligent  men.  No  more  valuable  element  exists  in  the  popu- 
lation o*"  the  Uniteil  States,  indeed,  than  these  fisheruicn  of  the  New-lCngland 
coast.  Brave,  temperate,  industrious,  patriotic,  and  a  strong  reliance  in  case 
of  war,  with  a  large  percentage  of  ouaint  charac.ers  among  them,  hey  <'orm  a 
most  interesting  and  importai\t  class. 

Congress  has  diligeiitly  sought  to  promote  the  off-shore  and  cpen-occan 

fisheries  of  the  United  States  from  the  earliest  days  of  the  rei)ublic.     It  ha.-. 

.  ,  ,.         looked  with  great  favor  upon  these  en.ployment';    i--   the  cradle  of 

Legislation  '^  '  '       •' 

of  Congress  the  navy  and  the  merchant-njirinc.  'i'he  products  of  the  fisheries 
were,  of  course,  valuable  ;  but  they  were  not  so  essential  to  our 
we'fare  as  to  make  it  wcrtli  while  for  Congress  to  levy  tr.xes  upon 
the  whole  country  in  oider  to  obtn!u  tliem.  It  was  the  employment  itself, 
and  its  great  public  utility  in  training  u)i  hardy,  skilf  il,  and  energetic  sailors, 
■  'Inch  won  favor  in  the  eyes  of  Congrer,s.  The  jiolicy  adojjted  toward  the  fish- 
ermc'n  was  to    make  the    tax   on    their   tonnage    extremely  light,    to    permit 


on  the 
iunject 


rrx 


.,  ,  ■^. 


OF    THE    CM  TED    SIATES. 


(^'3 


tliem  to  import  salt  for  ctirin.Lf  fisli  free  of  duty,  lo  impose  a  heavy  duty  ou 
forei;,')!  fisli  and  fisliinj;-])roducts,  to  ^'ive  a  bounty  to  all  employiu,!;  a  boat 
whose  crew  were  three-fourths  Americans,  and  to  ncLjotiate  treaties  with 
England  to  secure  ibr  them  ilshin^'-rights  in  the  liritish-American  provin(  es, 
such  as  the  right  to  land  and  (  ure  li^h  in  Newl'oundland,  to  fish  within  tlu; 
three-mile  limit  of  shore,  (S;c.  'The  bounty  to  fishing-vessels  was  of  very  early 
date  :  in  1855  it  was  made  three  and  a  hah"  and  four  d(jllars  a  ton,  according 
to  the  size  of  the  vessel.  Over  Si  5.000.000  ha\e  been  paid  from  the  national 
treasury  to  the  ocean-lishermen   in  these  tomiage-bouiuies  alone.     Never  was 


AXi.;;s'  w  I.  \'. 


money  better  spent.  The  relief  granted  by  free  salt  has  been  a  valuable  form 
of  encourageni'Mit.  Salt  can  be  in.pi)rtcd  in  the  ocean-steamers  from  England 
much  cheaper  tlun  it  can  be  l)rought  from  New  York  and  Wisconsin  and 
deposited  on  the  coa.:t.  for  the  reason  that  the  original  cost  is  less.  'i"he 
steamers  come  this  wav  \'ith  very  light  cargoes,  ami  they  are  ghul  to  load  u]) 
witli  bags  of  salt  for  ballas',  and  to  carry  it  at  a  purely  nominal  rate  :  wliile 
transportation  from  the  internr  of  the  United  States  to  the  coast  is  expensive. 
In  1870  the  tbreign  salt  consumed  in  the  fisheries  already  amounted  to 
60.000.000  pounds  a  year.  'I'he  consumption  has  since  grown  to  126,000,000 
pounds  a  )ear. 


•it:..  ?. 


^ 


614 


AWJ  L  'S  /'A'  1. 1 1.    J//S  TO  A'  V 


Pi 


Jr.'-'' 
if" 


»r:i 


III' 


if. 


ii 


:| 


The  whale-fishery  was  the  first,  and  for  a  lonj,'  period  the  most  iniportaiu, 
of  the  fisheries.  Hej^i  1111  ill},'  on  the  shores  of  L(Mig  Island,  at  Nanlm  ket,  and 
The  whale-  ill  Massachusetts  and  Maine,  with  the  employment  of  a  few  lonj,'- 
fishery.  boats,  wiiiih  piit  oiit  fiom  the  shore  whenever  a  whale  came  in 

sij^ht,  it  developed  until  it  had  virtually  driven  the  whalers  of  all  other  nation- 
alities from  the  seas  in  open  and  friendly  competition,  and  was  employing 
700  ships  and  16,000  sailors.  From  1X45  to  i860  it  employed  from  650  to 
700  vessels,  the  tonnage  ranging  in  ilifierent  years  from  i.So.ooo  to  i9(S,ooo; 
the  capital  invested  in  the  business  in  shi[)s,  boats,  harpoons,  apparatus,  \kv., 
being  $25,000,000,  and  the  yearly  product  in  whale-oil,  ^^  ..■m-oil,  and  whale- 
bone, being  Irii  2,000,000.  Nantucket  was  originally  the  principal  cenlre  of 
the  interest.  Her  wlialemen,  by  long  practice,  became  more  expert,  and  coii- 
setiuently  more  successful,  than  those  of  other  parts  of  the  coast ;  and  she 
accordingly  soon  came  to  rank  fii^t  in  the  business.  New  I'edford  was  next, 
and  New  London,  Fair  Ilaven,  Southampton,  Stonington,  and  otiier  ports, 
came  afterwards.  Nantucket  now  stands  only  fourth  upon  the  list,  and  New 
Bedford  is  the  princi|)al  whaling-port  of  the  country.  The  first  whaling- 
grounils  were,  of  course,  off  shore,  along  the  North-Atlantic  coast.  Wlun 
the  fish  began  to  get  a  little  shy  and  scarce,  the  ships  i)ut  out  for  regular 
voyages,  and  cruised  along  the  (iulf  Stream,  anil  off  the  West  Iiulies  and 
Brazil.  As  early  as  1800  they  had  found  their  way  into  the  Pacific  Ocean; 
but  in  those  times  they  rarely  filled  with  oil  there  :  the  captains  preferred  to 
come  back  around  Cape  Horn,  and  fill  up  in  the  tropics  on  the  way  home, 
taking  sperm-whales  or  right-whales,  as  the  case  might  be.  About  1S30 
the  whalers  began  to  find  it  necessary  to  cruise  in  the  most  distant  waters  ;  and 
the  ships  went  to  sea  accordingly  e(iuipped  for  a  two-years'  voyage,  and  two 
years  '-"ive  been  ever  since  the  regular  voyage  of  New-England  whalers.  The 
system  adopted  for  these  expeditions  grew  up  very  naturally  from  the  old  prac- 
tice of  watching  on  shore  for  a  whale  in  the  offing,  rowing  out  and  cap- 
turing the  i)rize,  and  dividing  the  pri  :eeds  among  those  who  took  part  in  the 
capture.  Instead  of  paying  the  officers  and  men  of  the  shijis  in  money  for 
their  services,  every  voyage  was  made  a  co-operative  affair.  .V  certain  share 
of  the  catch  was  allotted  to  the  captain  as  his  compensation,  a  certain  otlur 
smaller  share  to  the  lower  officers  and  men.  and  a  certain  jiroportion  to  the 
owner  of  the  ship  for  profits  on  his  investment.  'Hie  part  allotted  to  each 
man  was  called  his  "  lay  :  "  thus  his  *'  lay  was  one-sixteenth,"  and  so  on. 
This  system  was  a  great  stimulus  to  enterprise,  and  was  one  secret  of  the 
remarkable  vigor  which  the  whaling-marine  displayed.  Many  famous  voyages 
were  made.  Prior  to  18 15,  from  900  to  1,600  barrels  of  oil,  worth  from 
$22,000  to  $40,000,  was  the  ordinary  successful  catch  :  after  that  the  ships 
were  enlarged,  and  from  1,600  to  2,500  barrels,  worth  from  $40,000  to  $62,000, 
was  the  standard  fair  catch.  But  now  and  then  a  ship  came  into  port  having 
sent  home  during  her  voyage,  or  bringing  with  her,  3,000,  3,500,  or  4,000 


^»Mi4^i 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES, 


615 


fmrrcls  of  rif;ht-\vli;ilc  oil.  In  1S42  " 'I'hc  Maria"  of  Nantucket  came  back 
from  a  twcnly-two  niunliis'  cruise  witli  2,413  barrels  of  sperm-oil,  worth 
,^70,000,  tliis  variety  beiny  scarcer  and  more  valuable.  In  1.S49  "'I'he  Soutli 
Ameri<'a  "  of  Providence,  R.I.,  \vhi(  h  was  fitted  for  sea  at  a  total  cost  ol 
$40,000,  came  back  with  5.500  barrels  of  oil  and  a  lar^'e  sujjply  of  bone, 
worth  in  all  ^^9,000,  paying  her  cost,  and  a  ilividend  of  125  percent.  .She 
had  been  out  twenty-six  months.  "The  Russell"  of  New  lledford  came 
back  in  1.S49,  after  a  three-years-and-four-monlhs'  Noyage,  with  2,650  barrels 
of  sperm-oil,  worth  $92,000.  The  most  remark.'liie  voyage  ever  made,  per- 
haps, is  vouclied  for  by  Mr.  Alexander  Starbiuk.  "The  lauoy,"  having  been 
condemned  to  be  broken  up,  was  sold  to  William  ('.  iSrownell  of  New  IJed- 
ford,  who  concluded,  after  all,  to  send  her  out  once  more,  and  did  send  her 
to  sea  at  a  cost  to  himself  of  $8,000.  The  underwriters  declined  to  insure 
her.  The  vessel  freighted  1,000  barrels  of  oil  from  W'ytootache  to  Manila; 
and  then,  putting  into  the  North  l'a(  ilic,  she  c  aught  5,300  barrels  of  oil  an<l 
75,000  pounds  of  bone.  i'he  receipts  of  the  voyage  were  $138,450.  \\\ 
1853  "  The  Favorite  "  of  h'air  Haven  realized  Si  16,000  ;  "  'I'he  Montreal  "  of 
New  Uedford,  $136,023;  and  "  I'he  Sheflield  "  of  New  liedford,  which  had 
been  gone  four  years,  $1  24,000.  "'I'he  I'ioneer  "  of  New  London  madi'  in 
1864  and  1865  in  the  North  Atlantic  the  most  successful  cat(  h  ever  known. 
Her  voyage  realized  $150,060.  These  brilliant  results  have  not  been  obtained 
of  late  \ears.  After  1861  the  whale-fishery  ran  down,  owing  to  the  scarcity 
and  shyness  of  the  fish,  the  low  ])rices  of  oil  ( onsi'ciuent  on  the  tlisccnery  of 
petroleum,  and  the  high  cost  of  fitting  out  ships.  In  1800  a  i,900-l)arrel  ship 
<ould  be  fitted  out  for  $12,000:  in  i860  a  3,800-barrel  ship  cost  $65,000, 
fitted  for  sea.  In  1877  the  lleet  had  become  reduced  to  171  shii)s.  of  a 
capacity  of  39.165  tons.  The  right-whales  of  the  North  Tacific,  and  the  sea- 
elephants  of  antarctic  regions,  are  now  the  ])rin(ipal  dependence  of  our 
whaling-men  ;  but  the  game  is  getting  very  scarce.  It  has  been  the  i)rey  of 
generations  of  eager  men  ;  and  it  will  one  day  become  extinct,  unless  Professor 
Ikiird.  or  some  such  man,  turns  his  attention  to  their  artificial  propagation. 
Why  should  he  not? 

The  cod  ruid  mac  kerel  fisheries  arc  now  more  important  in  respect  to  the 
tonnage  employed  in  them  than    the    one    just  described.      They  employed 
more   tonnage,  indeed,  than  the  whale-fishery  prior  to   1830,  the   cod  and 
figures    for   1829  especiall\-   being    remarkable  ;    the  whaling-lleet    mackerel 
being  only   57,284  tons   in   that  year,  and  the  cod  and  mackerel     ^  ^"^^' 
boats   101,797  tons,      but  after  1830  the    Dank  fisheries  fell   into  the  sei  ond 
rank  ;  and  they  only  came  to  the  front  again  in  186 1.  when  the  war,  with  its 
high   prices,   petroleum,  iSrc,  broke  down  whaling.     The  cod  and   mackerel 
tonnage   is   now  87,000,  and   the  number  of  boat-^    2,31 1,  nearly  all  of  them 
being  under  fifty  tons'  burden,  and  about  half  of  them  under  twenty  tons. 
There  are  over  20,000  men  employed  in  the  business.     The  boats  go  out  to 


I       '1 


I 


I 


Ill 


616 


L\'D  { 'S  TKIA  /.    HIS  TORY 


f 


li^< 


W 


itt  1- 


J  3 


ili"£r 


the  lianks  dh  llic  (o-opcralive  i)kin,  cMch  iikui  getting'  a  sliiMil.ilcd  sIkuc  of 
tlic  cattli,  and  the  owner  supplying  a  certain  portion  of  the  outfit,  ami  getting 
his  pay,  like  tlie  rest,  in  fish.  'The  cod  and  mackerel  are  1 10th  <  uight  wuh  the 
line.  The  former  is  easily  caught.  'I'lie  hook,  baited  with  any  thing  to  attract 
attention,  though  generally  with  small  fi->h,  is  dro|>pcd  until  it  touches  tiie 
bottom:  it  is  then  hauleil  up  slightly,  so  that  with  every  lurch  of  the  boat  it 
will  clear  the  bottom.  A  l)ite  is  signil'ied  by  a  slight  jerk.  The  line  is  then 
hauled  in  rapidly,  hand  t)ver  hand,  the  fish  unhocjked,  and  the  hook  bailed  and 
thrown  out  again.  When  the  fish  bite  freely,  three  hooks  (an  be  um(I  on  the 
same  line  ;  and,  in  fact,  they  are  generally  u^^ed.  The  crew  of  the  boat  range 
themselves  along  the  gunwale  on  both  sides,  and  often  are  kept  in  a  state  of 
incessant  action  by  the  eagerness  of  the  ("ish.  ;\t  night  the  fish  are  (leaned 
and  salted  down.  Mackerel-fisiiing  is  more  exciting,  because  the  fish  are 
gamy,  and  they  dash  madly  about  in  the  water  when  hooked.  'I  he  mai  kerel 
swim  in  shoals;  and,  when  they  are  biting,  there  is  always  a  scene  of  great 
activity  and  exc'i 'inent  on  board  the  boat.  The  rapidity  with  whi(h  se\eral 
barrelfuls  of  fish  can  be  taken  from  the  w.Uer  is  wonderful.  Tlie  cleaning 
and  packing  in  salt  are  performed  when  the  fish  are  slack  ;  that  is,  when  tln'v 
are  not  biting  well,  or  .it  night.  Tln'se  fi>li  h.ue  sometimes  bi  en  (  anL;lu  wiih 
nets  ;  but  the  process  is  (hflicuh  and  iiiisalisfactory,  and  the  fishenneii  L;e!ierallv 
prefer  the  line.  The  v.iliie  ol"  the  prodiu  t  (;f  coil  and  mackerel  fisheries  is 
about  .Scj.ooo.ooo  a  ye.ir.  A  ready  market  is  alway:-.  found  for  the  l'i>h.  and 
those   who  are  engaged    in    the   business   lia\e  only   the  competition    ol'    ihe 


Canadians    to    fear. 


.\:- 


ii'ueral   rule.   the\'    hold    tlieir   own    a''am>t    iheir 


Northern    neighliors.     The  stale  of   tilings  existing  ju^l  at   present.  houe\er, 
is  unfavorable   to   them.  be( 
market  was  thrown  oni 


ause,  under  the  treatv  of  iH- 


the 


IniU 


■d-M,iK 


•n  to  the  Canadian  rishenneii   in   e.\ch;inL;e  lor  the  ri:;hl. 


on  our  i)ari,  to  I'lsli  within  the  three-mile  limit. 


he  Canadians  g.iined  iiiort 


than  tiiey  lost  by  this;  and.  although  the  Ilalifax  Commission  in  iNyy 
adjudged  that  the  lulled  Stales  ought  to  ])av  S5. 500. 000  tor  the  suiierior 
advantages  she  gaineil  by  that  treaty,  the  decision  was  cleaiiv  unjust,  and  it 
has  so  increased  the  odds  against  our  fishermen,  that  steps  were  taken  b\ 
Congress  in  May,  1878,  to  have  the  fishery-clause  of  tlu'  trt'at\-  abrogateit. 

One  branch  of  the  fisheries — -which,  however,  is  realK  an  in-shori'  affair, 
and  has  never  needed  any  special  prolecting  care  from  the  go\ennnent  —  is 


Oyster- 
business. 


th 


c  ovster-business.     The  onlv  leijislalion  which   has  been   1 


leei  leil 


has  been  to  ])re\ent  tlie  o\-sternien  from  infringing  on  ea(  h  other's 


ri; 


rhts 


This  s])ecies  of  ocean-inhabitant  urows  naturally  in  the  cool  waters 


along  the  Northern  coast,  and  attains  a  si/e.  and  delicacy  of  flavor,  une(|ualled 
anywhere  in  the  world.     The  waters  of  Virginia  and  Maryland  and  of  Long- 

uorite  practice  in  tb.e 
it  Xorlli  by 
th 


Island  Sound  are  the  fa\-orite  haunts  of  the  oNster. 


A  f 


trade  is  to  breed  the  oyster  in  V 


ir^ini 


a  or  Maryland,  and  br 


mi 


the  sloop-load,  and  plant  it  in  the  vicinity  of  Xew-\'ork  Cit 


V,  and  on  tlie  1.011 


li  I 


OF    THE  VNITKl)    STATES, 


'"7 


Mil 


Inland  and  Coiincctic  ut  coasts,  wlicrc  it  fatlctiM.  Ilallimoif  ami  NcwXoik 
City  arc  the  principal  centres  of  the  oyslcr-biisiiicss.  In  both  places  inillii)n:> 
of  dollars' 
worth  of  the 
bivalve  are  i)iit 
up  annually  in 
<  ans  and  kej,'s, 
and  distribut- 
ed by  railroad     A.  _  "Z-^-^  •" 

to  all  parts  of  ^— — ^ -^ '^^-"^ 

the     United  dvsnins  dsi,  iwn,  ami  ihki-k  \i-.aki  oiii. 

States    and 

Canada.    Of  late  years,  oysters  have  been  seiu  to  luiropc  from  those  cities  ;  and 

the  business  is  becoming  considerable,  now  thai  the  stcanuTs  have  Wcw  jiro- 

vitled  with  the  facilities  for  keeping  the  oysters  (ool  ni  r,>iilr  a<ros^  the  sea. 

The  annual  product  is  valued  at  about  Sj5.000.000. 

Among  the  other  treasures  of  the  sea  whi(  h  accrue  to  tlu'   profus  of  our 

fishermen  and  liic  luxury  of  our  tables  are 
the    halibut,    the    ^liad.    '.aliiKHi,    blue  fiNh, 

luTriii^;.    wiiite-fiNli.    weak  li^h, 

1  I  11.  1  I     Sliad,  sal- 

bass.    (  lauis.  loli-ilers.  eeh.  .iml  , 

nion,  tier 

Other  varieties.  'I  here  aie  rinK,  lobster, 
aboiU  Ihirtv-five  kui.U  in  ;:ll.  j!";' '^"'^-■- 
'I'he\-  are  all  t.ikeii  in  l.u'ue 
(|u;nititie>.  I,(lb^ters  are  (  anned  fur  the 
general  ni.uket,  ;nid  ;)re  now  eNpurled  in 
considenible  ([uanlities.  as  well  as  i)\>lers. 
( )ne  l)ran(  h  of  the  l)usiiies>  not  w\  men- 
tioned has  now  grown  so  kirge  as  to  t.ike 
it^  place  anions  the  >taple  resources  of 
the  comilry.  altiioULih  the  inhabit.'mts  of 
the  regions  where  it  is  engaged  in  mo^t 
simerely  wish  that  it  had  ne\er  become 
a  staple  resource,  and  that  the  fish  would 
swim  away  to  some  hitherto  unheard  of 
(juarter  of  the  globe,  and  never,  ne\fr  come  back.  This  is  the  (niching 
of  porgies  and  bony  fish  for  fertili/ing-pnrposes.  These  little  fi>hes  swim 
in  immense  shf)als.  numbering;  millions  of  fish.  Tliev  are  cauyhl  in  net>  in 
the  S(jund.  and  along  the  northern  coasts  generally.  The  shoals  are  often  s(; 
large  as  to  tow.  against  tlie  wind,  the  net  and  the  schooni'r  iVom  whi(  li  it  has 
been  carried  out  ;  and  they  sometimes  carry  awnv  the  nets.  Uut.  if  the  shoal 
is  not  too  large,  it  can  be  handled.  The  fish  are  valued  for  their  oil.  whi(  h  is 
extracted  by  proper  processes,  and  also  because  their  remains   can  then  be 


OYSTERS  nudwiM;  re 


'<^i' 


ilr 


Ik 


[If* 


n. 


y>^ 


m^ 


6iS 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


converted  into  guano  for  the  benefit  of  the  farms.  The  estabhshments  where 
this  manufocture  is  carried  on  waft  a  fragrance  upon  the  breeze  which  does 
not  remind  one  of  hehotrope  or  the  East  Indies. 

Two  kinds  of  fish  which  were  remarkably  abundant  when  the  country  was 
new  were  the  shad  and  the  sahiion.  These  fish  have  ahaiost  disappeared 
Disappear-  ^^*^'"  ^onii.  locahties,  and  they  are  scarce  in  all.  The  attention  of 
ance  of  shad  the  goN'ernment  of  the  United  States  was  called  several  years  ago 
and  salmon.  ^^  ^j^^  subjcct  of  the  artificial  propagation  of  these  and  other  fish. 
Experiments  werj  making  under  Seth  (Jrecn,  in  New- York  State,  for  the  breed- 
Art-ficiai  '"S  of  millions  of  lake  and  river  fishes,  and  the  placing  of  them 
propaga-  in  lakes  and  streams  to  repopulate  the  waters  which  had  thus 
*'°""  b'cn  almost  emptied  of  their  game  by  local  anglers  and  spearmen. 

Other  States  were  giving  attention  to  the  subject ;  and  the  United  States  were 
invited  to  consider  the  state  of  the  coast-fisheries,  and  the  propriety  of  propa- 
gating shad,  salmon,  &c.,  to  replenish  impoverished  waters.  A  law  was  jiassed 
Feb.  9,  187 1,  for  the  creation  of  a  fish  commissioner,  and  Professor  Spencer 
F.  Baird  was  appointed  by  the  President  to  that  office.  Since  that  diilc, 
extensive  and  minute  investigations  hr.ve  been  in  progress  to  gain  a  prelimi- 
nary idea  of  the  character  of  the  coast  and  of  its  food  fishes.  Professor 
Baird  spent  the  summer  of  18  71,  with  his  assistants,  at  Wood's  Hole  on  Cape 
Cod,  the  summer  of  1872  at  Eastport,  Me.,  that  of  1S73  at  Portland,  Me., 
1874  at  Noank,  Conn.,  and  1875  at  Wood's  Hole  again.  No  work  was  done 
on  the  coast  in  1876,  owing  to  Professor  Baird's  presence  at  the  Centennial 
Exhibition  to  take  charge  of  the  general  display  of  hatching-apparatus  and 
methods  of  fish-culture  ;  but  research  has  since  been  resumed.  The  studies 
of  the  commissioner  were  attended  with  valual)le  results,  and  led  to  the  prac- 
tical botching  of  shad  and  salmon  for  distribution  to  the  waters  of  the  several 
States  and  Territories.  Up  to  1877,  over  26,000,000  shad,  7,500,000  salmon, 
and  r., 6 70,000  white-fish,  had  been  hatched,  and  placed  in  the  watf,rs  of  the 
Unit.'d  States  North  and  South,  and  on  the  Pacific,  under  the  supervision  of 
the  commissioner.  The  work  is  still  going  on,  and  on  an  increasing  scale, 
supplemented  by  the  active  efforts  of  fish  commissioners  in  a  number  of  the 
States.  It  promises  10  yiekl  valuable  results  in  a  'i<i\\  years,  anil  to  repay  its 
whole  cost  a  thousand  times  over.  Undoubteilly  the  time  will  yet  come  when 
active  efforts  in  the  way  of  multiplying  the  off-shore  fish,  such  as  the  cod  and 
mackerel,  will  be  attempted. 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


Q 


619 


CHAPTER    VI. 


RAILROADS. 

A  N  elotjuent  Virginian  in  Congress,  commenting  on  the  rapid  progress 
1~\.  of  tlie  country  in  mechanical  invention,  said  athiiiringly,  that  tlie 
people  of  America  were  a  race  possessing  mucli  the  same  spirit  as  Mission  of 
the  Normans  of  old,  and  following  much  the  same  career  of  con-  the  present 
quest  and  success.  The  only  dilference  was,  that  the  Normans  e="^''^*'°"- 
subdued  kingdoms  of  men,  whereas  the  Americans  were  achieving  the  still 
more  difficult  tasic  of  a  con([uest  over  nature.  The  mission  of  our  generation 
is  to  subdue  the  materinl  universe,  he  said ;  and  he  spoke  of  the  people  of  the 
North  as  "  amazing  the  woild  by  their  feats  of  mechanical  skill,  and  covering 
the  remotest  seas  with  the  argosies  of  their  commerce,  free  as  the  winds,  and 
boundless  as  the  waves  that  bear  it."  ^^'hat  would  he  have  said  could  he  have 
looked  forward  into  the  future  twenty  years,  and  seen  a  continent  subdr.ed 
and  populated  by  this  same  people  through  the  agency  of  a  new  antl  wonder- 
ful mechanical  creation  which  flew  from  one  part  of  the  land  to  the  other 
with  a  sjieed  which  defied  time,  and  with  a  freedom,  certainty,  and  regularity 
which  laughed  at  storms  antl  seasons,  and  which  was  employed  in  the  service 
of  a  new  and  wonderful  commerce  whose  magnitude  and  wealth  dwarfed  into 
insignificance  that  carried  on  upon  the  sea? 

To  trace  the  rise  and  progress  of  a  railroad  from  its  inception — perhaps 
in  the  head  of  some  casual  lounger  around  the  stove  of  a  country  store  — 
to  its  actual  consummation  would  gi\e  a  more  perfect  insight  into  the  genius 
of  the  nineteenth  century,  and  the  goal  toward  which  civilization  has  so  far 
tended,  than  could  possibly  be  gained  by  the  most  profound  study  of  the 
pages  of  Buckle. 

The  moving  causes  for  building  railroads  in  this  country  are,  for  the  most 
part,  precisely  the  reverse  of  those  whicli  lead  to  their  construction  in  luirope. 
In  Europe  they  are  built  to  satisfy  existing  reciuirements  for  increased  means 
of  communication  ;  they  are  built  to  meet  tlie  wants  of  thickly-settled  dis- 
tricts :  in  this  country  this  is  but  one,  and  a  minor  one,  of  their  offices. 
Their  characteristic  office  here  is  to  create  such  districts  in  places  where  none 


620 


IND  US  riUA  L    JUS  -roR  Y 


S^. 


'!• 


exist.  They  are  causes  with  us,  not  effects.  The  brightest  dream  of  the 
American  patriot,  u-respective  of  pohtical  creed,  is  to  "open  up"  some 
portion  of  the  wilderness  of  which  the  great  area  of  his  country  is  '.omposed  • 
and  to  do  this  he  looks,  and  rightly,  to  the  railroad  as  his  principal  aid.  It 
must  be  confessed  that  the  poetry  of  the  railroad  as  the  willing  coadjutor  of 
human  aspiration  belongs  to  America,  in  common  with  all  new  countries 
rather  than  to  Europe,  where  it  is  merely  an  ine\itable  sequence  of  an  actual, 
achieved  status. 

The   period  of  fifty  years  following  the  war  of  1S12  was  one  of  restless 
activity  and  Titanic  strides.     The   American   mind  was  dis[)la)ing  a  fertility 


iM'  '1  i\i:  iM-   i;-;j 


and  resource  which  had  no  parallel  in  the  history  of  the  world.  Invention 
Half-century  succeeded  invention  with  astonishing  rapiditv  ;  and  scarce  was 
succeeding      the  public  mind  aglow  with  some  great  idea  for  the  comfort  and 

war  of  1812.  .  r     1        1 

convenience  ct  the  human  race,  and  government  and  people  at 
work  to  carry  it  into  effect,  when  the  drum-beat  of  a  new  thought  would  be 
lieard,  and  a  new  ;rV/w.-  be  initiated,  which  should  work  wonders  in  the 
civilization  and  happiness  of  the  pc()])le  and  the  development  of  the  wealth  of 
the  nation.  In  no  field  was  progress  more  ra])i(l  than  in  that  of  internal 
transportation.  Hardly  had  plans  for  building  military  wagon-roads  to  e\ery 
part  of  our  extended  domain  been  perfected  — so  that  the  trains  of  huge, 
canvas-topped,  broad-tired  wagons  in  use  in  early  days,  with   their  teams  of 


•-!« 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


621 


four  or  six  big  horses  and  "  orchestra  of  bells,"  might  be  made  thoroughly 
useful  to  the  people  —  than  steam  was  invented  for  the  navigation  of  rivers, 
and  canals  were  built  for  increased  ease  and  rapidity  of  communication  between 
distant  parts  of  the  interior.  The  old  way  was  supplemented  or  supersedeil  by 
something  better  almost  before  the  capacities  of  the  old  way  had  been  fully 
developed.  In  the  very  year  that  the  public  mind  was  the  most  excited 
about  canals  (1825)  attention  began  to  be  drawn  to  still  another  and  better 
agency  of  transportation,  which  was  destined  in  time  to  overshadow  all  others 
completely,  and  work  out  public  results  that  would  have  been  regarded  in 
1825  as  the  wildest  dreams  of  romance,  and  even  in  1.S78  can  scarcely  be 
grasped  by  the  human  mind.  Railroads  were  given  to  the  world  in  that  year, 
and  were  discussed  in  the  United  States,  and  soon  riveted  such  attention,  that 
great  schemes  for  canal-building  were  dropped,  and  elTort  concentrated  \\\iow 
the  new  idea.  The  rajtidity  of  j;rogress  which  had  preceded  the  invention  of 
this  style  of  land-transportation  followetl  it;  and  in  1878  the  United  States 
with  its  45,000,000  of  people  have  79,000  miles  of  road  in  practical  operation 
(not  of  track,  but  of  road)  against  88,000  in  I'lurope  with  its  300,000,000  of 
people,  and  11,000  in  the  rest  of  the  world  besides  with  its  i,ooo,ooo,ooa 
of  human  souls. 

Railroads  took  their  rise  in  the  tramways  in  use  in  the  mines  of  ICngland 
and  Germany  for  con\eying  heavy  masses  of  coal  and  iron  ore  to  the  tloors 
of  the  mineS;  and  thence  to  buildings  or  yards  for  the  storage  or  ^3,1^03^3 
manufacture  of  the  minerals,  or  to  wharves  or  dL'[)6ts  for  their  had  their  rise 
transfer  to  wagons  and  boats  for  distribution.  Combined  with  '"  ramways. 
this  idea  was  another,  for  employing  steam  to  propel  carriages  along  com- 
mon roads.  These  two  ideas  were  conceived  in  the  closing  years  of  the 
last  century,  and  were  not  at  the  time  thought  of  together,  but  were  made  use 
of  as  totally  distinct  inventions.  In  this  country  the  idea  of  a  steam-carriage 
preceded  that  of  the  tramway.  As  early  as  1794  Oliver  I'^ans  of  Maryland 
used  to  say  that  the  child  was  then  born  who  woukl  travel  from  Philadelphia 
to  Boston  in  a  steam-wagon.  He  was  regarded  as  an  enthusiast ;  but  efforts 
were  made  for  thirty  years  to  realize  his  itlea.  A  great  many  steam-carriages 
were  invented.  Rumors  of  the  experiments  reai:hed  England  ;  and  in  the 
summer  of  1819  a  Lon{k)n  paper  had  an  item  saying,  "  The  Americans  have 
applied  the  power  of  steam  to  supersede  that  of  horses  in  propelling  stage- 
coaches. In  the  State  of  Kentucky  a  stage-coach  is  now  established,  which 
travels  at  the  rate  of  twelve  miles  an  hour.  It  can  be  stopped  instantly,  and 
set  again  in  motion  with  its  former  velocity  ;  and  is  so  constructed,  that  the 
passengers  sit  within  two  feet  of  the  ground.  The  velocity  depends  on  the 
size  of  the  wheels."  This  item  is  believed  to  be  inaccurate  as  to  the  fact  of 
a  steam-coach  in  practical  use  ;  but  it  correctly  sets  forth  what  American 
inventors  were  striving  after. 

Experiments  in  this  direction  were  tried  fi)r  many  years.     On  some  routes 


.1 


li 


i| 


622 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


f^'Mf 


of  travel,  like  that  between  Albany  and  Lake  Erie,  forty  or  fifty  horse-coaches 
First  steam-  werc  often  despatched  in  one  day;  and,  could  steam  be  used  to 
coaches.  propel  iheui,  a  great  saving  of  expense,  and  expedition  of  business, 

would  be  effected.  Steam-coaches  were  exhibited  in  New  York,  Philadelphia, 
Washington,  and  elsewhere;  and  in  1824  S.  T.  Conn  of  Virginia  publicly 
advertised  for  capital  to  form  a  company  tu  run  a  steam-carriage  on  the  turn- 
pike between  Washington  and  Alexandria.  lie  wanted  $1,200  for  the  purpose, 
-  -  a  modest  sum,  surely,  compared  with  the  millions  of  capital  which  it  now 
takes  to  build  and  operate  a  modern  line  of  steam-railway.  I'jelieving  in  the 
possibility  of  steam-coaches,  and  seeing  the  necessity  of  ])roviding  a  solid, 
hard,  straight  road  for  them  to  travel  on,  the  State  of  New  York  in  1S25 
projected  a  great  wagon-road  from  the  Hudson  River  to  Lake  Erie,  to  cost 


-^-.-  .^Yi-,S^ 


"■nili   SlH  Tll    CAKOI.INA,"    1S31. 


$500,000,  and  ordered  surveys  for  it.     Other  States  gave  attention  also  to  the 
subject  of  the  im|)rovement  of  tlieir  common  roads. 

The  crude  idea  of  a  steam  road-wagon  was  never  realized,  because  in  1825 
attention  was  drawn  to  the  subject  i)f  railways.  The  Stockton  and  Darlington 
Stockton  and  Ivailwav  liad  l)een  Opened  in  England  in  order  to  supply  London 
Darlington  with  coal,  and  passenger-cars  were  drawn  over  it  by  a  crude  sort 
of  locomotive  at  the  rate  of  seven  miles  an  hour.  The  stories 
told  about  this  coal-tramway  brought  on  a  discussion  in  the  United  States 
which  left  the  projected  steam-coach  quite  out  of  sight.  '"  Tlie  London 
Courier"  said  in  1S25  of  Mr.  Rush,  die  American  minister,  then  soon  to 
return  to  this  country  to  be  secretary  of  the  treasury,  "  Whatever  Parliament 
may  do"  [about  railways  in  England],  "they  cannot  stop  the  course  of  knowl- 
edge and  improvement.  The  American  (lovernment  has  possessed  ilselt, 
through  its  minister,  of  the  im|)roved  mode  of  making  and  constructing  rail- 
roads ;  and  there  can  be  no  '.loubt  of  their  immediate  adoption  throughout  that 


I 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


623 


country."    There  could  be  none  whatever  ;  for  railroads  were  more  necdcil  in 
this  wild  antl  undeveloped  country  than  in  ICnglahd. 

There  was  not  a  mile  of  railroad  in  America  in   1825.     In  1826  buikling 
began.     Two   short  roads  were   undertaken  almost   simultaneously,  —  a   line 
three  miles  long  at  Quincy,  Mass.,  to  bring  down  granite  from  the 
quarries;  and  a  line  nine  miles  long  at  Mauch  Chunk,  Penn.,  to   roads  in 
bring  down  coal  from  the  mines.     Both  were  horse-roads.     The    United 
Mauch-Chunk  road  cost  from  ^2,500  to  $3,000  a  mile,  bcin.i;  laid 
over  a  route  previously  used  for  ordinary  wagons.     Wooden  rails  were  laid 
upon  wooden  sleepers  lying  four  feet  apart,  being  fastened  tlieieto  by  wooden 
keys.     The  sleepers  were  supported  on  stone  foun<lations,  and  the  rails  i)late(l 
on  the  inner  edge  with  rolled  iron  bars  from  an  inch  and  a  quarter  to  an  inch 
and  three-cjuarters  wide.     A  gravel-path  for  the  horses  was  made  between  the 
rails  covering  the  sleepers.     The  wagons  weighed  from  1,200  to   Description 
1,500  pounds  each,  and  were  mounted  on  flanged  wheels  two  feet   °^  ^'^^'^• 
in  diameter.     They  carried  a  ton  and  a  half  each.     The  cars  were  allowed  to 
run  down  five  miles  by  the  force  of  gravity,  and  were  then  towed  to  the  place 
for  dumi)ing  the  coal  by  horses.     On  the  Quincy  road  the  tracks  were  five 
feet  apart.     Wooden  rails  six  inches  by  twelve  were  laiil  on  stone  sleepers 
lying  eight  feet  apart,  which,  in  turn,  were  supported  upon  a  stone  foundation. 
On  the  top  of  the  rails  was  placed  a  scantling  two  inches  by  four,  which  was 
I)lated  with  bar  iron  from  t\  o   inches  and  a  half  to  two  inches  and  three- 
([uarters  wide.     The  wagons  weighed  six  tons  each,  cost  four  hundred  dollars 
ai)iece,  and  were  mounted  on  wheels  six   feet  and  a  half  in  diameter.     Two 
h.orses  drew  fifty  tons'  weight,  including  the  wagons,  over  this  road,  at  a  sjieed 
of  four  miles  and  a  half  an  hour.     On  a  canal  the  same  weight  could  not  have 
been  drawn  by  two  horses  then  foster  than  two  miles  an  hour.     This  road  cost 
$11,250    a    mile,   owing    to    the    rock-cuttings    and   trestle-work    which    were 
necessary  upon  it.     The  two  roads  were  finished  in   1S27.     A  public  celebra- 
tion took  place  on  the  opening  of  the  latter,     dreat  i)opular  interest  was  felt 
in  both,  and  committees  came  to  see  them  from  all  parts  of  the  country. 

No  railroad  had  yet  been  built  in  the  world  for  the  general  conveyance  of 
passengers  and  goods,  —  not  even  in  England.    So  iar.  all  the  railways  had  been 
constructed  for  the  transportation  of  the  products  of  mines  over   ^ariy  lines 
extremely  short  routes.     Their  utility  for  the  purposes  of  general   wereaU 
traffic,  however,  was  disclosed  bv  these  prelinnnary  experiments, 
and  America  seized  upon  the  new  idea  cjuite  as  (|uick  as  England.     Daniel 
Webster,  Charles  Carroll,  Mr.  Calhoun,  Mr.  Clay,  and  other  ])ul)lic  men,  ex- 
pressed  a   belief  in    their  jiracticability ;    and   the   new  era  was  successfully 
initiated.     Wings  were  now  lent  to  enterprise  by  the  rivalry  of  cities.     New 
York  had  taken  an  astonishing  start  consequent  upon  the  opening  of  the  Erie 
Canal,  and  was  diverting  trade  from  Philadeli)hia,  ])0st:^n.  and  IJaltimore,  which 
could  only  be  regained,  if  at  all,  by  the  construction   -fv  great  transportation- 


I 


'I 


624 


IND  US  TRIA  L    II IS  TOR  Y 


}  li'     ftfe 


routes  fnjiii  those  -ities  into  the  interior;  and  the  business-men  of  those  places 
set  about  the  unde'laking  at  once.  Long  lines  of  railway  were  projected  from 
all  the  most  enterjjrisini.'-  seaboard  cities  into  the  more  thickly-settled  jjorlions 
of  their  own  States,  witii  the  idea  of  ultimate  extension  toward  the  ^Vest. 
They  were  all  originally  planneil  to  be  operated  by  horse-power,  or  by  sta- 
tionary engines;  though  the  possibility  of  em- 
ploying locomotives  was  kept  in  view,  and  me- 
chanics were  encouraged  to  study  the  su])jc(t 
of  steam  -  locomotion,  and  try  their  hands  at 
building  engines. 

A  short  road  of  seventeen  miles  from  Albany 
to  .Schenectady  had  been  authorized  by  the  New- 
Baltimore  '^'"'"•^  ^t^it'-'  Legislature  Ai)ril  17,  1826, 
to  be  operated  by  horses,  inclined 
planes,  and  stationary  engines.  On 
July  4,  1828,  ground  was  broken  for  a  railroad 
from  Baltimore  out  to  Ohio,  the  president  of  the 
day  being  the  venemble  Charles  Carroll,  who  said 
to  a  friend  on  the  occasion  "that  he  considered 
it  among  the  most  important  acts  of  his  life, 
second  only  to  his  signing  the 
Declaration  of  Independence, 
if  even  it  were  second  to  that." 
Twelve  miles  of  the  road  were 
opened  to  travel  in  May,  1 830, 
the  cars  being  drawn  by  horses, 
as  it  was  not  until  a  year  or 
two  later  that  the  certainty  of 
attaining  greater  speed  by 
means  of  locomotives  was  as- 
sured. At  first  the  track  was 
laid  on  large  blocks  of  stone  ; 
but,  after  passing  the  Pataps- 
co.  wooden  ties  and  stringers 
were  used,  owing  to  their 
greater  elasticity.  The  Balti- 
more and  Ohio  Company  acted  with  vigor,  pressing  its  contractors,  an  1  send- 
ing committees  to  other  parts  of  the  country  and  to  England  to  study  road- 
building  and  the  capacities  of  stjam.  In  1832  the  road  was  built  to  Point  (jt 
Rocks,  a  distance  of  seventy-three  miles  ;  and  the  company  had  offered  pre- 
miums of  $4,000  and  S3. 500  for  locomotives  to  run  at  certain  rates  of  s|)cc(l 
on  the  road  of  the  com])any,  by  means  of  which  thev  obtained  "The  York," 
built  at  York,  Penn..  by  Davis  and  Ciarlner.  wliich  was  able  to  draw  fifteen  tons 


KOI.STON    INCI.lNEn    RAILWAY. 


■!!fe; 


OF   TllK    rx/JK/)   sr.iTKs. 


62; 


I 


626 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


on  a  level  at  a  speed  of  fifteen  miles  an  hour.  The  com|)any  was  dclayi.'d 
by  litigation  witli  the  Cliesapeake  and  Ohio  Canal  Company,  which  (buj^lit 
its  progress;  and  it  was  not  until  1853  tiiat  the  road  reached  the  Ohio 
River. 

In  South  Carolina  ^  company  was  incorporated,  Dec.  19,  1827,  to  build  a 
railroad  and  canal  out  to  Hamburgh,  on  the  Savannah  River,  in  order  to  ojifn 
Railroads  "P  ^''^^X  <-"0'ii'^iiiiii^^tion  with  the  rich  agricultural  region^  lyiiv  in 
in  South  ii  at   difp' lion    the    intervening   distrii '.;    Deing   a   wilderness   of 

Ca'oiin:,.  ;r..;.i,Y)j, .  i^,;t  dStatci  engine. Ts  made  the  surveys,  as  tliey  did 
for  all  tiiese  (•;■!(■'•■;■' .ads.  The  road  was  originally  built  ujion  trestle-work 
nearly  the  .vhoi.  :.  tauc-  '"ith  n  thin  strap-rail  laid  upon  stringers.  Charles- 
ton was  the  first  city  in  \.\\  ountry  to  emi)l(jy  a  locomotive.  In  i.S^o,  wIku 
the  road  had  been  finished  for  only  eight  miles,  —  several  months  before  the 
opening  of  tl,e  Liverpool  and  Manchester  Railway  in  I'lngland,  ui)on  wlii(  h 
steam-engines  were  employed,  an  event  which  created  a  furore  of  excitement 
botli  sides  of  the  ocean,  —  a  locomotive  weighing  five  tons,  and  called  "The 
Best  Friend,"  was  operated  profitably  on  the  South-Carolina  Railroad.  It  waN 
built  at  West  Point,  N.Y.,  under  the  direction  of  Mr.  I'^.  L.  Miller  of  Charles- 
ton, S.C.,  and  was  the  first  one  used  in  the  passenger  and  freight  business  of 
the  United  States. 

In  1831  tile  Mohawk  and  Albany  Railroad  was  opened  to  use.     The  same 
Mohawk  and   )'*-''^''  ^'^'-'  ^"'^*'  ^xoxw  Riciimond,  Va.,  to  Chesterfield,  ihirtjen  milei 
Albany  Rail-    long,  the  sccoud  one  finished  in  the  United  State:;,  was:  throwi; 
open,  and  a  little  line  five  miles  long  from  New  Orijnna  ic  l,:ik 
Pontchaitrain. 

Pennsylvania's  transportation-route  to  the  West  was  undertaken  at  fir.-t  n) 
the  State  itself     .Agitation  for  a  railroad  and  canal  began  in  1S26,  a:;  soon  as  it 
was  seen  what  a  blessing  to  Ne\v-\'ork  Statj  the  Erie  Canal  had 
roads  in  becoiiie.     Survcys  Were  made;  and  in  l'\'l)ruary,  1028,  the  coin- 

Pennsyiva-      mittee  on  internal  imjjrovements  reported  to  the  lower  house  ol" 
the  legislature  that  a  railroad  ouglit  to  be  built  at  once  from  I'hil  1- 
delphia  to  Lancaster  and  Columbia,  and  thence  extended  to  the  West.     'Hkv 
said,  "This  will  accommodate  a  district  of  country,  which,  from  its  jjrolific  soil 

and  rich  cultivation,  is  considered  the   garden  of  our  country \  \\i>e 

and  ecjual  policy  will  recjuire  its  farther  extension  to  the  West,  for  tlu-  i)ur])(jse 
of  accommodating  the  i)0[)ulous  and  flourishing  counties  on  the  soutluTu 
boundary,  and  connecting  them  with  our  own  commercial  metropolis."  The 
State  l)uilt  the  railroad  from  Philadelphia  to  Columbia  (eighly-two  miles),  and 
the  portage  road  from  Hollidaysburgh  to  Johnstown,  so  that  they  w^xt  ready 
for  use  in  1832.  It  also  built  a  canal  from  Johnstown  to  Pittsburgh,  the  total 
cost  of  all  these  works  being  twelve  million  dollars.  This  gave  Philadelphia  a 
route  through  to  the  West,  and  enabled  her  to  meet  die  c(jm])etition  of  other 
cities.     While  these  works  were  in  progress,  a  number  of  small  roads  in  the 


' 


Riv 


Ji'r 


m 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


62' 


SchuylkUl  mining-rogion  were  l)tii!(ling  through  private  enterprise,  and   one 
from  I'liiiad  'phi.i  to  (Icnnantown  was  chartered  in  1.S31. 


ANOlllIK    \li;\V    <)1'    JACKS    NAKKOWS. 


Boston's  first  idea  was  to  construct  a  canal  tliroui^h  the  State  to  tlic  Hudson 
River  to  connect  witii  the  Erie  Canal,  and  thus  secure  an  uninterrupted  water- 


628 


JND  US  TNI  A  L    Ills  TON  Y 


|l-r 


route  to  the  most  distant  rt'L,'ions  of  llic  West.  IJiit  in  June,  1825,  (luw  Lin- 
Massachu-  coln,  in  Speaking  upon  the  matter  to  the  lei,'islature,  sai<l,  ".\noih(.r 
*"^"''-  nuaiis  (jf  lonununication  has  been  sug^^ested  l)y  the  construe  iioii  of 

raihvays,"  In  June,  1826,  a  conuniltee  was  appi)inte(l  by  the  legislature  to 
report  upon  the  (juestion  of  a  railway  to  the  Hudson.  Varicnis  routes  wire 
sur\eyed.  The  legislature  was  slow,  however,  in  acting,  and  the  business-nun 
of  l!osl(jn  became  impatient,  'i'hey  visited  New- York  State  to  urge  tin- 
people  along  the  line  of  the  l'>ie  C"anal  to  build  railroads  connecting  Alb.inv 
with  Lake  lOrie,  and  besieged  their  own  legislature  with  statements  in  regard 
to  the  benefits  to  Massachusetts  of  a  railway  to  connect  with  the  New-\(irk 
roads  and  canal.  In  1S30  companies  were  chartered  to  build  railroads  from 
Boston  to  Providence  and  Lowell  ;  and  finally,  in  1831,  a  beginning  was  made 
in  the  work  of  building  westwardly,  by  a  charter  to  a  company  to  constru(  t 
a  road  to  Worcester;  which  was  immediately  organized,  and  the  road  built 
and  opened  by  July  4,  1835.  The  Western  Railroad  (Corporation  was  char- 
tered in  1833  'to  build  from  Worcester  to  the  Hudson.  The  work  was  con- 
sidered to  be  of  such  public  utility,  that  the  State  lent  to  the  company  at 
different  times  State  scrip  for  sums  which  amounted  in  the  end  to  four  milli(jn 
dollars. 

While   those   lines  were   building,    a   communication    was    being   created 

across  the  State  of  New  Jersey  by  the  Camden  and  ,\mboy  Rail- 
New  Jersey.  ^         j      j  j 

road,   between  the  cities  of  New  York  and    Philadelphia.     The 
road  was  begun  in  1831,  and  finished  in  1834. 

At  the  same  time  several  short  lines  were  building  in  New-York  State,  — 
among  them  being  the   Utica  and  Schenectady,  chartered  in    1833,  and  the 
Other  lines      Albany  and  Syracuse,  chartered  in  1834,  —  with  the  design  of  stini- 
buiit  in  New   ulatiug  the  construction  of  other  connecting  railroads,  which  should 
°'^'''  eventually  give  the  State  a  complete  through  line  from  Albany  to 

Lake  Erie.  It  is  an  interesting  fact,  that  even  in  that  early  period,  in  1830,  —  in 
fact,  when  there  were  only  twenty-three  miles  of  railroad  in  operation  on  this 
whole  continent,  —  the  great  project  of  a  railroad  from  the  State  of  New  York  to 
the  Mississippi  River  at  St.  Louis  had  been  conceived  l)y  De  Witt  Clinton,  and 
publicly  advocated  in  a  little  pamphlet,  of  which  only  a  lew  rare  copies  are 
now  preserved.  The  road  was  to  be  about  a  thousand  miles  long,  and  to 
cost  fifteen  million  dollars.  It  was  too  vast  a  project,  however,  for  the 
resources,  and  even  the  needs,  of  that  age  ;  and  the  only  real  outcome  of  the 
proposition  was  the  beginning  of  a  chain  of  railroads  through  New- York  State 
to  Lake  I']rie,  above  noted.  In  the  two  lines  above  referred  to,  Boston  capital 
was  invested  ;  for  it  was  foreseen,  that,  if  the  new  agency  for  transportation 
fulfilled  the  expectations  of  its  advocates,  the  disadvantages  of  Boston's  geo- 
graphical ])osition  would  be  annihilated,  and  the  fiiture  all-rail  route  to  the 
West  would  be  of  great  advantage  to  her.  Besides  the  two  lines  above  men- 
tioned in  New- York  State  as  then  building,  there  were  also  the  Ithaca  and 


^  ! 


01-     J  HE    CXITKI)    SIATES. 


629 


Oswego,  the  Canandaigiia  Railway,  a  liiu'  tVoin  the  Iludsdii  to  nu'ct  llic  Wi'sIlth 
Railroad  of  Massachusetts,  and  a  lew  other  small  loial  lines. 

The  science  ot'  building  and  operating  railroads  was  not  well  understood 
during  the  fust  ten  years  of  their  exi^^tt'nce,  and  many  wild  anil  erroneous 
notions  were  entertained  in  regard  to  them.     Roads 


were  planned  to  be  buill  on   routes  run-    science  of 


nuiLT   over   mounlanis   and   \ales    that    a 


riiilroad  - 


,1^!: 


1  111  ,•  111  building  very 

stage-coa(  h  would  nave  lound   it  hard  to   i,„,,t,rfect 
pass.     One    of  the    very    early    (barters   cimint' fust 
granted  in  New-York  State  was  for  a  rail- 
road  from   Catskill   to    Ithaca   direct.     This   was   in 
1828;   and,  in  the  ten  years   following,  applications 
were  made  at  Albany  for  charters  for  about  a  hundred 
and  forty  different  companies,  of  which  number  only 
twenty-one  overbuilt  the  roads  respectively  projected 
by  them.     It  was  not  known  for  many  years  whether 
to    treat    the    locomotive    as    a    toy    i>r   a    machine. 
Morses  were   doing  so   well  on  all    the  railroads  in 
operation,  that  it  was  su])i)osed  they  would  not  be 
superseded.     On  the  IJaltimore   and   Ohio   Road    a    -^ 
single   horse  would   draw  a  hundred  barrels  of  iloiu-    ?- 
loaded  upon  four  cars  at  a  speed  of  seven  miles  an    o 
hour.     I'lxperiments  were   making  with   locomotives    '' 
at  Philadelphia  and  West   Point,  and  several  of  these 
machines  were  imported  from   England  to  test  their 
abilities.     Put  even  as  late  as  1832,  when  Mr.  Paid- 
win  of  Philadelphia  had  produced    his  first  engine, 
'"The  Ironsides,"  for  the  (iermantown  road,  anil  it 
had   attained    a  speed  of   thirty  miles  an   hour,   its 
utility  was  so  much  in  doubt,  that  the  ibilowing  ad- 
vertisement appeared  in  a  Pliiladelphia  iiewspaptT  : 
''Notice.  —  The  locomotive-engine   (built  by  M.  \V. 
lialdwin   of  this   city)    will    ileparL   daily,   Il'/icii   tlic 
-icraf/icr  is  /tii/-,  with  a  train  of  ])assenger-cars.      On 
rainy  days,  lunsc's  7ui//  In-  af/ailicil.'''     Tin'  engine  was 
treated  merely  as  a  ciiriositw     The  ])n)blem  of  the 
locomoti\-e  was  solved  in  1N34  b\'  "The  Lancaster" 
of  Mr.   I'aldwin's  make,  and   l'eniis\l\ania  resohcd 

to  adopt  tliat  sort  of  m()li\-e-i)ower  for  her  niilroad  to  Columbi.i.  Put  even 
then  there  were  manv  thinijs  about  an  em;ine  not  understood  :  and  c(;nstant 
experiment  and  ex])enditure  of  money  had  to  be  resorted  to  before  the  ren  ;i- 
site  knowledge  was  obtained. 

In  order  to  flicilitate  the  building  of  railroads,  the  States  at  first  extended 


a 


y^;:p=* 


..    \i 


V 


•II 


i'll** 


630 


IND I 'S  TKIA  I.    INS  TON  V 


to  the  companies  l)iiil(lint;  iluin  direct  aid  eitlicr  from  the  public  treasury,  or 
CrantinKof  !»>' a  loan  of  tlic  public  credit,  'i'hcrc  was  a  generous  glow  (it 
public  aid.  interest  in  thcni  in  the  public  mind.  The  patriots  never  gatinKd 
for  a  l''()urth-()f  July  ct'lebration  or  a  i>u!.lic  (hnner  witiiout  drinking  a  he.ulv 
tcjasl  lu  inlenial  inipnjveinents.  The  pajters  weie  full  of  rhapsodies  upon  d:e 
march  of  the  new  idea  ;  and  orators  in  jjubhc  assemldages,  and  in  tlie  ciipiiols 
of  the  state  and   nation,  fell  that    they  had  well  earned  iIk'   publi(    gratitude 


If*; 


11*1 


>6  ■ 


INTEKIOU   OF   SLracrlNG-CAK. 


by  the  ardor  of  their  advorncy  of  railroads,  canals,  and  military  roads. 
Such  being  the  state  of  the  public  mind,  every  railroad  enterprise  wisely  con- 
ceived and  prudently  conducted  found  it  easy  to  obtain  State  aid  Ui  ;  u(  h 
reasonable  amount  as  would  enable  its  promoters  to  accomi)lish  their  work. 
Mar}'land  was  the  first  State  in  the  country  to  grant  legislative  aid  to  railroads. 
In  1828  the  sum  of  $500,000  was  granted  to  the  I'altimore  and  Ohio  line; 
and  in  1855  the  State  subscribed  53,000.000  to  the  stock  of  the  company, 
and  the  cily  of  Baltimore  $3,000,000  more.     Massachusetts  loaned  $4,000,000 


OF    THE    IWiTII)    srATI'S, 


^Mi 


to  the  liostoii  and  .\ll)any  line.  New  York  fDlhiwed  her  example  by  loaning 
small  sums  to  the  (lilTerent  companies  l)iiil(linj,'  the  chain  of  roads  otit  to  I„ike 
I'lrio,  —  a  step  which  tlie  panic,  of  i8_^7  made  necessary  in  i)art,  since  it  dis- 
cotiraf^ed  tlie  investment  of  private  capital.  Pennsylvania  went  so  far  as  to 
Itiiild  her  fn-st  rail-route  from  Pliiladclphia  to  Colmnbia  with  its  branches,  and 
the  canal  route  on  to  Pittsi)urgh,  at  her  own  expense.  The  wealthy  State 
of   Virginia  constructed  the   lilue- Ridge   Railroad   on  her  own    account,  and 


INTERIOR   OF    I'ASSENCiKU-CAK. 


sul)se(iuently  subscribed  to  the  stock  of  several  lines;  while  Kentucky  loaned 
her  credit  for  railroad-building  repeatedly.  South  Carol'.u.)  ioniicd  $100,000 
to  her  first  road.  The  object  of  these  proceedings,  was.  in  the  main,  simply  to 
assist  private  enterprise  ;  and  the  total  amount  of  aid  urau^^ed  was  a  very  small 
part  of  the  total  capital  invested,  being  probably  less  tii;  a  ten  i)er  ce;  .  The 
works  were,  in  the  main,  left  to  private  enterprise. 

During  this  decade  several  railroads  were  projc*  ted  in  Canada  and  the 
Hntish  Provinces.     The  CIreat  Western  Railway  took  its  origin  in  one  of  these 


i 


■  \\.   KM 


? 


^■Hi'i' 


1.* 


f^ 


lji;m'i'N,. 


S'^ 


('3^ 


IND  US  TRIA  L    HIS  TOR  Y 


projects,  —  tlic  London  and  Ciore  Railroail  Company,  wliich   was  cl\artcre(l 


Railroads    in 


in  1S34.     Nothing  was  ever  tlone  with  that  cliartcr  ;   and  the  1 


)lan 


Canada  and     was  iv-organized  in  1845  as  the  (Ireat  Western  Company,  in  order 
to  provide  lor  a  road  Irom  the  Niagara  to  Lake  Huron,  and  thus 


British  Prov- 
inces. 


secure  an  all-rail  route  from  the  West,  throuiih  Canada  and  tl 


le 

United  States,  to  the  seaboard  at  IJoston.  The  road  was  built  under  this  latter 
charter.  A  line  from  St.  Andrew's  in  New  Urunswic  k  to  (hiebec  was  pro- 
posed in  1835,  and  the  home  government  set  apart  ^'10,000  to  maze  ilu' 
surveys  for  it  through  what  was  then  a  ])erfe('t  wilderness.  One-lifth  of 
the  sum  was  expended,  and  fiuther  e,\])enditures  were  then  slopped  unlil 
the  l)ou.Kla'-y-questioii  with  America  could  be  settled.  \\'oi-k  on  the  road 
was  resumed  in  1847.  The  Lrie  antl  Niagara  Ccjmpan)-  was  also  chartered 
in  1835. 

Ra|)id  transit  was  a  subject  as  much  talked  about  in  those  carl;  davs  as 
in  these  more  modern  times,  when  a  net-work  of  railroad-lines  and  telegraj)!!- 
„      ,  .  ,         wires  traverses  the  countrv  in  everv  direction,  and  transportation 

Great  inter-  -  -  ' 

est  displayed  and  travel  engage  in  an  eager  race  against  time.  Lines  of  mail- 
in  subject  of  toaches  were  arranged  ti)  run  in  connection  widi  steapmoats,  and 
rapid  transit.  .  " 

c  ery  fresh  victory   o'.er    time    and    space    wa-    heralded    in    the 

])ubHc  prints  with  enthusiasm.  \w  1821  it  was  announced  as  a  specini'.'n  of 
raj)id  travelling,  that  the  distance  i)etween  New  York  and  Providence  had 
been  traversed  in  twenty-fne  hours  by  steamlujat  and  stage.  \\\  1824  it 
recpiired  seventy-one  hours  and  a  half  to  go  from  Uoston  to  Washington  ; 
antl  that  was  cpiick  time  too,  the  usual  lime  being  about  eighty  hours.  It 
retpiired  nineteen  days  to  go  from  Philadelphia  to  Nau  hez,  and  twenty- 
four  days  to  go  to  New  Orleans.  When  Paltimore  was  brought  within  fiftv- 
four  iiours  of  Saratoga  Springs,  it  was  regarded  as  a  great  achievement. 
Tl-icse  specimens  of  rapid  travelling  \\..re  due  to  the  improvement  of  the 
wagon-roads  and  the  employment  of  ^team  (^n  the  rivers.  They  stinuilateil 
travel  greatly  ;  and  in  1825  it  was  aim  )un(  ed  a^  a  gratifying  and  remarkable 
event,  that,  during  the  lM)urth-of-Jaly  celebration  at  Philadelphia  that  year, 
three  hunilred  \('w-\'orkers  were  said  to  liave  been  in  the  city  ;  and  in  New- 
York  State  as  manv  as  forlv  coac'^-loads  of  passengers  were  then  arriving 
every  day  at  Albanv  bv  the  grent  turnpike  running  out  to  llu'  western  part  of 
the  State,  .\fter  1832  this  class  of  iii'ins  disappeared  from  the  columns  of  the 
newspa]>ers.  and  a  new  vnrietv  a]i])e;ired.  Rapid  travelling  by  rail  became 
tile  exciting  topic  then,  ami  astonishing  runs  from  one  ci^y  to  another  over 
tlie  new  slvle  of  road  were  recorded  m  the  prir'  :  in  place  of  the  exploits 
of  (he  mail-coaches.  Lvcn  with  cars  drawn  by  horses,  lime  was  at  once 
reduced  one-h;df  from  the  best  achievements  of  ihe  stages,  and,  as  soon  as 
locomotives  began  to  be  used,  to  one-fourth  and  Ic^s.  Wonder  and  curiosity 
filled  the  public'  miral  at  the  ])erformances  of  the  new  servant  of  man.  The 
l)apers  never  tired  of  talking  about  them.     Crowds  llocked  to  the  railroads 


o/--  THE   iwrn-.n  stajes. 


^3.5 


l.KWI'^Ti'N    NAKEOWS,    I'KNN. 


y 


1 1 


w 


l:i,' 


634 


INDUSTRIAL    njsroRY 


to  see  the  locomotives  go  by ;  and  hundreds  of  people  went  travelling  who 
till  now  had  had  a  horror  of  the  long,  rougli,  fatiguing  voyages  by  stage.  'I'lie 
locomotive  was  hailed  by  all  travellers  with  delight.  It  did  not  reduce  the 
cost  of  travel  materially ;  but  it  inc:reased  the  speed,  and  it  gave  an  unwonted 
stimulus  to  travel  and  business-operations  wherever  it  ran.  Railroad-travelling 
has  now  so  improved,  that,  in  1875,  the  run  from  New  York  to  San  Francisco 
was  made  in  three  days  and  a  half;  which  was  about  the  length  of  time  it 
formerly  tcjok  to  go  from  IJoston  to  Washington. 

The  reduction  in  the  cost  of  transportation  by  railroads  was  enormous, 
No  line  twenty  miles  long  was  constructed  anywhere  without  enabling  farmers 
to  send  their  cider,  i)otatoes,  apples,  cheese,  and  produce  generally,  to  town 
at  from  a  half  to  a  (juarter  of  what  it  had  cost  them  previously.  It  enabled 
formers  to  sell  vast  iiuantil'es  of  produce,  which,  before  that,  would  not  pay  the 
cost  of  transportation.  Freight  from  Philadelphia  to  Pittsburgh  was  —  by  the 
railroad  to  t!olumbia,  and  the  canal  thence  to  the  city  last  named  —  reduced 
from  a  hundred  dollars  to  thirty  dollars  a  ton.  It  was  calculated  in  Marylantl, 
from  the  experience  of  the  first  few  sections  of  the  road  building  out  to  the 
Ohio,  that,  when  the  line  reached  Cumberland,  the  freight  ujjon  coal,  then 
several  dollars  a  ton,  would  l;e  reduced  to  one  cent  ;  and  in  vSouth  Carolina 
the  railroad  to  the  interior  was  found  to  enable  the  planters  to  send  their 
ctjtton  to  the  seaport  at  a  few  ents  a  bale,  when  it  had  previously  cost  them 
from  three  to  four  dollars  to  get  it  down  by  the  rough  and  swampy  wagon- 
roads. 

The  reduction  in  the  expense  of  transportation  by  means  of  railroad'j  is  not 
the  only  benefit  conferred  by  them.  Py  their  creation  it  became  practicable 
to  cultivate  the  soil  far  away  from  rivers  and  lakes,  and  which  to-day  would  be 
lying  in  native,  untamed  wildness  except  for  these  mighty  agents  of  civilization. 
The  railroads  long  ago  surpassed  the  rivers  in  importance  as  highways,  render- 
ing it  possible  to  accpiire  from  every  inch  of  the  national  domain  whatever 
riches  it  may  possess. 

These  achievements  of  the  railroads  and  the  performances  of  the  locomo- 
tives, after  1834,  finally  demonstrated  the  value  of  this  new  a  .;cncy  of  transpor- 
Superiority  tation.  Its  Superior  speed,  cheapness,  and  comfort  were  fully 
of  railroads.  pi-Qveil,  and,  in  foct,  surpassed  all  prediction ;  and  there  was 
great  confidence  that  the  defects  of  the  roads  and  tracks  and  rolling-stock 
would  be  corrected  just  as  fast  as  inventors  gave  their  attention  to  them.  A 
passion  for  railroad-building  accordingly  set  in.  A  vast  number  of  compani<\> 
were  formed  in  all  the  older  States  to  open  up  rail-communication  between  all 
the  thickly-settled  regions  (^f  the  country ;  and,  as  fast  as  population  advanced 
westward,  the  locomotive  followed  it  clo'-ely,  and  united  the  cities  of  the  new 
States  *o  their  sisters  in  the  Fast  with  'he  iron  bands  of  civilization.  How 
rapid  has  been  the  progress  will  a])iK\"-  from  the  following  table,  showing  the 
mileage  of  railway-construction  in  the  United  States  since  1830  :  — 


I 


OF    THE    UxXITED    STATES. 


635 


-" 

1 

MII.KSIN       j 

ANNl'AI.  INC  KFASE 

YEAK. 

OI'KIJATION.      1 

Ol-  MlLKACili. 

I.S3O 

•       ■       • 

1 
23 

•  •  .  . 

1S3I 

95 

72 

IS32    . 

229 

'34 

^'^ll         ■ 

380 

151 

.S34    . 

^^y. 

253 

''^S5  ■ 

1 ,098 

465 

.S3f,  . 

'•-73 

•75 

ly.")?   • 

1 ,497 

224 

1.S3.S  . 

',9'3 

416 

1S39  . 

2,302 

389 

1840 

2,818 

5'6 

1S41 

3,535 

717 

1S42  . 

4,026 

491 

i'S43 

4,185 

'59 

1S44 

4.377 

192 

"S45 

4.633 

256 

.S46 

4,930 

297 

1S47 

5,598 

668 

1S4S 

5,996 

398 

1849 

7,365 

1,369 

1850 

9,021 

1,656 

1851 

10,982 

1,961 

1 1]  52 

1 2,908 

1,926 

i«S3 

15,360 

2,452 

1854 

16,720 

1,360 

185s 

18,374 

1,654 

1S56 

22,016 

3.642 

1857 

■  :      24,503 

2,487 

1858 

26,968 

2,465 

'859 

.   ;      28,789 

1,821 

i860 

30,635 

1,846 

1 86 1 

•  \          3',-86 

65' 

1S62 

32,120 

834 

1863 

33. '70 

1,050 

1864 

33,908 

738 

1865 

35,085 

1,117 

1866 

36,827 

1.74? 

1867 

39.276 

2,449 

1868 

42.255 

2.979 

1869 

47,208 

4.953 

1870 

52,898 

5.690 

187 1 

(0,568 

7.670 

1872 

<  6,735 

6,167 

•873 

70,840 

4.105 

1S74 

72.741 

1 .901 

187  s 

74,658 

'.917 

1876 

. 

•  ;   77.470 

1    2,812 

^H  - 

• 
ill 

41' 


i^  '"iri 


■«|.H 


636 


/A'D  [  S  TKIA  L     HIS  7  OA'  Y 


To  the  total  mileage  for  1S76  should  also  be  addetl  the  mileage  of  Canada, 
Miles  built  which  is  4,929,  because  those  railways  suljstantially  belong  to  and 
during  fifty  form  ail  integral  part  of  the  Anieriran  system  of  rail\va\-com- 
^^""^^^  munication.       In    fifty  years  82,443  miles  of  railroad   were   built 

and   put    \\\    practical   operation ;    or,   computing  the   length   of  track   upon 


iiiXliMAldM    VIADUCT. 


tncse  roads,  —  counting  in  sidings,  double  and  <iuadruple  tracks,  &c.,  —  98,773 
lilies  f  riihoad-track  Av.re  laid  on  tliis  continent  North  of  the  Rio  (irande 
in  -  MpK-  a  1^.  -If-centujy  of  effort.  None  of  the  richer  and  older  nations  can 
pr<'st.in  ;^  record  like  t'lis. 

T'^c  vill(j'-Mg  shows  the  distribution  of  the  railroads  to  the  different  States 
and  '!"•..•;  Mtori^     m  1876  :  — 


OF    THE    r XI TED    STATES. 


637 


P 


Maine 

New  Ilanipsliire 

Vermont  . 

Rhode  [slaiul   . 

Connecticut 

Massacliiisctts  . 

New  Vorlv 

New  Jersey 

Delaware. 

Pennsylvania    . 

Maryland. 

Virginia    . 

West  Virginia  . 

North  Carolina 

South  Carolina 

Florida 

Georgia    . 

Alabama  . 

Mississippi 

Louisiana 

Texas 

Ohio 

Indiana     . 

Illinois 

Kentucky 

Tennessee 

Arkansas. 

Missouri  . 

Iowa 

Wisconsin 

Michigan  . 

Minnesota 

Kansas 

Nebraska 

Colorado  . 

Dakota     . 

Utah 

Wyoming 

Nevada     . 

California 

Oregon     . 

Indian  Country 

Washington 

Union-Pacific   . 

Central-Pacific 

Total 


Kl,>rM'%U-;N  T  IM-   Kci.MlS  (IWNKI)  AND  roNTHULl.'iD. 


;r2 


77.470 


.Mii.i-:>  (ii-- 

KOAU. 

i.dCdMivnvKs 

1,000 

167 

940 

'-5 

Sro 

'97 

1S9 

37 

yiS 

260 

'.'^37 

77' 

S.5^5 

■.667 

1,601 

7'^7 

-^5 

■■* 

5.9-'^3 

2.^47 

1,107 

7<'- 

i,(>)9 

2SS 

5S4 

2 

'■570 

116 

'•353 

162 

4S4 

y~ 

2,306 

3'S 

i.73'S 

1S4 

1 ,0 14 

'3- 

539 

'5- 

2,0^5 

1S4 

4,6t.- 

1,740 

4,003 

7y,S 

7.2S5 

1,645 

'.475 

299 

1,645 

'3' 

7S8 

2< 

3. '46 

54 

3.939 

15 

2,707 

2' 

3.395 

49' 

2,020 

1 ;; 

2,23s 

.!' 

1,150 

u 

957 

30 

-75 

4 

5'5 

31 

459 

.... 

6S0 

33 

1.9 '9 

So 

251 

14 

279 

.... 

no 

9 

1 ,03s 

16S 

22S 


15,618 


LA  us. 

(I"-!    (i|-  KOAU 

AM)  l;i.)l  U'MENT. 

2,S|I 

^^4  5.3 '4.005 

2,72s 

23.7'4.X59 

3.03''< 

33.5''<5.33S 

2()[ 

6, 1 29,023 

4.'\?3 

52,912,022 

i7,S4i 

124,6-5,669 

)  1 , 1  (jS 

421,503.301 

-3.''^.v^ 

i46,7()5,oi6 

35 

5,027,202 

97,667 

386,89  i,,s  60 

i9.37^> 

100,973,120 

5.-52 

'"^9.774.065 

5 

1 63,000 

'.434 

37.023,418 

r  ,SiiS 

37.295. '23 

2S2 

17,420,000 

4. ^'4  3 

62,038,201 

-,442 

70,641,120 

^r:>^i 

27.302,035 

2,2So 

48.198,667 

3.552 

79.037.900 

3S.225 

373.944.3«f5 

16,514 

194,496,511 

4',i2S 

415.777.140 

5.0j-~ 

76,655,260 

1,649 

29,555,822 

307 

14,881,400 

16,304 

228,458,579 

3.25' 

106,352,984 

6,404 

111,728,249 

12,569 

139,866,082 

4.039 

79.754.596 

4,oSo 

92.523.557 

728 

19.57^^.755 

574 

30,694,150 

74 

12,700,000 

573 

8,217,000 

713 

4,650,000 

2,9aj) 

64,705,()()(> 

23' 

7,361,664 

171 

6,000,000 

3.227 

115,214,588 

4.401 

142,630,283 

399.924     5^4.087,253,225 


ill 


m 

i 

^HH 

fe 

iffjlp^ 

1 

p 

lifei 

il?" 

s^lfrn 

;Vr''w^ 

i  ■ 

mm 

Si 

)m 

iKivBli' ' 

1   '  '■flpl 

HP 

-  Wai 

W'^ 

& 

I 

WW 


<~:.>\" 


Hsm*  ■ 


6j8 


/Av>> <r  '.V  r/v'/^  /.   ///.s'  7v;/'  r 


fe.i 


fi:T'i 


mi^. 


()/■     TllK    I  XI  IE  I)    STATES. 


639 


Thus,  in  the  space  of  fifty  years,  there  has  been  exi)en(le(l  in  this  new  and 
wild  coiuilry  tiie  enormous  sum  <if  j!^, 0X7.25,^. 225  in  buikhnt;  railroads  Ijc- 
tween  the  different  [urts  uf  uur  domain.     That  so  young  a  country,  witiiout 


(.  Ill'lll  ^    U'  1    k 


wcaltli,  without  cajiital.  a  rci^ion  inhnhilcd  ahnost  CNclusivcly  v,i  first  liy  f.irriK^rs 
and  planters,  should  have  di^playcu  such  reuiarkalili.'  rc^oiu'tx -■  dI    Cost  of 
capital,  will  not  appear  wondcrfiil,  liowewr,  wlicn  it  is  explained    ■■aiiroad,. 
how  the  'capital  was  uhlaincd.      In  the  early  days  of  railroadin-  it  ua^  fell  that 


hi 


\\.m 


%\  ! 


^f^.   A 


md  ■' 


"iiV'i!; 


I       Hl'l,,! 


Ihi: 


■ffe  'li 

mr 


04( 


/Av:) <'  '.v  fA'/.-i /.   Ills  IV N  y 


(•ntcrprisos  i)f  such  nia.niiiludi.'  as  were  then  proposed  could  only  be  i  arried 
How  money  Oil  1))  llie  aid  of  the  people;  and  accordingly  puMie  nieelinL;s 
was  raised,  ^^.j.,.^.  |,^,|,[  j,,  ,|n.  ,i(it.s  .md  villages  through  whic  h  die  road-,  urre 
to  run.  and  the  lie->t  speakers  ot'  the  day  were  engaged  to  awaken  the  iiitc  r(..-,t 
of  all  sui)>lantial  citi/ens  in  the  piililic  and  pri\ate  advantages  o|'  ihc  road-,. 
Suhscriptions  to  the  stoi  k  of  the  coinpauies  look  the  lorin,  theiviore.  of  x 
jiopiilar  ino\c'nieiit  ;  and  it  was  the  eliaracteri.'ilie  ci  the  carlv  railroad-cuni- 
panies,  that  a  \ast  nninherof  small  sums  saved  In  industry  ami  frugalit)  wc  ir 
imesled  in  them.  'I'lie  Slate  legislatures  aided  many  of  them,  as  ue  iia\e 
seen,  by  grants  of  ciecht  and  money.  .A  part  of  the  capital  to  build  the  mids 
xvas  also  obtained  in  Loudon,  whither  the  agents  of  tlie  principal  liuci  wci-e 
sent.  e\en  in  the  very  infancy  of  their  resp')cti\e  enterprises,  to  see  wlial  cculd 
be  done  in  the  wa\'  of  borrowing  money.  ;\s  railroad-extension  became  a 
l)opular  ////v'/v.  borrowing  capital  in  London  became  a  habit;  ;md  the  rouit 
h;is  been,  that,  in  the  course  of  these  fifty  years,  a  sum  of  mcjiiey,  estiniaircl 
at  not  less  than  S400.ooo.ooo,  has  been  obtained  in  b'ngland  and  I'airope  for 
the  building  of  our  American  r;iilroads.  A  largo  part  of  the  money  thus 
in\este(l  by  foreign  ca|»it;ilir,ts  w.is  tnnismitted  to  the  I'nited  States  in  the  form 
of  railroad-iron.  The  manulacture  of  rails  was  in  its  infancy  in  this  counlrv  ; 
and  England  supplied  us,  until  about  five  years  ago,  with  nearly  all  the  rails 
laid  down  here.  LoconK)lives  and  cars  we  Imilt  ourselves  ;  but  we  did  not 
Importation  h;i\ c  tlic  factories  to  make  iron  rails.  From  1840  to  1S77  there 
of  rails.  were   impt)rted   from    i'lngland   5.200,000    tons    of  rails,  being   a 

larg;  proportion  of  the  whole  ciuantity  used.  'Hie  cost  of  the  rails  imported 
was  s  )  iiething  over  $200,000,000,  the  j^rice  per  ton  being  at  times  excessive. 
In  1S64  it  ran  up  one  month  to  a  hmnlred  and  fifty-four  dollars  per  tun, 
though  sinking  back  next  year  to  eighty-three  dollars,  and  running  down  in 
1876  to  forty  dollars  a  ton,  which  is  more  nearly  their  legitimate  value.  I 'art 
of  the  capit;il  for  building  the  roads  in  the  new  States  of  the  West  was  con- 
tributed outright  by  the  (Jeneral  ("lovernment  of  Washington  in  the  form  of 
large  grants  of  the  public  lands,  by  the  pledge  of  which  the  companies  were 
enabled  to  raise  millions  of  money  which  they  could  not  have  otherwise 
secured.  This  policy  of  land-grants  began  in  1850.  The  State  of  Illinois  li;i(l 
])rojected  a  grand  system  of  canals  and  niilroads  in  1837,  one  feature  of  whic  h 
was  to  be  a  rail-route  from  Chicago  to  Cairo  through  the  central  iiorlion  of 
the  State.  The  Central  Roatl  was  begun,  and  S3, 500,000  spent  upc;n  it  I)y 
the  State,  when  bankruptcy  overtook  the  enterprise,  and  work  was  stopped. 
Congres-  '^'^  '''^5"-  Cougross,  ill  a  liberal  and  wise  spirit,  granted  to  the  St;ite 

of  Illinois  everv  alternate  section  of  the  public  lands  on  eac  h  side 
of  tlie  projected  road  aivl  its  branches,  six  sections  in  width,  to 
assist  in  carrying  it  forward  to  completion,  —  a  grant  which  comprised  2,595,000 
;tcres  of  land,  an  area  larger  than  the  State  t)f  Connecticut.  Tlie  same  law 
made  grants  of  the  same  description  to  Alabaniii  ami  Mississipiii  for  the  exten- 


sional 
grants 


()/■     THE    V XI TED    STATES. 


641 


the  gross  earnings  an- 
nually thereafter.    The 
com])  any    t(xjk    the 
lands,   briilt    the    road 
with  them,  and  prosed 
the  wisdom  (jf  the  new 
policy  of  the  go"'ern- 
ment  by  paying  to  the 
State  nearly  $500,000  per  annum  ever  afterwards  as  its  share  of  the  gross  earn- 
ings of  the  road,  and  by  doubling  the  \alue  of  the  previously  unsold  govern- 
niciit-lands  in  the  State  of  Illinois.     Those  lands  had  been  previously  held  at 


BKIDGE.  — tONKWAl.O   CUKF.K. 


1 


WA 


m 


m 


n 

:     » 

I' 


1 


l\ 


642 


IND  US  TKIA  L    II IS  TOR  V 


"lii':isil 


a  dollar  and  twenty- five  cents  per  acre,  and  could  not  lind  buyers.  After  the 
building  of  the  Illinois  ('entral  Railroad,  they  all  sold  for  two  dollars  and  fifty 
cents  per  acre,  and  the  government  realized  $9,000,000  for  lands  which  had 
been  valueless  before  they  fell  the  niagit:  breat!^  of  the  locomotive.  This 
policy  of  tlie  government  was  based  upon  the  idea  first,  of  developing  the 
fertile  lands  of  the  West  by  affording  the  facilities  for  aiul  inviting  immigra- 
tion ;  and,  secondly,  upon  the  idea  of  enhancing  the  value  of  its  own  lands  by 
the  process  of  settlement.  So  completely  was  all  anticipation  realized,  that 
jjopular  sentiment  strongly  favoied  the  granting  of  lands  to  railroads;  and  it 
is  a  remarkable  fact,  that  the  people  have  been  more  willing  to  make  land 
donations  than  the  companies  have  been  to  accept  them,  as  appeals  hum  the 


.-y&-  <«s^ 


TKAl  K    AND  TRACK-TANK. 


circumstance  that  over  4,000,000  of  acr'  s  have  been  given  up  by  the  com 
panies,  and  sin-rendered  to  the  government.  These  gifts,  however,  have  ])eeu 
so  badiv  al)used  in  many  cases,  that  public  sentiment  within  a  (c\v  years  Ins 
undergone  a  radical  change  in  respect  to  the  recipients,  and  a  marked  disin- 
<lination  has  shown  itself  in  political  platforms  and  the  a(-tion  of  Congress  to 
granting  any  considerable  portion  of  the  national  domain  in  the  future  for 
railroad-jMirposes.  This  renewal  of  interest  in  the  public  lands,  and  better 
appreciation  of  their  value,  is  one  of  the  favorable  signs  of  national  regen- 
eration. The  extent  to  which  ('ongress  has  provided  ^the  railroad-companies 
of  the  United  States  with  cajiital  is  exhibited  by  the  following  table  of  kind 
concessions  from  1850  to  1S76  :  — 


I! 


f  "i 


'*»»; 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


f'43 


Illinois  .. .. 
Mississippi. 


Alabama. . . 


Florida  . . . 

I.oiilsl.in.i. 
Aik.iiisas  . 


Missouri. 


Io\\.> 


Mii-liig.-iii . 


Michigrin  (Res.; 
Wisconsin 


DATB   OF  GRANT, 


Sept.  30, 

Sept.  30, 

Sept.  iu, 

Auk.  II, 

Au«.  u, 

Sci)t.  20, 
M.iy 


June 
Jnne 
Juni; 
Jnne 
Jnnc 
M.iy 
Miy 
M.iy 
M.iy 
Jnni; 
June 
Ki'l), 
July 
Kel). 

Jnly 

!•■.•!,. 

.Fn!y 

J»ly 

Jnnc 

Jnne 

"K!.. 

July 

Inlv 

.\I„y 

inne 

.\l.,y 

lune 

M..y 

Jnne 

.\I.iv 

May 

May 

May 

Jane 

June 

June 

June 

June 

Jun< 

Jnne 

March 

July 

Jnne 

Jiuic 


'7. 

3. 

3. 

3. 

3> 

3. 
'?. 
'7. 
'7. 
>7. 

3. 

y. 

a3, 

y. 

23, 

9. 

23, 

4. 


850 

S50 
850 
856 
80 

851) 
85(, 
856 
856 
856 
856 
856 
8-Vi 
iV 
85I' 
85f, 


8t.'j 

853 
S(ji) 

3S3 
866 
8un 
852 
Ssi! 
353 
8u(i 
866 
850 
S64 
856 

8(^4 
S56 
864 
856 
S56 
864 
81.4 
856 


8;t) 
836 
S64 

8=6 


856 


COMI'AKV. 


Illinois  Central 

Mobile  anil  Cliiiaiin 

Mobile  and  ( )liio  k  iver 

Vi  kslnirK  and  M'  1 1  lian 

tjlilf  ,inil  Ship  Island 

Mobile  and  ( )lno  Kiver 

Alabani.i  and  l''londa 

Selnia,  Roni.',  and  Ualtun 

C>>>a  and   Tennessee , . . . . 

Ml    ilc  anil  Oiraril 

.M.ib.ima  and  Cliatl.uiooKa 

South  ai  J  North  Alab.una      

I'lorida  Railroad 

Florida  and  Alabama 

f'ensai;ola  ami  f  leoruia 

Florida,  Atlantic,  ami  ( lull'  I  cnual 

North  Ixmisiana  and  Texas 

New  Orleans,  <  tpelousas,  and  C't  Western 

(.'airo  and  Fulton 

Cairo   kmI  |''ult(iii 

.MeiinMi.  and  Little  R/>.>. 

Meniplii^,  anil  I.illle  Rn.  k 

I.illle  Rock  .md  l''iirt  Siuiili,.    

Tittle  Roik  ,iiid  Fort  ''     lith 

Iron  .\loui  Mill 

ITnmilial  am!  St.  Joseph 

T,ii  ifh    Old  S(mih-wi;st  T.i.uuh 

I  liro  .Old  T'lilton 

t  '.iiro  and  Fulton 

St.  Tonis   Old  Iron   .Mountain 

T.iulinmou  .Old  .Missouri  River , 

llurliii'^tnii  ;iiid  .Missouri  River 

Chicago,  Rock  Island., and  I'.h  if;,- 

(-'hii:a.i;o,  Rock  Island,  .uul  riMli, 

Cedir  Rajiiils  and  Mi  ,  ourl  Rive: 

Cedar  Rapids  and  .Missouri  River 

Iowa  Falls  and  Sioii.x  City 

Dubiiqiie  ,ind  Sioiix  City 

McCrenor  and  Mi-    inri  River 

Sionx  City  and  St  '  ml 

Detroit  ind  Milw.uikee 

Port  Huron  and  .Milwaukee 

Jackson,  Lansing,  and  Saginaw 

Flint  and  I'ere  .Maripiette 

Craiul  Rajiids  and  Indi.ina 

<  !r,\nd  Ra|iiils  and  Indian,! 

.Marquette,  I  lounliton,  and  DiUon.inon 

II  ly  de  N'oquet 

Chii  ,ii.'o  ,ind  N'orth-western 

West  Wisconsin 

Wisconsin  Railroad  F,irni  Mon.  Land  Co., 


KtTIMATKn     I     NltMnitn  op 
ACKICS    IN    MM- ACUI'.S  IAl|...sr• 
n■S   (11-    TIIK     jUU    III'  TO  J1J,N8 
(iKANI.  30,  1875, 


2.595.01,1 

1,004,640 
404,8110 
625,800' 
,'io,4c«j 
4iy,52o' 
481,920 
it2,48oi 
h  j  ),88ot 

897,920 

57^      'HJO 

44-^^4a 
i63,«.)S>i ' 
i,j'i8,72,>i 

tiio,88o 

017,840 

1,160,667 

1 ,040,000 

4.3.646 

365.5.!y 
550.523 

458,77' 
,'''  4.000 

1 .744 

1 ,161,2;; 

219, '.'f. 2 

1S2.713 


I 

261, 

iSi 

1 

2,,R, 

739 

I 

226, 

163 

1 ,530,000 
524, 8rX) 

335,4-0 
312,384 
1,052,469 
586,828 
629,182 
53i,8<X) 


128,000 
564,480 
999,983 


737.130 
198,037 


4>'J.5^8 

3';4.523 

457.4''>7 

67.784 

5"4.I45 

55-Myi> 

436,720 

881,1^84 

105.1.88 

1,275,21a 

37.583 

353.211 

7iy.'y3 
1,115,408 

194,524 

127.233 

14,606 
550,520 
33''|.'y6 


5yy.o3i 

i,i6r,2o4 
4.017 


292,085 
97,227 
482,254 
161,37a 
782,230 
348,896 
683,023 
473,606 

137.57a 

396,838 

30,998 

6,428 

742,900 

512.529 

629,182 

217.434 
4:  ■'■707 
128,000 

517,908 

796,912 

39.929 


I 


>  No  evidence  of  the  construction  of  any  part  of  these  roads  having  been  filed  in  the  General  Land  Office, 
the  grants  are  presumed  to  have  lapsed;  but  the  land.s  have  not  been  restored,  and  Congress  has  not  yet  taken 
action  in  the  matter. 


IMAGE  EVALUATION 
TEST  TARGET  (MT-3) 


/. 


« 

^ 


1.0 


I.I 


1.25 


^n 


A 


^' 


* 


'/ 


/^ 


Photographic 

Sciences 

Corporation 


33  WEST  MAIN  STREET 

WEBSTER,  N.Y.  14S80 

(716)  873-4503 


v.. 


644 


/.VZJ  L'S  TKIA  L    HIS  TOR  Y 


STATES. 


DATI!   OF  GKANT. 


Wisconsin 

jlMC         3.    I 

856 

1 

M.'y      5.  ■ 

864 

1 

June      3, 

8,6 

i 

.\I.iy       5, 

8..4 

Minnesota    

Marih    3, 

S-,7 

( 

M.ircli    3, 

S-,7 

Mar.;li    3, 

87. 

M.ir.h    3, 

^^^7 

Manli   3, 

S-.7 

March   3, 

8  .7 

May       5. 

81.4 

Ji'ly     4. 

8(>ii 

July     4. 

8(.t> 

Kansas 

Mar.h    3. 

8"3 

March  3, 

863 

March   3, 

3i>3 

July     25, 

3(Ml 

July     25, 

S(i6 

July     25, 

81.(1 

Corporations .... 

July        I, 

8f)6 

July        I, 

i8r,2 

July        I, 

i8(Vj 

March   3, 

iSfk^ 

July       I, 

iSOl! 

July       1, 

1862 

May       6, 

1870 

July       2, 

1864 

July       2, 

1864 

J"ly     >3. 

1861. 

July     25. 

i86(-. 

July     2^, 

1866 

July     27, 

1866 

July     27, 

t866 

March   3, 

187, 

March  2, 

1867 

May       4, 

.870 

March   3, 

1871 

March  3, 

1871 

KsriMATKl)  NlMllKR   OK 

ACKKS  IN  MM-    Adds  1A1  l-.NT- 

ITS   01--   TIIK       KIJ  II'  TO  JINIl 

(.HANI.  I         30,  1875. 


.St.  Cr.ii.v  ami   I.akc  Superior , 

.ind   liranch  to  Hay  lie  li  I \ 

St.  Croix  and  ?,ake  Su|ieii(ir  .lu.l  I'iluuIi  < 
to  HayCieM > 

Chicayo  au<l  Nurth-wcslcru 

Wisconsin  t.'ciur.il 

Kirst  1  livisiou  St.  I'.uil  .uiil   ".icili 

I'.iaiich  St.  r.uil  and  Vm  ill.    

Si.  V'nueut  l-Alen^ion  {.'^1.  I'.iul  ami  I'.n  ili. 

.Minnesota  Cenlr.il 

Winona  ami  St.  IVicr 

St.  Paul  ami  Sioux  City 

Lake  .Superior  anil  Missis>i]i|ii 

Southern  M  inuesnia 

Maslinus  ami   l).ikot.i 

I.cavenwortli,  Lawrence,  anil  (I.ilvestoM    .. 

Missouri,  Kansas,  and    I'e.vas 

Atchison,   Topeka,  ami  Sani.i  I'e 

Missouri  River,  I'oit  Scdit,  and  Cull 

St.  Joseph  and  Denver  Ciiy 

Missouri  River,  Kort  Scoti,   uul  Culf 

Union  Pacific 

Central  I'.r.unh  (I'niou  I'.icifi. ) 

Kansas  I'.n  ific 

1  )enver  I'ai  ific 

Central  P.icific 

Central  Pacific 

Hurlinijlon  ami  Missouri  River 

Sioux  City  and  I'ai  ific 

Northern  P.ic.ifii 

Pl.icerville  and  S.n  ramento  V.dley 

Oregon  I'.ranch  (( Vnlr.d  P.icific) 

(^rejjon  and  California 

Atlantic  and  Pa  .if-: 

Southern  Pacific 

Southern  Pacific 

Stockton  and  Coppcropolis 

Oregon  Central 

Tex.is  Pai  ific 

New  Orleans,  Baton  Rouge,  ami  Vicksburg, 


Total,  deductirn;  the  lands  reverted. 


5-M.r'4 

318,737 

5=4,718 

565,000' 

3'S,74o 

fnK).flOO 

54''. 322 

1  ,8lK),f  K  0 

3yS.8''5 

i,-vtS,..38 

1.2.17,443 

i,47S.'.i» 

522, './2S 

P.CKKI.mKJ 

78o.2.,I 

f'4.!,4-,! 

17,^,058 

1,410,000 

l,'<.xj,748- 

I,OIO,fK«) 

',2.^5'''> 

920,O.MJ 

743.24" 

73i;,(KKi 

2'''i,.!y4 

5^0,CXK> 

i6i^,.yi  I 

8<K),OiX) 

259,830 

I.^^-o.ocxi 

977,954 

3,ouo,<xx^ 

2,274,686 

22,527 

1,71m  ,000 

44 '.158. 

2,3f;o,(xx> 

1  ;,489 

12,CKK),(.XX) 

i,844,.'>7 

245, "66 

iSi,,453. 

6,000,000 

5'J<>.55S 

I  ,rxK>,400 

49.8H 

8,CXX1,000 

376.977 

1,000,100 

387,630. 

2,44i,6c«:) 

2,374,oyo 

(io,cxx:) 

40,596 

47,o<x>,fxK) 

630,717 

200,CXX) 

3,000,0(K> 

494, o5» 

3,5cx),cxio 

2J''',.S25 

42,<XX),00O 

504,478 

6,000,(XX» 

686,1  iS 

3,520,000 

41,178- 

320,CXX) 



1  ,2CX>,fXV3 



iS.'KXa.CXKI 

3.Six),ooo 

ao8,544.»63 

38,052,530 

if. 


As  the  estimated  (]iiantity  (if  lands  contained  in  the  grants  is  somewliat 
Total  more  than  the  (luantity  wliich  the  companies  will  realize  from  them, 

ainount  of       owing   to   previous   settlement,  cs])ecially  in    Kansas,   Minnesota 
^'^""*'  Iowa,  and  Arkansas,  the  total  grant  is  estimated  in  reality  as  amount- 

ing only  to  183,216,733  acres,  worth  $52,575,000.     The  government  also  aided 


'  No  evidence  of  the  construction  of  any  part  of  these  roads  having  heen  filed  in  the  General  Land  OfTice,. 
the  grants  are  presumed  to  have  lapsed;  but  the  lauds  have  not  been  restored,  and  Congress  has  not  yet  takcih 
action  in  the  matter. 


**4a«^^' 


OF  Tirr.  rxiTED  states. 


64s 


ft|] 


6j6 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


in  the  construct'on  of  the  Pacific  railroads,  as  enterprises  of  great  national 
utility,  by  issuing  to  them  bonds  to  run  for  thirty  years,  payable  from  a  sinking- 
fund  established  by  the  conii)anies ;  the  bonds  being  issued  to  the  companies, 
Government  as  fast  as  they  finished  the  different  sections  of  their  roads,  at  the 
loans.  r-ite  of  ;^  1 6,000  a  mile  on  the  j)lains,  $48,000  a  mile  through  the 

mountain-ranges,  and  $33,000  a  mile  between  tiie  ranges.  The  following  table 
exhibits  the  amount  of  the  loans  to  the  different  projects  :  — 


RAILWAY. 


Central  I'acific     . 

Kansas  I'acific     . 

Union  I'acific 

Union  Pacific,  Central  Hranch 

Western  Pacific  . 

Sioux  City  and  Pacific 

Total     .... 


AI'TIIORIZISr,   ACTS. 


July  I,  1S62,  and  July  2,  1S64. 


PRINCU'AL. 

$25,885,120 
6,303,000 
27,236,512 
1,600,000 
1,970,560 
1,628,320 

$64,623,512 


to  amount 
invested. 


The  contribution  of  the  government,  therefore,  toward  the  capital  needed 
Ratio  of  aid  for  creating  the  railroad-system  of  the  United  States,  was  $144,- 
000,000.  Large  as  is  this  sum,  it  is  only  one  and  three-fifths  per 
cent  of  the  whole  amount  of  capital  invested.  That  part  of  it 
which  consisted  in  land-grants  has  been  repaid  to  the  government  by  the 
increased  value  of  its  other  lands. 

Another  plan  resorted  to,  after  railroad-enterprises  attained  a  magnitude 
which  rendered  inadequate  the  old  and  simple  method  of  raising  the  capital 
Issue  of  for  them  from  the  savings  of  the  people  in  the  localities  through 

bonds.  which  they  run,  was  the  issue  of  bonds  by  towns  and  cities.     A 

very  large  number  of  the  short  lines  of  the  country  were  built  by  means  of 
ci^pital  raised  in  this  way.  Some  of  these  bonds  have  not  been  paid  ;  but  the 
object  of  their  issue  was  secured,  and  the  roads  constructed,  and  added  to 
the  permanent  wealth  of  the  country. 

The  fifteen  years  just  before  the  civil  war  was  a  period  of  great  activity  in 
railroad-building.  It  was  seen  that  the  growth  of  cities  and  the  marketing  of 
Fifteen  surplus  products  of  farm,  plantation,  forest,  and  mine,  were  de- 

years  prior  pendent  on  the  construction  of  these  avenues  of  communication, 
tocwi  war.  ^  great  many  important  lines  were  projected  and  built  in  that 
fifteen  years,  among  them  being  the  Mrie  Railroad,  the  Hudson-river,  the 
Pennsylvania,  the  Illinois  Central,  and  many  others.  Connecting  links  were 
finished,  so  as  to  open  an  all-rail  route  from  Boston  to  New  Orleans,  and  from 
Chicago  and  St.  Louis  to  all  the  princijjal  cities  on  the  Atlantic  coast ;  so  that 
the   pine-woods  and   myriad   factories  of  New  England  were  united  to   the 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES 


647 


cotton-fields  and  cane-brakes  of  the  South,  and  the  waving  wheat  and  ( orn 
fields  of  the  West  to  the  wharves  and  fleets  of  stately  ships  upon  the  ocean- 
coasts.  'I'he  locomotive  sped  through  every  i)art  of  the  country.  Regions 
wiiich  before  were  impenetrable  wildernesses  became  gardens  ;  and  millions  of 
human  beings  came  from  Europe  to  populate  them,  and  find  in  the  midst  of 
them  a  competence  and  independence  which  they  had  never  known  in  the 
previous  part  of  their  lives.  Old  'ities  received  a  new  birth,  and  new  ones 
sprang  up  in  magical  fashion  all  o-.tr  the  country.  New  industries  were 
jjlanted  by  the  exigencies  of  the  roads.  There  was  plenty  of  work  every- 
where ;  and  the  wealth  of  the  country  developed  in  a  manner  that  astonished 
the  Old  World,  and  formed  the  theme  of  admiring  comment  of  statesmen  and 
writers  everywhere. 

In  the  early  years  of  railway-traffic  the  transportation-system  of  the  country 
presented  the  aspect  merely  of  a  confiision  of  disconnected  and  independent 
roads,  managed  without  regard  to  any  conmion  purpose,  and  with  consoUda- 
<  ery  little  respect  for  the  wishes  of  patrons  living  beyond  the  ter-  tion  of  rail- 
mini  of  the  several  roads.  The  New-York  Central  route  was  ^°^  '" 
composed  of  twelve  distinct  corporations  antl  lines  between  Albany  and  Lake 
Erie ;  and  for  twenty  or  thirty  years  there  was  not  a  trunk-line  anywhere  in  the 
country,  in  the  modern  sense  of  the  term.  Every  little  line  of  fifty  miles  of 
track  was  managed  in  delightfully  autocratic  style ;  and  the  only  concern  of  its 
officers  was  to  collect  the  charges  for  the  transportation  of  freight  over  their 
line,  what  became  of  the  freight  after  it  had  passed  on  —  whether  it  was  lost 
or  plundered,  or  stood  for  weeks  on  a  siiling  —  being  of  no  earthly  interest  to 
them  whatever.  The  shipment  of  freight  to  any  distance  by  rail  was  thus 
attended  by  all  sorts  of  delays,  vexations,  and  losses.  This  was  a  discourage- 
ment to  trade,  and  thus  both  the  roads  and  the  public  suffered  by  it.  Out  of 
this  state  of  things  arose  several  measures  looking  toward  unity  and  harmony 
in  the  railway-system  of  the  country,  among  them  being  the  consolidation 
of  connecting-lines  into  single  companies,  the  lease  of  connecting-routes  by 
powerful  companies,  —  so  as  to  secure  trunk-lines  from  the  seaboard  to  the 
productive  regions  of  the  interior,  and  between  interior  points,  —  and  the  for- 
mation of  fast-freight  and  express  companies.  The  growth  of  the  trunk-lines 
and  the  rapid-despatch  companies  will  be  separately  mentioned. 

Massachusetts  was  one  of  the  very  first  States  to  discover  the  need  of  a 
railroad  the  whole  length  of  the  State,  and  connecting  at  Albany  with  the  ICrie 
Canal.     Dr.  Phelps  anil   Daniel  Webster  were  early  and  earnest 
advocates  of  the  measure.     Two  routes  for  a  railroad  were  sur-   setts  the  first 
veycil    at   State  expense  —  one   through    the  Northern,  and  one   state  to 
through  the  Southern  countries  —  in  1827  and  the  two  succeed-     ".',    ^  °"^ 

o  '  railroad. 

ing  years.     The  Boston  and  Worcester  Railroad  Corporation  was 

chartered,  June  23,  1831,  to  build  the  first  part  of  the  road,  —  forty-three  miles 

and  a  half;    which  task  was  completed  July  3,   1S35.     'i'he  road   earned  a 


r.4,s 


IXD  ( 'S  TRIA  I.    HIS  TOR  Y 


I 


litllf  ovlt  tiMi  ]K'r  rent  on  its  original  capital  of  ^i.ooo.ooo  iroiii  the  ;:tart. 
Ill  Mar(  li,  iS_5^^,  tlic  WcsttTii  kaiiioatl  Curporation  was  chartcrt'd  to  build 
Boston  and  '""^'  ''"'""  ^VoiTcstiT  to  till'  lliulsou  RivLT,  with  a  capital  of  i!2,ooo,- 
Aibany  ooo.     'I'Ik'  coinpaiiy  (li<l  not  orj^Mnizc  at  once,  owing  to  sonic  un- 

■"  '^""  '  certainty  in  the  popular  mind  as  to  what  the  State  most  needed 
in  the  way  of  railroads.  'I'liere  was  great  agitation  lor  a  direct  line  to  New 
N'ork  iVoni  Worcester  by  way  of  1  lartford.  and  for  a  line  to  Norwi(  li.  Conn. 
i'>y  persevering  efforts,  the  W'estt'rn  Kai%-oad  ("oriK)ration  secured  its  capital 
by  subs<riptions  along  tlu-  route  of  the  road  ;  and  work  liegan  in  the  winter 
of   1.S36.     In  January,    iSjO,   the  governt)r.   alluding  to   this   project   in    his 


■N    I'1:NNSVI  AANI  \   CKNTKAl,    KAll.ROAD. 


message,  said,  "  Should  tlie  work  in  its  jirogrcss  stand  in  need  of  resources 
beyond  the  reach  of  the  cntcrjirise  and  means  of  the  individual  citizens  by 
whom  it  is  undertaken,  it  is  believed  that  the  ])ublic  ])atronage  could  be  safely 
extended  to  it  as  a  project  of  vast  general  utility,  whose  successful  execution 
would  form  an  cr'.i  in  the  prosperity  of  the  State."  State  ."'.d  was  very  much 
needed  after  1S37,  on  account  of  the  business  prostration  of  the  country  ;  and 
three  separate  loans  of  State  credit  were  made,  amounting  in  all  to  $4,000,000. 
Celebration  I'he  road  was  Opposed  in  New-York  State  bv  intluence  from  the 
of  event.  city  of  New  York  ;  but  the  managers  overcame  all  obstacles,  and 

on  the  2ist  of  Decembi;r,  1S41,  opened  their  road  from  Worcester  to  .Mbany. 


OF    THE    rxlTh.n    STATF.S. 


r.49 


Public  celebrations  of  the  event  took  place  in  Boston  and  Albany.  The  road 
of  tiie  Western  Corporation  < ost  57,566,791.  When  tiie  Western  Road  was 
opened,  a  dilTerence  spranj^  up  at  once,  between  the  two  companies  < on- 
irolling  the  route  from  Sprin};l'ield  to  lloslon,  al)out  the  rate  of  fare;  the 
|!()>ton  and  Worcester  Road  ( laiming  an  undue  share  of  the  through  rate. 
A  conllict  on  tliis  subject  was  (  arried  on  with  acrimony  for  more  tiian  twenty 
years,  and  was  never  settled  until  in  1S6.S  the  two  roads  were  consolidatec' 
into  cne  com|)any  as  the  I'.o^^ton  and  Albany  Railroad  Company.  In  1.S71 
the  Albany  and  West-Stockbridge  Comi)any,  in  New-\'ork  Stale,  was  (onsoli- 
(lated  with  the  corporation,  thus  pultinj^  the  route  from  Albany  mider  one 
management  and  ownership.  'I'he  combined  capital  of  the  three  companies 
was  527,325.000.  At».\lbany  this  road  connects  with  the  New- York  Central 
and  the  lOrie-canal  routes  to  the  West,  and  the  Albany  and  Susipiehanna  route 
to  the  coal-mines.  It  has  brought  about  a  great  change  in  the  ancient 
currents  of  trade.  Now  Hour  and  grain  c:oming  down  the  ICrie  Canal  go 
no  longer,  as  of  yore,  down  the  Hudson  and  up  the  Sound,  whence,  in  due 
course  of  lime,  they  reach  Boston  l)y  doui)ling  around  Cape  Cod.  All  these 
things  now  go  direct,  and  reach  lioston  in  ten  hours  from  Albany,  against  the 
six  or  seven  days'  transit  of  the  old  fri^i/z/r.  .At  Boston  the  road  has  a  grain- 
elevator  with  a  capacity  of  1,000,000  bushels,  coal-pockets,  warehouses,  and 
other  terminal  facilities,  which  are  not  excelled  in  any  seaport  of  the  United 
Slates.  Freight  is  supplied  to  three  weekly  lines  of  steamers  to  Mngland. 
The  Boston  and  .Albany  Road  has  repaid  its  entire  debt  to  the  State  of  Massa- 
chusetts, and  is  one  of  the  prosperous  enterprises  of  the  country. 

Another  connecting  link  between  the  New-I'.ngland  seaboard  and  the 
New-York  transportation  routes  to  the  West  was  comi)leted  in  1S75  on  the 
line  through  the  northern  counties  of  the  State  talked  of  in  1827  :  Hoosac-tun- 
this  is  die  Hoosac-tunnel  Fast  Freight  Line.  It  is  composed  of  "^'  Railroad, 
a  combination  of  railroads,  and  affords  to  the  public  a  choice  of  routes  between 
Albany  and  Boston.  The  component  parts  of  the  line  are  the  iMtchburg 
Railroad  from  Boston  to  Creenlield  (a  hundred  and  six  miles),  the  Troy  and 
Cireenfield  Railroad  and  Iloosac  Tunnel  to  the  Vermont  State  line  (forty-four 
miles), and  thj  'lYoy  and  Boston  Railroad  to  Troy  (forty-one  miles).  The  Troy 
and  Cireenfield  Road  with  the  tunnel  were  l)uilt  by  the  State  at  a  cost  of  $20,- 
000,000,  and  are  still  owned  by  the  Commonwealth.  The  tunnel  was  opened 
for  the  first  train  Feb.  9,  1S75.  The  capacities  of  this  route  are  not  yet  hilly 
developed ;  but  it  is  expected  to  reduce  the  cost  of  transportation  to  Boston, 
and  thus  increase  the  trade  of  that  ])ort. 

The  beginnings  of  railway  enterprise  in  New-York  State  have  already  been 
noted.     Two  great  trunk-lines  to  the  West  have  been  constructed  through  that 
commonwealth  since  the  humble  commencement  made  between   New-York 
the  then  little  old  towns  of  Schenectady  and  Albany.     I"^)r  tlie   Central, 
northern  route  fourteen  charters  were  granted;   though  in  1852  the  number  of 


650 


LXnUSTNlAL    INS  TORY 


roads  Iiad  been  reduced  to  twelve  by  the  consolidation  of  the  Auburn  and 
Rodifstcr  with  tiic  Auburn  and  Syracuse,  and  tlie  Tonawanda  with  the  Attica 
and  lUiftak)  Companies.  'I'liis  chain  of  railroads  was  built  economically  and 
honestly.  'I"hc  first  of  them,  those  betsveen  Auburn  and  Albany,  were  built 
originally  to  be  operated  by  horse-power,  and  were  so  operated  at  first  ;  but 
engines  were  soon  put  upon  them  all,  the  first  ones  being  imported  from  Eng- 
land for  the  purpose.  Nature  hail  marked  out  the  destiny  of  this  (  hain  (jf 
roads  as  one  single  route  from  Lake  !''rie  to  the  Hudson;  but  they  were 
o[)erated  as  distinct  lines  until  1X5^5,  when  an  ac:t  of  the  legislature,  passed  in 
April,  authorized  their  consolidation.  The  prudence  with  whi(  h  they  had  been 
built,  and  the  populous  and  productive  nature  of  the  regions  they  traversed 
and  ta[)pcd,  are  exhibited  by  the  following  table,  showing  the  value  of  llie 
roads  at  the  time  of  the  consolidation  :  — 


NAME   OF   KOAD, 

STdCKS   AND 
CONVliKTIIll.K   llONDS. 

$I,62t,SOO 

4,500,000 

3,300,000 

5,608,700 

3,000,000 

2,155,100 

565,000 

354,260 

67  5,000 

I  50,000 

1,575,000 

650,000 

l-RKMII'M   111- 
TIIK   STDLK 
(I'liK   CEN!). 

Albany  and  Schcncct.idy 

Utica  and  Schenectady 

Syracuse  and  Utica 

Rochester  and  Syracuse 

lUiffalo  anil  Rochester 

Rochester,  Lockport,  and  Niagara  Falls  . 

lUiffalo  and  Niagara  Falls 

Niagara  Falls  and  Lcwiston 

l^uffalo  and  Lockport 

Rochester  and  Lake  Ontario 

Mohawk  Valley 

Troy  and  Schenectady 

17 

5S 
50 

30 
40 

2S 

25 
25 

55 

Total  of  stocks  and  convertible  bonds 

$24,154,860 

The  terms  of  consolidation  were,  that  the  stock  of  the  new  comi^any,  to  be 
called  "The  New-York  Central,"  should  ecjual  the  aggregate  of  the  stock  of  the 
Terms  of  individual  companies.,  and  that,  for  the  premium  which  the  stock 
consoiida-  then  commanded,  six-per-cent  bonds  of  the  new  organization 
*'""■  should   be    issued  to   the  holders.     The  total  amount  of   bonds 

issued  under  this  arrangement  was  $8,894,500.  The  debts  of  the  comi)anies 
amounted  to  about  $2,800,000  ;  so  that  the  total  liabilities  of  the  new  comi)any 
were  $35,836,796.  The  average  cost  per  track  was  $44,485  a  mile.  Earnings 
amounted  in  1857  to  $8,000,000,  or  $14,000  a  mile.  The  distance  from 
Albany  to  liuffalo  was  shortened  to  29S  miles.  Another  link  in  the  New-York 
Central  route  was  completed  in  1S51,  being  the  Hudson-river  Railroad  to 
New-York  City,  142  miles  long,  chartered  in  May,  1846,  and  built  at  a  cost 


%((*»*-' J 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


^5« 


1  and 

Auica 

y  .111(1 

I'llilt 

;  I)iii 

I'liK- 

111  (if 

H'd   ill 

llCCll 

crsfd 
)f  llic 


of  511,328,990  "r  .<7S/)7.v     III    iSr..}  the   road  llll   into  tlir  (ontrol  of   ilic 
New- York   Central,   and   in    iSjo  was  purinaiRiitly  ( onsolidati^l  with   it.      It 
was  agreed  that  the  caiiital  of  the  new  < oik  ern  should  be  .^sj;.-    „    , 
oeo.ooo.     The  st()(  k  lieiiii,'  at  a  ineniiuni,  however,  the  conipany    nver  Paii- 
(oiiceived  tlie  idea  of  tiirnini;  the   fa(  t   to  advantage  l»y  giving  a    '°"'*' 
representative  vahie  to  the  iiK  teasiwl  worth  of  tlie  roao  to  wl  i(  ii  the  |ireniium 
was  due  by  issuing  eight-per-cenl  terlificates,  ( onvertible  iiitcj  ( (Jinniun  sto(  k 


y^ 


at  tlie  option  of  the  holder.  Of  these  certificates 
^>u;,->-  $44428.300  were  issued,  tlitis  virtually  increasing  the 
7*j,^v~\^  stock  by  a  stroke  of  the  pen  to  $S9,4jS.300.  The 
'*'^^.^  corporation  has  since  laid  another  double  track  be- 
tween Albany  and  Huffalo  at  a  cost  of  .^25,000,000,  paid  for  by  the  issue  of 
bonds,  thus  securing  a  four-track  road  the  length  of  New-York  State  ;  and  has 
leased  the  New-York  and  Harlem  Railroad,  thus  securing  four  tracks  to  the 
city  of  New  York,  without  the  necessity  of  laying  the  additional  two  upon  the 
costly  route  along  the  banks  of  the  Hudson.  The  road's  western  connections 
are  the  Lake  Shore  and  Michigan  Southern  and  the  Canada  Southern.  It  is 
operated  jointly  with  those  lines  for  Western  business,  and  it  carries  freight  in- 
discriminately both  ways  both  for  IJoston  and  New  York.  Its  New Mngland 
connections   are   the    Boston  and  Albany  and    the    Hoosac-tunnel    route    to 


C$2 


IMJi  S  TKIA  I.    lUSlOK  Y 


Boston.  Scvcnt)  |Kr  <  rut  of  its  castwanl-lxjiind  fri-i^^ht  j,'()i's  to  Now  l".ii^;laiiil. 
'I'lu'  pritK  ipiil  <  lianu  itristif  oltlif  lnisiiii'ss  of  tin-  Nfw-N'ork  Central  is  its  iMUjr- 
nujiis  |)assciif,'cr  and  loc  allV(.if,'lit  tratlic.  It  transports  over  7,000.000  ))as^rii. 
Kers  a  year,  and  in  i(S76  <  arried  6.Soo,ooo  tons  ot  fni^ht.  'I'lu-  cost  of  Ini^lit 
lias  been  reduced  to  lluee  flollars  a  ton  from  liiilTalo  to  Albany.  It  will  Ix; 
recollected  that  the  coit  was  a  hnndrcd  dollars  a  ton  \\\  the  days  of  wagoning. 


INlcl.N    lllU'or,    I'lITSlll-UCII. 


The  Erie-railway  route  was  ])lanned  as  early  as  1825,  the  State  of  New 
York  orderi'ig  a  survey  for  it  in  that  year.  The  public  interes'.  in  a  railway 
Erie  Rail-  through  the  southern  counties  of  the  State  was  very  great,  and 
'■°'"^-  a  nunil)er  of  ])ul)li(:  conventions  were   held  in  regard   to   it.     A 

company  was  chartered  to  build  the  road  in  1832,  the  capital  to  be  :>io,ooo.- 
000 ;  and  Dc  Witt  Clinton,  jun.,  made  a  survey  for  it.     This  road  was  built 


Ol-     Till:     LXITHI)    STATES, 


''5.J 


iiiiiirr  (lislu'artciiiiii;  cinMim^tanci's.  Tin-  rc^icMi  it  traverse*  1  wns  i'X(i's>ivi'ly 
rii;;,i;<.'(l.  .iinl  allonlcil  an  cxtri'iiu'ly  •^mall  aiiiouiit  itl  loi  al  Iticiiicss  to  ihi-  liiu*. 
No  payiii;^  lralti(  <  onld  he  (aik'i  li-d  until  it  wa>  ( oinidi'ted  tliioii.nh  tii  Lake 
laic.  'I'lic  j,'ri'at  lire  in  New  \oik  pivvintcMl  many  of  tlie  sltx  klmhlers  Ironi 
payinfi  for  their  ^iKirts.  'I'lic  paim  ul'  iS^;  intervened,  and  <  ri|i|iKd  ollur 
Mien.  'I'lie  line  was  laid  ont  \vill»  su<  h  poor  jutlf,'m>'iit  in  pla«  es,  that  the  work 
jiad  to  he  aliandoneil  as  useless.  Thi-  State  loaned  S,?,'"'". <><><•  to  tlu'  <i)nipany 
u)  1.S4U,  and  afterwards  presented  the  loan  to  the  i oiupany  .  hut  it  wa-.  not 
until  1S51  that  the  rails  were  laid  to  the  then  new  harhor  of  huukirk  on  Lake 
I'aie.  and  the  through  traffu  ,  vsliii  h  aloui'  sustains  this  i;reai  toad,  was  t.ipped. 
'I'he  eoinpany  lanj^uished.  however,  \nitil  iSOS,  wlun,  under  a  luw  uiana},'e- 
nieiit,  it  was  e(iuipi)ed  with  steel  rails  and  an  ahinidan(  i-  of  fir-.!  ( l.iss  rollinj,'- 
sto<  k,  and  hecame  one  of  the  fiiu'st  railroads  in  Aini-rif  a,  with  a  lart,'L'  and 
(■on^lantly-growinLJ  hiisiness  in  the  transportation  of  passengers,  coal,  pi'tro- 
kuui,  agricultural  produce,  and  general  nier<  handise.  As  in  tin-  (  ase  of  the 
New-York  Central,  advantage  was  taken  of  tiie  in(  ixMsed  worth  of  the  road, 
anil  the  expenditures  for  its  iin])roveinent,  to  issue  new  share's  in  large  ipian- 
tities  ;  and  during  the  four  years  c-nding  .Sejjt.  30,  1.S71,  the  (oninioii  sto(  k 
was  increased  from  546,302,210  to  S.S6,536,9io,  and  two  years  later  the  total 
liahilities  of  the  road  were  5115,449,211.  The  inahility  to  earn  a  dividend 
upon  so  large  an  investment  involved  the  company  in  fresh  trouhle,  and  litiga- 
tion without  end.  The  road  has  been  further  emharras.v  1  hy  tlu'  fact  that  its 
track  has  heen  six  feet  wide,  while  connecting  roads  to  die  West  have  heen 
only  of  the  standard  width  of  A)ur  feet  eight  and  a  half  inches.  In  spite  of 
its  troubles,  the  Erie  Road  is  a  magnificent  jjroperty,  and  is  transacting  a  large 
business.  Its  terminal  facilities  at  New-York  harbor  are  very  fine  ;  and,  when 
the  gauge  of  the  road  is  reduced  (as  it  will  he  in  a  few  years,  the  work  having 
been  begun),  it  will  be  a  formidable  competitor  for  the  through  business  of 
the  West,  'i'he  road  is  operated  in  conjunction  with  the  .Atlantic  and  dreat 
Western  and  other  lines  to  St.  Louis,  and  the  Lake  Shore  and  Michigan 
Southern  to  Chicago.  In  1876  it  carried  5,972,000  tons  of  freight.  It  has, 
including  branches,  459  miles  of  main  line,  and  controls  500  miles  of  connec- 
tions. The  comparative  distance  from  the  grain-centres  of  the  West  to  the 
seaboard  by  this  route,  in  comparison  with  other  trunk-lines,  will  be  stated 
farther  on. 

Philadelphia's  route  to  Chicago  is  composed  of  what  were  originally  six 
separate  railroads  ;  and  the  route  to  St.  Louis,  of  roads  built  by  thirteen  different 
companies.  These  roads  are  now  all  either  owned,  or  leased  in  pennsyiva- 
perpetuity,  by  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad  Company,  the  most  exten-  nia  Railroad 
sive  railway  organization  in  the  world.  'Phis  company  now  owns  <""?»">'■ 
1,505  miles  of  roadway,  not  counting  in  double  tracks  or  sidings  ;  and  4,324 
miles  of  road  are  either  directly  controlled  by  or  operated  in  its  interest :  in 
all,   5,829    miles,  representing  a  cai)ital  of  $398,267,000.     'I'hesc  lines  ])ass 


<>54 


IS'liUS  TKIA  I.    HIS  TOR  Y 


through  eleven  States,  and  exten<l  into  the  heart  of  the  ritics  of  St.  Louis, 
('hi(  ago,  l'in(  iniKUi,  Ikiltiinorc,  Philadelphia,  and  New  York,  tapping  thi; 
ionuucrce  of  tin;  Ohio  and  Mississippi  and  the  (Ircat  Lakes,  and  connecting 
the  grain,  coal,  and  iron  regions  ol"  the  interior  with  three  ol  the  great  o(  ean 
harhors  of  the  Nortli  Atlantic.  The  I'ennsylvania  Railroad  Company  was 
formed  originally  to  complete  the  work  undertaken  by  the  State  itself  to  give 
the  <ity  of  I'hiladelpliia  a  (ommodioiis  transportation-route  to  the  western 
<  ounties  of  the  Slate  and  to  ( )iuo.  'Ilie  Stale  lim-  «if  works  was  first  opened 
in  iSjo  ;  hut  it  was  a  broken  line,  consisting  of  two  |)ie(es  of  railroad,  —  one 
from  Philadelphia  to  Columbia,  eighty-two  miles;  the  other  from  Holiidays- 
burgh  to  Johnstown,  thirty-six  miles  (this  one  being  operated  by  stationary 
engines),  the  two  roads  being  supplemented  by  two  hundred  and  seventy- 
eight  miles  of  I  anal.  Philadel- 
phia was  unalile  to  couipele 
with  New  \'ork's  unbroken 
routes  by  mil  and  canal ;  and 
accordingly  a  <  omjjany  was 
formed  to  Imild  a  railroad  rnun 
^«Bt«,    -'^■- ..         -*-      .       ^mm^       ■  •'%■-        Harrisburyh  to  PiltNiiurgh.     In 

I.S57  the  .Mate  sold  Us  niaui  luie 
of  works  lo  liie  Penn>yl\.uiia 
Railro.ul  Company  for  ;?7.5oo,- 

000  (ihey  cost  $12,000,000), 
and  rail  communicalion  from 
Philadelphia  to  Pilt.->biu\i;h  then 
bicame  continuous  and  efficient. 

1  )uring  the  late  war,  the  Penn- 
sylvania Road  made  enormous 
])rorits  :  and  vecogui/ing  the  fact 

that  the  business  it  was  then  doing  was  accidental,  and  could  not  be  sustainci! 
except  by  the  extension  of  its  lines  lo  the  \\'e.-vl,  it  devoted  a  part  of  its  earn- 
ings to  building  the  Phila(lel[)hia  and  I'.rie  Road,  and  the  completion  of  various 
branch  lines  in  the  Stale  which  would  bring  traffic  to  the  main  stem.  In  iSO^ 
the  comi)any  assumed  control  of  the  chain  of  roads  constituting  the  Pittsburgh, 
i''ort  Wayne,  and  Chicago  route  to  Chicago  as  lessee  f(;r  nine  hundred  and 
ninety-nine  years.  The  same  year  it  secured  a  line  under  its  own  control  to 
Cincinnati,  Louisville,  and  St.  Louis  by  lease.  It  leased  the  Northern  C'cntral 
in  1S70,  thus  gaining  connections  with  Pallimore  and  with  Canandaigua,  N.Y.  ; 
and  in  1S71  it  secured  control  of  the  united  railroads  of  New  Jersey,  thus 
gelling  a  direct  line  to  New  York.  The  company  now  owns  twenty-two 
branches,  and  controls  branches  and  extensions  by  lease.  Its  policy  has  been 
dictated  by  such  sound  judgment,  tliat  no  part  of  this  vast  network  of  lines  is 
a  burden  upon  the  company,  or  any  thing  except  a  useful  tributary  to  its 


WAlKJi-lANK. 


OF    T//F.    I' N I  IE  I)    STATES. 


<^55 


b»i!-incss.  Its  capital  stock  is  now  about  55.^000,000,  and  its  total  liabilities 
about  Si  I '■',000,000.  I'hc  company  has  a  KrJiinclcvator  at  llallin»<»rf,  two  a.t 
I'liiladclphia,  and  two  at  Kric,  iVrui.  ;  and  at  New  Vo:k  it  has  millions  of 
<l()llars  invested  in  wharves,  warehouses,  cattle-yards,  oil-depots,  id  other 
terminal  facilities  re(iuired  by  a  large  and  varieil  commerce.  I'liiladclphia  is 
the  principal  point  of  export,  however,  the  ( oinpany  having  establi?>hed  fnjm 
that  port  a  line  of  four  American  iron  steamships  to  l,iverpt)ol  by  giiaraulccing 
JS 1, 500,000  of  its  Ixjnds.  I'his  line  operates  at  present  tiie  only  American 
steamships  engaged  in  trans-Atlantic  trade.     The  I'enn.iylvania  Company  is  in 


MUNCV    MOUNTAIN,    NICAK    IlKl.l.KIOS  I  K. 


all  respects  a  colossal  organization  ;  and,  whatever  may  lie  said  of  the  danger 
of  permitting  so  vast  a  moneyed  power  to  grow  up  in  this  republic,  it  can  at 
least  be  said  that  its  operations  hr.vc  i)een  of  incalculal^le  utilicy  to  commerce 
and  the  country. 

The  Baltimore  and  Ohio  Railroad,  though  begun  in  1S28,  was  not  finished 
through  to  the  Ohio  River  at  Wheeling,  a  distance  of  379  miles,   ^  ,   ,ietion 
until  Jan.  i,  1853.     Litigation  with  the  canal  running  parallel  to  it,   of  the  Baiti- 
and  the  opposition  of  other  conflicting  interests,  had  made  great   ^oi'e  and 
delays.     The  cost  of  the  road  and  eiiuipment  was  $23,600,000, 
After  the  war,  the  company  leased  a  number  of  connecting  roads  in  order  tn 


656 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


vM 


secure  the  unity  of  operation  and  establishment  of  through  rates  which  the  other 
great  companies  had  been  striving  for.  In  1866  a  connection  to  CoUmibus,  O. 
was  leaseil,  and  in  1869  another  running  to  SancUisky.  In  1870  the  ^^'in(;hL■st(Jr 
:>nd  Slraslnu-gii  Road  was  leased,  thus  securing  tiie  business  of  the  Shenandcjaii 
Valley  in  Virginia,  and  paving  the  way  for  ol)taining  a  share  of  the  trade  of 
North  Carolina.  A  connection  through  to  Chicago  was  secured  by  alliance 
with  other  roads  in  1S74,  and  another  recently  to  St.  Louis.  The  liabilities  (.A 
the  road  now  amount  to  about  $56,000,000.  The  interest  of  the  city  of  Balti- 
more in  stock  and  bonds  is  $10,500,000.  The  road  is  wisely  managed,  and 
has  a  large  business  in  coal,  petroleum,  grain,  and  general  traffic.  Its  terminal 
facilities  on  Locust  Point  in  Baltimore  are  not  approached  in  any  other  sea- 
port of  the  country,  except  at  Boston  :  they  comprise  grain-elevators,  coal- 
shoots,  warehouses,  oil-yards,  and  wharves,  and  are  the  rendezvous  of 
innumerable  sailing  and  steam  vessels,  and  the  de'pot  of  the  ocean  Sicam- 
lines  to  luirope.  During  the  freight  war  between  the  railroad-lines  in  1865 
the  company  established  its  own  steamship  communication  with  luiglantl,  but 
lost  $758,000  in  the  venture,  and  soon  withdrew  the  steamers.  The  road  has 
a  great  future  before  it. 

Another  system  of  railroads  leading  from  the  West  to  the  seaboard  has 
grown  up  north  of  the  Cireat  Lakes  and  St.  Lawrence  River  with'n  the  last 
Grand  Trunk  twenty  years,  and  is  termed  the  "  Crand  Trunk  of  Canada." 
of  Canada.  'j^|^g  Grand  Trunk  Railway  Company  was  chartered  in  1852, 
with  a  capital  of  ;^3,ooo,ooo,  to  build  a  road  from  Toronto  to  Montreal.  In 
1853  a  number  of  other  companies  consolidated  with  this  organization,  upon 
an  agreement  by  the  latter  to  carry  out  the  contracts  they  had  made.  These 
contracts  included  the  builduig  of  roads  from  Toronto  to  Sarnia  on  Lake 
Huron,  from  Point  Levi  to  Richmond,  and  from  Quebec  to  Trois  Pistoles,  ana 
also  for  building  the  great  Victoria  Bridge  at  Montreal.  These  works  were 
completed  at  a  cost  of  ;^2 1,000,000.  At  the  same  time  the  company  leased 
for  nine  hundred  and  ninety-nine  years  the  Atlantic  and  St.  Lawrence  Road  of 
Maine,  extending  from  Portland  to  Island  Pond,  N.H.,  near  the  Canada  bor- 
der. This  system  of  railways  did  not  at  first  secure  so  large  a  share  of  the 
through  business  from  the  Western  granaries  as  was  expected ;  but  an  exten- 
sion from  Port  Sarnia  to  Chicago  has  recently  been  effected,  the  line  has  been 
prudently  managed,  and  the  route  has  become  an  important  part  of  the  Ameri- 
can system  of  railways.  The  Grand  Trunk  has  secured  a  connection  to 
Boston  by  way  of  the  Central  Vermont  Railroad,  and  now  competes  actively 
with  the  through  lines  centring  at  that  port. 

Thus,  out  of  a  confusion  of  disconnected  railways,  operated  without  regard 
Competition  ^°  ^^^'^  interests  of  each  other  or  the  public,  there  have  grown  up 
among  rail-  five  great  Compact  and  united  systems  leading  from  the  great 
roads.  trade-centres  of  the  interior  to  the  seaboard.     The  transportation 

abilities  of  each  of  these  five  routes  have  never  b(  en  fully  taxed.     It  is  esti- 


1.1 


/ 


OF    THF.     CXI  TED    STATES. 


657 


'"'SRi*-- 


m 


LlliLVWAKli  WAlJik-'.Al'. 


658 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


mated  that  tlie  tonnage  of  each  might  be  tripled.  The  fact  that  no  one  of  the 
five  hnes  has  carried  as  much  freigiit  as  it  has  been  capable  of  doing  has  led 
to  sharp  railroad  wars  within  the  last  five  years,  some  of  which  were  waged  at 
great  loss  to  the  lines,  freight  being  carried  at  less  than  cost.  Various  com- 
pacts have  been  made  to  harmonize  the  differences  of  the  lines,  and  agree 
what  the  rates  shall  be  for  through  freight  over  each,  but  without  permanent 
success.  Compacts  have  only  been  made  to  be  broken.  How  nearly 
matched  the  different  routes  are,  with  reference  to  the  fimdamcntal  matter 
of  distance  from  the  West  to  Liverpool,  may  be  seen  from  the  following 
statement :  — 


FROM   CHICAGO. 

MILKS. 

FROM    SKAl'DKT 
TO    I.IVliRI'OOI.. 

Grand  Trunk  to  Montreal       .... 

842 

Grand  Trunk  to  IJoston 

I. '43 

2.936 

N.Y.  Cent,  and  Boston  and  Albany  to  Boston, 

1,020 

-.936 

New-York  Central  route  to  New  York  . 

976 

3.0 '3 

Erie  route  to  New  York 

95S 

3.0 '3 

Pennsylvania  Railroad  route  to  New  York     . 

912 

3.013 

Pennsylvania  Railroad  route  to  Philadelphia. 

822 

3,200 

Pennsylvania  Railroad  route  to  ]5altiniore 

800 

l^ll^ 

Baltimore  and  Ohio  R.R.  route  to  Baltimore, 

840 

Z>ZZ^ 

4.079 
3.956 
3.9S9 
3.971 
3.925 

4,022 
4,138 
4,178 


Value  of 
traffic  be- 
tween the 
West  and 
Atlantic  sea 
board. 


It  is  estimated  that  the  through  traffic  between  the  West  and  the  Atlantic 
seaboard  now  amounts  to  eight  million  tons  annually.  That  por- 
tion of  it  which  is  grain  is  brought  to  the  coast  at  an  average  cost 
of  twelve  cents  a  bushel  from  Chicago,  the  total  cost  from  Chicago 
to  Liverpool  being  about  thirty-four  cents  a  bushel.  This  amazing 
reduction  is  the  effect  of  the  consolidation  of  through  routes,  and 

competition  between  them. 

Unity,  as  we  have  seen,  grew  up  first  between  the  lines  running  to  the 

North-Atlantic  seaboard.     Trade  set  the  most  heavily  in  that  direction,  and 
the  four  years  of  war  prevented  for  a  time  an  alliance  between 

Great  lines  ,       ,.  .        .  ,         ,  r  xt       <  o        1  t» 

established  the  liiics  constituting  the  through  routes  from  JNorth  to  South.  Init 
since  the  since  the  war  several  tru.ik-lincs  have  been  formed,  tra\crsing  the 
country  in  that  direction.  It  is  expected  that  these  will  bear  an 
important  part  in  the  future  in  the  trade  with  the  coast  of  the  Gulf,  from  which 
a  large  part  of  the  commerce  with  Mexico  and  South  America  will  be  carried 
on.     The  principal  of  these  lines  are  the  following  :  — 

1.  The  St.  Louis  and  Iron-Mountain  Railroad,  with  connections  running 
into  the  State  of  Texas. 

2.  The  Missouri,  Kansas,  and  Texas  Railroad. 


-jkXl  ''■ 


tiv«*'J«M4 


one  of  the 
ng  has  led 
J  waged  at 
rious  coin- 
and  agree 
permanent 
[o\v  nearly 
ital  matter 
;   following 


4.079 
3.956 
3.9S9 
3.971 
3.925 
4,022 
4,138 
4,178 


le  Atlantic 
That  por- 
erage  cost 
m  Chicago 
is  amazing 
■outes,  and 

ing  to  the 
ction,  and 
e  between 
)uth.  But 
icrsing  the 
11  bear  an 
rom  which 
be  carried 

IS  running 


OF    Tllli    UNITED    STATES. 


659 


3.  The  New  Orleans,  St.  Louis,  and  Chicago  Railroad,  connecting  at 
Cairo,  111.,  with  the  Illinois  Central. 

4.  The  Mobile  and  Ohio  Railroad,  running  also  to  Cairo. 

5.  The  Louisville,  Nashville,  and  (Ireat  Southern  Railroad. 

6.  Three  series  of  lines  running  from  Washington  through  Virginia,  by 
different  routes,  to  the  South  and  Scnith-West ;  which  may  be  designated  as  the 
Virginia  and  Tennessee  Route,  the  Atlanta  and  Richmond  Air-line,  and  the 
coast-line  running  through  Weldon,  N.C.,  to  Savannah,  and  connecting  with 
all  the  Southern  States. 

These  important  highways  of  commerce  have  great  capacity,  and  thus  all 
exert  a  regulating  influence  on   freight-rates  between  the  South  and  North. 
I'lie  trip  from  Boston  to  New  Orleans  can  now  be  made  by  rail,  by   Economy  of 
the  lines  leading  in  that  direction,  in  three  days.     In  the  olden   ""aiiroads. 
time,  before  the  days  of  the  locomotive,  the  trip  recjuired  twenty-four  days. 
What  a  marvellous  change  in  fifty  years  ! 

The  express-business  really  took  its  rise  in  the  days  of  stage-coaches,  or  at 
least  before  the  railway-system  had  grown  beyond  its  early  infancy.  It  grew 
out  of  the  robberies  of  stage-coaches,  and  of  a  practice,  still  com-  Yt\%^  of 
mon  in  all  the  new  parts  of  the  country,  of  forwarding  packages  of  Express 
money  and  valuables  by  i)assengers  travelling  by  stage.  Before  the  o™?*"'*'- 
establishment  of  the  railroads,  merchants  and  banks  employed  members  of 
the  legislature,  and  other  trustworthy  citizens,  in  their  journeys  to  New  York, 
Boston,  Albany,  and  other  large  cities,  to  take  with  them,  and  deliver  to  their 
correspondents,  the  remittances  which  they  did  not  dare  put  into  the  United- 
States  mail-bags  for  fear  of  robbery.  On  the  Western  plains,  down  to  within 
ten  years,  many  a  passenger  has  had  his  fare  paid  to  the  States  from  the 
mining-regions,  in  consideration  of  his  carrying  with  him  in  the  coach,  and 
delivering  to  the  railways  on  the  Missouri,  the  bars  of  gold  and  silver  which 
there  was  no  other  method  of  transmitting  to  the  States  so  cheaply  and  safely. 
In  1840  this  irregular  practice  took  the  form  of  a  legitimate  business  through 
the  efforts  of  Mr.  Alvin  Adams  of  Boston,  the  founder  of  the  Adams  Express 
Company.  There  was  then  no  railroad  to  New  York ;  and  Mr.  Adams  began 
carrying  letters  and  parcels  to  New  York  by  stage,  to  Allyn's  Point,  Conn.,  and 
thence  by  steamboat  to  the  metropolis.  He  was  a  man  of  singularly  ngaging 
manners  and  manly  character,  and  he  soon  won  sucii  confidence  that  he 
gained  a  very  large  i)atronage.  In  a  short  time  the  business  grew  so  large, 
that  he  ceased  to  travel  liiniself.  and  engaged  messengers  to  make  the  tiii)s  to 
New  York  for  him.  Then  boxes  and  buntlles  began  to  be  sent,  and  a  man 
with  a  wheelbarrow  was  hired  to  do  the  collecting  and  distributing  in  ("on- 
necticut.  Then  a  wagon  was  hired  for  the  same  purpose.  Tiiis  latter  was  so 
important  a  step,  that  there  was  much  meditation  about  it  in  advance,  before 
Mr.  Adams  decided  u])on  it.  \\'hen  the  New- York  and  New-Haven  Railroad 
was  completed,  the  company  offered  to  give  Mr.  Adams  a  car  for  carrying 


.fi«  :•  •■;'■ 


660 


liYD  I 'S  TK/A  L    niS  TDK  Y 


If* .   I 


lit 


money  and  valuable  packaijcs  for  51.700  a  nionlh.  'I'lic  olTer  was  accciJtcd 
with  fear  and  trembling,  but  proved  a  success  from  the  start.  i'Yom  this 
beginning  the  business  grew  up,  until  Mr.  Adams  had  agencies  in  every  i)art  of 
Adams  ^'^'''  <'<""itry  from  San   l-'rancisco  to  Jioston.     The  Adams  l'",x])ress 

Express  Company  was  then  formed  with  a  caj)ital  of  $1,000,000,  and  has 

onipany.  ^^,^^^  since  transacted  a  colossal  business.  In  New- York  State  the 
express-business  took  its  rise  almost  simultaneously  with  the  start  in  New 
I'lngland,  the  i)ioneer  in  the  work  l)eing  Mr.  Henry  Wells  of  Aurora,  XA'.  It 
began  in  the  same  way,  Mr.  Wells  travelling,  however,  by  rail,  and  carrving 
^g„g_  his  bundles  with  him  in  the  car.     'The  express-comjjany  of  Wells. 

Fargo,  &  Fargo,  i\:  Company,  which  he  organized,  has  had  as  extensive  a 

ompany.  ramification  over  the  country  as  that  of  Mr.  .Adams.  It  was 
followed  by  other  companies  in  tlifferent  i)arts  of  the  country;  and  the  insti- 
tution now  forms  so  intimate  and  necessary  a  part  of  ihe  transjjortation- 
Inisiness  of  the  country,  that  no  railroad,  however  short  or  local,  is  now  without 
its  special  accommodations  for  express-packages.  The  companies  are  an 
adjunct  of  the  railroad-system  of  the  country.  They  rarely  own  cars  of  their 
own  ;  l)ut  they  perform  the  service  to  the  public  which  they  have  been  called 
into  existence  to  discharge  by  contracts  with  the  different  connecting-lines, 
which  secure  the  rapiil  and  uninterrujjted  transmission  of  i)ackages,  regardless 
of  the  conflicts  of  interest  of  the  different  roads,  and  the  obstacles  they  throw 
in  each  other's  way  in  the  transaction  of  ordinary  business. 

The  fast-freight  system  is  only  the  application  of  this  idea  to  the  transmis- 
sion of  ordinary  commercial  freight.  This  system  has  grown  up  entirely 
Fast-freight  within  the  last  fifteen  years.  The  necessity  for  fost-freight  com- 
system.  panies  did  not  arise  from  the  dangers  of  robbery  of  the  cars,  but 

from  the  detentions  of  freight  in  all  parts  of  the  country,  owing  to  the  discord- 
ance of  interests  among  connecting  and  competing  lines.  Despatch  and 
safety  could  not  be  secured  without  the  creation  of  some  responsible  agency 
distinct  from  the  railroads  themselves,  with  which,  on  the  one  hand,  the  public 
could  deal  direct,  and  which,  on  the  other  hand,  would  secure  that  concert  of 
action  among  the  roads,  as  tar  as  freight  was  concerned,  which  the  roads 
could  not  achieve  themselves.  The  experience  of  the  e.xpress-companies 
showed  how  these  desirable  ends  could  be  secured. 

The  first  form  of  fast-freight  transmission  was  introduced  by  the  Great- 
Western  Despatch  Company  on  what  is  known  as  the  private  line  system. 
The  company  furnished  its  own  cars,  made  contracts  witli  the  various  conne*  t- 
ing  railroads,  paying  the  roads  specific  sums  for  the  privileges  granted,  and 
then  established  its  own  freight-agencies  in  the  various  cities.  Tiie  dreal 
Western  was  cpiickly  followed  by  the  Merchants'  Despatch,  the  Union,  the 
National,  the  Star,  the  Diamond,  Cdobe,  Empire,  and  various  other  lines, 
running  over  all  the  great  routes  of  the  country.  There  is  scarcely  a  great 
railroad  in   the  United  States  now  over  which  two  or  three  or  more  of  tiiese 


OF   THE    UNITED    STATES. 


66 1 


lines  do  not  run.  The  private  lines  offered  great  advantages  to  tlir  ])\il)li(  : 
tliey  insured  safety  and  speed,  and  reduced  tiie  cost  of  traiisijortatiou. 
About  1870,  however,  tlie  railroad-companies  began  to  find  tiial  tliis  new 
system  was  not  so  profitable  to  them  as  it  was  to  the  jjublic.  The  I'ast-freiu'lit 
lines  not  only  absorbed  the  entire  ))rofits  of  the  through    traffic,   but  often 


COATKSVILI.Ii    IlEilUlii;,    I'KNNSYLVANIA, 


proved  a  weight  upon  the 
roads  themselves  by  tak- 
ing from  them  all  the  pay- 
ing business.  This  led  to 
the  establishment  of  an- 
other form  of  fast-freight- 
ing, called  the  "  co-oper- 
ative," established  by  the 
roads  themselves.     Each 

connecting  railway  between  principal  points  supplied  a  quota  of  cars  toward 
the  common  equipment  of  a  co-operative  line.  This  class  of  lines  took  the 
designation  of  parti(  ular  colors  ;  and  we  have  now.  in  conse(iuence,  the  Orange, 
lilue,  Red,  White,  I'urple,  and  other  lir.js.  The  private  lines  are  gradually 
being  superseded  by  the  latter  class.  The  Pennsylvania  Railroad  has  assumed 
the  management  of  tiie  Star,  Union,  and  Empire  lines  ;  and  the  same  ten- 
dency is  visible  in  other  i)arts  of  the  country.     The  fast-freight  system  has 


'■^^iii*JiU4i|' 


663 


IND  US  TRJA  L    HIS  TOR  Y 


ii 


been    of  vast    benefit   to   the    commercial   community,   and   is   now   a   iier 
nianent    feature    of    railway-transportation  :    it    employs    60,000    cars.     The 
Empire  Line,  the  largest  of  the  lines,  has  4,500  cars ;  the  Red  Line,  4,000  ■ 
the  White,  3,000 ;  and  the  ]>lue,  4,000. 

We  now  come  to  speak  of  a  step  in  railroad  construction  which  gave 
to  our  system  of  internal  transportation  a  world-wide  importance  :  this  was 
Pacific  the  buikling  of  a  railway  across  the  plains  and  through  the  moun- 

Raiiroad.  tain-ranges  of  the  Far  West  to  connect  the  seaboard  of  the  llast 
with  that  of  the  distant  Pacific.  Since  railways  were  invented,  the  world  has 
been  running  to  short  cuts  and  rapitl  transit.  The  slow  and  leisurely  mctiiods 
of  our  ancestors  are  being  gradually  laid  upon  the  shelf.  The  world  moves 
faster  than  of  old,  and  nothing  satisfies  now  except  the  most  rapid  movement 
of  commerce  and  travel  which  it  is  possible  to  bring  about.     When  the  route 

to  India  byway  of  the  Cape  of  C.ood 
Hojje  was  discovered,  the  merchants 
of  Portugal  and  tlie  Netherlands  were 
content  if  their  big,  bluff-bowed  ships 
came  back  from  their  voyages  of  trade 
in  two  years  from  the  time  they  left 
port  at  home.  For  three  hundred 
and  fifty  years,  trade  was  transacted 
chiefly  by  that  circuitous  and  tedious 
route.  When  California  was  settled, 
and  the  discovery  of  priceless  depos- 
its of  gold  was  made,  merchants  were 
long  content  to  trade  by  way  of  tlie 
long  route  around  Cape  Horn,  their 
ships  returning  only  at  the  expiration 
of  a  year.  'I'he  age  became  impa- 
tient at  the  pace  at  which  trade  was  moving.  The  Panama  Railroad  was  built, 
Panama  shortening  the  trip  to  California  many  months ;  and  then  the  Suez 
Railroad.  Canal  was  opened,  shortening  the  voyage  from  China  to  eighty 
days.  But  there  was  yet  much  to  do  in  abbreviating  the  route  to  Asia.  From 
New- York  City  to  Panama,  and  thence  to  Canton,  is  11,850  miles  :  from  Eng- 
land to  Canton  b}  the  same  route  is  14,630  miles,  or  half  the  circumference 
of  the  earth.  Rut  were  there  a  railroad  across  the  American  continent  in 
as  direct  a  line  from  New  York  as  could  conveniently  be  built,  the  trip  from 
that  metropolis  to  Canton  would  be  only  10,845  miles  long,  and  from  Eng- 
land to  New  York,  and  thence  to  Canton,  13,845  miles;  the  distance  from 
England  to  Canton  by  way  of  the  Suez  Canal  being  12,000  miles. 

There  had  been,  for  several  years,  talk  about  a  railway  to  the  Pacific. 
The  war  accelerated  the  national  impulse  in  favor  of  such  a  work  by  showing 
the  need  of  an  inland  route  to  California,  and  facilities  for  the  rapid  transpor- 


6.  i'JkiUii'^h^fsmi 

FIRST  OFFICE,  CENTRAL   rACIFIC   RAILROAD. 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


663 


t.ation  of  troops  to  those  far-away  western  portions  of  our  domain.  In  July, 
1862,  two  companies  were  incorporated  by  Congress  to  build  the  road.  The 
Union  Pacific  was  to  begin  at  Omaha,  and  go  westward  :  the  Central  Pa(  il'ic, 
starting  at  San  Francisco,  was  to  build  out  to  meet  it.  The  Act  of  1.S62,  and 
a  subsecjuent  one  passed  in  1864,  granted  to  the  companies  a  right  of  way 
two  hundred  feet  wide  through  the  public  domain,  and  twenty  sections  of 
land  per  mile,  and,  in  addition  to  this,  a  loan  of  government  credit  to  the 
amount  of  $16,000  per  mile  on  the  prairies,  $32,000  per  mile  between  the 
Rocky  Mountains  and  Sierra  Nevadas,  and  $48,000  per  mile  for  a  distance 


SNOW-SHEDS. 


of  a  hundred  and  fifty  miles  across  each  of  those  two  ranges.  Work  began 
in  1863.  The  Central  Pacific  consolidated  with  the  Western  Pacific  Railroad 
out  to  San  Jose,  the  San  Francisco,  Oakland,  and  Alameda  Company,  the  San 
Joaquin  Valley,  and  the  California  and  Oregon  Companies.  The  work  was 
prosecuted  on  both  ends  of  the  line  with  great  energy,  attracting  the  attention 
and  admiration  of  the  whole  civilized  world.  In  1868  three  hund'od  and  fifty 
miles  had  been  completed  on  the  Union  Pacific,  and  track-laying  was  going 
on  at  the  rate  of  a  mile  a  day.  In  May,  1869,  the  two  roads  met  at  Ogden, 
Utah,  and  an  all-rail  line  existed  from  the  Adantic  to  the  Pacific  Oceans.  The 
last  spike  driven  was  made  of  gold  ;  and  the  event,  telegraphed  instantly  to  all 


II 


?  f 


!  i 


664 


IXDUSTRIAI.    insrOKY   OF    THE    UNITED    STATES, 


parts  of  the  Union,  was  the  orrasion  of  public-  rejoicing  and  excitement  every- 
where. Flags  were  exhibited,  cannonTired,  and  meetings  of  public  congratu- 
lation iield,  to  celebrate  the  com])Ietion  of  the  great  natiiMial  work. 

There  is  a  great  future  before  these  roads.  'I'hey  have  been  successful  in 
obtaining  a  siiare  of  the  commerce  from  Asia  ])otli  for  I'niled-StiUes  acct)unt 
Future  of  and  for  iMirojJean.  Connecting  with  the  steamshi])s  at  San  I-'ran- 
these  roads,  (isco,  they  luive  shortened  the  transit  from  Yokohama  to  New 
York  an  average  of  a  hundred  and  sixty  days  to  thirty  ;  and  they  are  bringing 
into  the  States  east  of  the  Mississippi  River  now,  in  large  (juantity,  the  teas 
anil  other  commodities  wliicii  formerly  took  tlie  slowf  --outL's  via  I'anama  or 
Cape  Horn.  To  lOngland  they  ileliver  teas,  put  on  board  the  Atlantic  steamers 
at  New  York,  in  forty  ilays,  which  England  cannot  obtain  in  less  than  a  hundred 
and  twenty  by  steamer  viA  the  Suez  Canal.  This  through  business  will  doubt- 
less be  shared  in  the  future  by  comi)eting  I'acific  railways ;  but  the  country 
along  the  Union  and  Central  Roads  is  being  rapidly  developed  through  the 
agency  of  the  roads  themselves,  and  will  give  them  in  the  future  a  local  tratitic 
which  will  more  than  replace  the  falling-off  in  the  through  business. 

The  total  volume  of  the  through  commerce  will,  however,  be  largely 
increa^icd  when  the  three  new  Pacific  railways  now  ])rojected  are  completed. 
Northern  Competition  ivill  reduce  tl  e  transportation-charges,  and  lead  to  an 
Pacific.  expansion  of  trade.     The  three  roads  referred  to  are  the  Nortliern 

Pacific,  chartered  in  July,  1864,  with  a  land-grant  and  a  loan,  which  now  has 
over  five  hundred  miles  of  road  in  operation  west  from  Duluth  on  Lake  Supe- 
rior;  the  Canadian  Pacific,  organized  in  1873,  with  a  capital  of  $10,000,000,  a 
grant  of  50,000,000  acres  along  the  main  line,  and  a  subsidy  of  $30,000,000  ; 
Texas  and  the  southern  route  to  Pacific,  which  is  building  by  two  corn- 

Pacific,  panics,  —  the  Texas  and  Pacific  from  the  ICast,  and  the  Southern 

Pacific  from  the  West,  —  each  company  having  a  land-grant  from  Congress, 
and  the  latter  the  enormous  one  of  60,000,000  acres  from  the  State  of  Texas. 
This  latter  route  is  well  under  way,  and  should  be  finished  in  two  or  three 
years. 


BOOK     IV. 


MINES   AND   MINING,  AND   OIL. 


1 

vail 
l)ro 
vcr; 
of  i 
thir 
two 
has 
ma( 
star 
tra\ 
we 
rial 
pre 
dis( 
tag 
chi 

pet 
use 
bef 

ear 
All 
set 
tin 
fou 


chap'iI':r  1. 


M!NIiN(i. 


GENKKAL    HISTORY. 


THE  place  which  the  mining-in(histries  of  a  country  dcscn'c  to  hold 
among  the  pursuits  of  a  nation  is  not  to  be  estimated  by  the  market- 
value  of  the  product  as  comjjared  with  the  market-value  of  other  importance 
products  of  lal)or ;  for,  if  it  were,  mining  would  be  entitled  to  a  of  mineraJ 
very  insignificant  rank.  We  manufacture  every  year  to  the  extent  p''°'*"'=*'- 
of  nearly  six  billion  dollars ;  we  market  our  agricultural  products  for  some- 
thing like  three  billion  ;  while  the  total  yield  of  all  our  mines  does  not  sell  for 
two  hundred  million.  The  development  of  agriculture  and  manufacturing 
has  been  peculiarly  dependent  upon  the  use  of  metals,  the  implements  and 
machinery  necessary  thereto  being  made  almost  entirely  from  mineral  sub- 
stances. In  other  regards  —  in  building,  illuminating,  transportation,  printing, 
travel,  and  human  intercourse  —  we  are  so  utterly  dependent  u])on  metals,  that 
we  may  truly  say  they  have  been  the  means,  far  more  than  any  thing  else  mate- 
rial, of  the  world's  civilization.  Thus  viewed,  American  mining-industry  attains 
pre-eminent  importance.  Nevertheless,  owing  to  the  tardiness  with  which  we 
discovered  the  extent  of  our  mineral  resources  and  to  some  other  disadvan- 
tages, the  development  of  these  interests  was  greatly  retarded,  and  belongs 
chiefly  to  the  last  half-century  of  the  country's  history. 

By  the  aborigines  a  little  was  known  of  the  existence  and  value  of  copper, 
petroleum,  and  silver,  on  this  continent ;  and  the  former  two  were   Aborigines 
used  in  the  region  now  included  within  the  United  States  ages   ignorant  of 
before  the  white  man  set  foot  on  the  American  continent.  *"'  "  *" 

The  hope  of  finding  mineral  treasure  was  one  of  the  incentives  that  led  the 
early  colonists  hither,  and  they  were  quite  diligent  in  searching  for  metals. 
All  along  the  Atlantic    coast,    almost   immediately  after  the   first   search  for 
settlements,  discoveries  were  made  of  silver,  lead,  copper,  iron,    metais  by 
tin,  antimony,  coal,  and  other  valuable  minerals ;    but  they  were   ^°  °"'^  *' 

found  generally  in  small  (juantities ;  and,  in  competition  with  foreign  produc- 

667 


1 1 


60S 


/X/XS/h'/.t/.    ///.S/OKY 


II 


tion,  the  workiu),'  of  mines  was  ffcviucntly  foiinil  imri-iniimTativi'.  Then,  too, 
the  presence  and  hostility  of  Iiidiins  made  s\n\\  enterprises  dan^'eroiis.  Iron 
ore  was  sent  to  l'.nL;l.iin!  Irom  ni-ar  Jamestown  in  160.S,  the  year  alter  Virginia 
was  first  permanently  settled  ;  and  in  1O20  a  hundred  and  tilty  skilled  work- 
nten  were  sent  to  the  colony  to  erect  and  operate  ironworks.  An  In(han 
massacre  two  years  later,  liowever,  put  a  discouraging,'  end  to  proceechngs. 
Another  discouragement  grew  out  of  such  blunders  as  tlie  supposed  (hscovery 
of  gold  in  Virginia  by  ('apt.  John  Smith.  .A  shii)load  of  the  glittering  dust 
was  sent  to  I'aigland,  and  there  pronounced  to  be  nothing  but  iron  pyrites. 

1  lowever,  tile  plucky  (olonists  persevered  in  spite  of  all  depressions  and 
Early  effort!  obstacles,  and  made  very  creditable  beginnings.  Iron-mining  was 
in  mining.  resumed  permanently  in  Virginia  in  1715.  The  metal  was  found 
in  Massachusetts  in  162S  and  later,  ami  a  com|)any  was  formed  to  work  it  xw 
1643.  Rhode  Island,  ("onnecticut.  New  \'ork,  and  IVimsylvania  followed  suit. 
I'enn  had  discovered  iron  as  early  as  1OS5  ;  but  no  forges  are  mentioned  on 
his  grants  earlier  than  1719-20.  Lead-mining  began  in  Missouri,  then  belong- 
ing to  France,  in  1720  ;  and  the  old  Southampton  silver-lead  mi  .e  was  opened 
in  Massachusetts  in  1765.  Copper-mining  is  first  heard  of  in  Connecticut, 
the  Simsbury  mines  being  worked  as  early  as  i  709  ;  but  they  were  abandoned 
as  unprofitable  about  the  middle  of  that  century.  The  Schuyler  mine,  near 
Ik'lleville,  N.J. ,  was  (Uscovered  in  i  719,  and  is  historic  as  the  scene  of  the 
building  of  the  first  steam-engine  in  America  in  1793-94.  I'he  Lake  Superior 
copper  was  first  mined  by  the  whites  in  1771,  and  in  small  (|uantities.  In  the 
early  colonial  days  the  settlers  used  wood  for  fiiel,  and  charcoal  for  t'>e  forge 
and  smelting-works.  Coal,  howeve»-,  was  found  in  Rhode  Island  in  1768,  and 
mined  for  usj.  The  great  bituminous  seam  near  Pittsburgh,  i'enn.,  was  struck 
in  1784.  I'revious  to  this  time  coal  was  Hnuid  in  (piantities  in  Virginia;  and 
canals  were  cut,  connecting  parallel  rivers  to  facilitate  its  transportation.  By 
1789  cpiite  an  e.xport  trade  with  adjacent  colonies  had  been  built  up. 

At  numerous  other  points  along  the  Atlantic  seaboard  these  and  other 
metals  were  found  i)rior  to  the  Revolution.  Smelting-works  and  forges  were 
erected  to  reduce  the  ores,  some  of  which,  however,  were  exported.  The 
home  government  discouraged  the  manufacture  of  metals  in  this  country, 
though,  at  that  period  ;  which  was  a  damper  upon  mining-industry. 

In  the  following  chapters  we  trace  more  in  detail  the  steps  in  the  history 
of  each  branch  of  mining  in  this  country.  Suffice  it  here  to  say,  that,  from  the 
Effect  of  humble  beginnings  just  mentioned,  but  slow  advances  were  made 
Revolution-  for  several  decades.  The  Revolutionary  war,  by  cutting  off  sup- 
ary  war.  ^jj^^  j-^^^^^  England,  and  creating  a  special  demand  for  iron  and 
copper  ordnance  and  lead  bullets,  as  well  as  other  metal  for  domestic  and  other 
implements,  gave  a  peculiar  stimulus  to  mining,  although  the  army  so  drained 
the  country  of  men  as  to  leave  few  for  such  occupations. 

It  was  not  until  a  quarter  of  the  present  century  had  passed  that  we  see  any 


•'■1^6" 


670 


IND  US  TKIA  L    11  IS  TOR  Y 


\-  fi 


\\\ 


¥:% 


marked  strides  in  the  mining-business.  In  1820  attempts  were  made  to  \\<\\ 
Mining  since  anthracite  coal  with  charcoal  in  iron-smelting  :  but  the  experiment 
'^^5'  was  not  successful  until   1 831,  when  the  hot-blast  was  invented; 

then  both  the  coal  and  iron  industry  took  a  tremendous  start.  In  1835  lead- 
niining  received  a  wonderful  impetus  in  Missouri  and  Iowa  from  new  dis- 
coveries. Copper-mining  was  revived  along  Lake  Superior  about  1842,  and 
made  a  sudden  jump.  The  California  gold-fever  of  1849  was  the  beginning 
of  the  search  and  procurement  of  that  metal  on  a  considerable  scale.  Petro- 
leum came  prominently  into  notice  for  the  first  time  in  August,  1859,  when  the 
Drake  well  struck  oil ;  and  the  Comstock  lode  was  discovered  in  Nevada  that 
same  year,  and  laid  the  foundation  of  our  present  silver-mining  business. 
These  are  the  points  from  which  the  present  development  of  our  miaeral 
resources  dates. 

A  review  of  the  history  of  mining  during  this  important  period  shows  that 
our  operations  have  been  characterized  by  intense  excitement  and  magnified 
Speculative  speculation,  by  gross  blunders  and  by  great  waste.  Says  Kimball, 
character  of  [It]  "  is  an  instructive  narrative  of  fluctuating  fortune,  ranginj; 
mining.  through  all  the  intermittent  vicissitudes  of  prosperity  and  stagna- 

tion, of  factitious  inflations  and  calamitous  recoils,  of  blind  delusion  and 
credulity,  of  stolid  unbelief,  of  highest  popularity,  and  general  distrust."  The 
possibility  of  making  a  great  deal  of  money  in  a  short  time  always  crazes 
people  ;  and  the  discovery  of  large  deposits  of  metal,  both  the  baser  and  the 
precious,  affords  just  such  inviting  possibilities  to  the  workman  and  to  the 
capitalist.  And  so,  in  the  case  of  each  of  the  great  discoveries  of  lead,  copper, 
gold,  oil,  and  silver,  a  large  proportion  of  the  country's  population  has  been 
rendered  frantic.  An  immense  rush  has  set  in  toward  the  centre  of  inter- 
est ;  fortunes  large  and  small,  often  augmented  by  exten;.  /e  borrowing  from 
credulous  friends  and  relatives,  have  been  invested  in  land-claims,  and  stock 
companies  to  work  them ;  towns  and  villages  have  sprung  up  almost  in  a  day, 
like  Jonah's  gourd.  The  hopes  of  but  few  out  of  many  would  be  realized ; 
disappointment  and  ruin  ensued  ;  and  not  only  were  poverty,  sickness,  and 
death  often  the  result,  but  whole  towns  of  the  mushroom  type  have  been 
almost  as  suddenly  wiped  out  of  existence. 

In  this  mad  rush  of  greed  and  excitement,  otlier  blunders  besides  those  of 
investing  in  unprofitable  lands  have  been  made.  Furnaces  for  smelting  have 
been  located  without  due  regard  for  getting  fuel ;  costly  machinery  for  crushing 
ore  has  been  bought,  and  forwarded  to  the  scene  of  action,  without  knowing 
whether  ore  woukl  ))c  found  at  all,  or  whether  the  apparr  ais  was  suited  to  the 
kind  of  ore  discovered  ;  new  ])iocesses  for  extracting  metal  have  been 
resorted  to,  without  reliable  information  as  to  their  value  ;  and  other  such 
ruinous  mistakes  have  liecn  committed  by  frenzied  speculators. 

There  has  also  been  an  enormous  wasce  of  valuable  minerals  in  couse- 
quence  of  this  same  impetuous  desire  for  wealth.     In  the  lead-regions  of  the 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


671 


Waste. 


Mississippi  Valley  argentiferous  galena  is  quite  common,  and  often  the  lead 
is  entirely  wasted  in  the  extraction  of  the  little  silver.  In  the 
coal-regions,  especially  before  the  organization  of  the  present 
large  companies  and  their  combination  in  monopoly,  only  the  richer  measures 
would  be  worked,  leaving  a  large  quantity  of  inferior  yet  valuable  coal  on 
liigher  levels  to  be  lost  by  caving.  Such  recklessness  in  handling  was  practised, 
that  from  a  third  to  a  half  of  the  product  was  lost.  The  same  state  of  things 
has  been  found  in  the  silver  country.  Mines  have  been  neglected  as  soon  as 
the  rich  surface-deposits  were  procured,  and  the  accumulation  of  water  and 
rubbish  have  made  it  next  to  impossible  to  work  what  were  really  paying  shafts. 
But  a  re-action  has  set  in  of  late  years  in  these  regards,  and  this  extravagance 
is  steadily  lessening. 

The  two  great  causes,  which,  after  the  discovery  of  our  great  resources 
and  the  passion  for  wealth,  have  stimulated  American  mining,  are  the  govern- 
ment's general  policy  of  encouragement,  and  the  advancement  in  principal 
mechanic  and  natural  science.  Under  the  old  English  laws  the  causes  of  im- 
crown  was  entitled  to  the  gold  and  silver  found  on  government  p""'"'^"""  • 
lands,  and  a  certain  pr*  portion  of  other  minerals.  But  in  this  country,  although 
legislation  has  been  very  slight  until  recently,  and  the  gold  and  silver  miners 
of  the  Pacific  coast  were  ruled  only  by  self-made  regulations,  the  government 
has  favored  the  free  occupation  and  investigation  of  the  rocks  for  minerals, 
and  facilitated  the  chea;^  purchase  and  lease  of  mining-lands,  ^'here  has 
been  a  protective  tariff,  loo,  on  foreign  metals  at  times,  the  heavie:-.t  having 
been  since  1861  ;  and  this  has  greatly  promoted  the  development  of  our  iron, 
copper,  coal,  and  other  minerals. 

Among  the  most  serviceable  inventions  in  practical  mining  and  metallurgy 
for  the  past  ten  or  fifteen  years  are  the  California  stamp-mill  for  crushing 
quartz,  the  mercury  amalgamation  process  for  grid,  the  pan  process  for  silver, 
the  hydraulic  process  of  gold-mining  in  alluvial  rcir'ons,  the  application  of  new 
explosives  to  rocks,  new  methods  of  drilling,  new  blast-furnaces,  and  new 
methods  of  converting  iron  into  steel. 

Our  independent  schools  in  mining  and  engineering  date  from  1865.  Mr. 
Abram  S.  Hewitt,  speaking  in  1875  of  their  rapid  increase  in  number,  said, 
"  Many  of  them  compare  favorably  in  theoretical  instruction  at  Mining- 
least,  and  several  of  them  in  the  apparatus  of  instruction,  with  the  schools, 
famous  schools  of  the  Old  World.  The  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology 
at  Boston,  the  School  of  Mines  of  Columbia  College  at  New  York,  the  Shef- 
field Scientific  School  of  Yale  College  at  New  Haven,  the  Stevens  Institute  of 
Technology  at  Hoboken,  the  Pardee  Scientific  Department  of  Lafayette  Ci^l- 
lege  at  Easton,  the  excellent  school  at  Rutgers  College  under  the  direction  of 
Professor  Cook,  the  new  Scientific  Department  of  the  College  of  New  Jersey, 
the  School  of  Mining  and  Metallurgy  of  Lehigh  University  at  Uethleheni,  the 
School  of  Mining  and  Practical  Geology  of  Harvard  University  at  Carnl.i'dge, 


6 -J  2  INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 

the  Scientific  Department  of  the  University  of  Pennsyh-ania  at  Philadelphia, 
the  School  of  Mines  of  Michigan  University  at  Ann  Arbor,  the  Missouri 
School  of  Mines  and  Metallurgy  at  RoUa,  the  Polytechnic  Departmeni  of 
Washington  University  at  St.  Louis,  and  the  similar  department  of  the  Univer- 
sity of  California  at  Oakland,  and  perhaps  some  which  I  have  omitted  to 
name,  —  this  is  a  list  of  schools  for  instruction  in  the  sciences  involved  in 
mining  and  metallurgical  practice  of  which  we  need  not  be  ashamed." 

Other  agencies  for  the  advancement  of  science  in  this  class  of  industry 
National  ^''^  ^^^  ajipointmcnt  and  reports  of  a  national  commissioner  of 
commis-  mining-statistics  since  1866,  the  organization  of  the  American 
aionerof        Institute  of  Mining  Engineers  in   1870,  and   thi  publication  of 

mining.  o  o  i     >  i 

periodicals  especially  devoted  to  such  subjects,  the  most  prominent 
of  these  being  "  The  American  Mining  and  Engineering  Journal." 

The  following  table,  made  up  from  the  census  of  1870,  shows  the  value  of 
the  principal  mineral  products  of  this  country  that  year:  the  figures  for  1878- 
would  doubtless  raise  the  total  very  nearly  fifty  million  dollars  more  :  — 

Coal $73,524,992 

Iron  ore 13,204,138 

Gold  (placer-mined) 7,266,613 

Gold  (hydraulic-miiied) 2,508,531 

Quartz  (40  per  cent  gold  and  60  per  cent  silver)  .         .         .  16,677,508 

Copper 5,201,312 

Petroleum 19,304,224 

Lead 736,004 

Zinc 788,880 

Cinnabar 817,700 

Nickel 24,000 

Asphaltum 450,000 

Peat 8,200 

Quarrying  (including  marble  and  slate)         ....  12,086,892 

Total $152,598,994 


*i|ljk^WHwli^: 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


673 


CHAPTER   II. 


GOLD. 


Drake. 


ALTHOUGH  some  specimens  of  gold  were  collected  in  North  Carolina 
and  Virginia  previous  to  the  R<ivolution,  no  excitement  about  the  sub- 
ject arose  until  the  discovery  in  California  in  1848.     Before  then   Early  dis- 
the  gold-miner  had  pursued  his  occupation  quietly,  and  without  coveriesof 
ever  dreaming  of  enormous  riches  suddenly  acquired ;    but,  with  ^° 
the  discovery  on  the  Pacific  coast,  all  was  changeci.     Gold  had  been  found  in 
California  prior  to  this  time  ;    for  Hakluyt  (in  his  account  of  the  voyage  of 
Sir  Francis  Drake,  who  spent  five  weeks  in  June  and  July,  1579, 
along  the  coast)  says,  "  There  is  no  part  of  the  earth  to  be  taken 
up  wherein  there  is  not  a  reasonable  quantity  of  gold  and  silver."     Although 
this  statement  was  highly  overdrawn,  yet  it  probably  contained   a  basis  of 
truth  ;  for  the  Mexicans  found  placer-gold  near  the  Colorado  River  at  various 
intervals  between    1775  and  1S28.     Still  these  discoveries  were  regarded  as 
unimportant;  and  even  so  late  as   1835,  when  Forbes  wrote  his  History  of 
California,  he  says,  "  No  minerals  of  any  particular  importance   piacers  of 
have  yet  been  found  in  Upper  California,  nor  any  ores  of  metals."   San  Fran- 
Three  years  later  the  placers  of  San  Francisquito,  forty-five  miles   *^'^'i"'*°' 
north-west  from   Los  Angeles,  were  discovered.      The  deposit  of  gold  was 
neither  extensive  nor  rich ;  but  it  was  worked  steadily  for  twenty  years.     In 
1841  the  exploring-ex,  edition  of  Commodore  Wilkes  visited  the  coast;  and 
its  mineralogist,  James  I).  Dana,  made  a  trip  overland  from  the 
Columbia  River,  by  way  of  \\'illamctte  and  Sacramento  Valleys,  to 
San  Francisco  Bay ;  and  in  the  following  year  he  published  a  work  on  miner- 
alogy, in  which  was  mentioned  the  discovery  of  gold  in  Sacramento  Valley, 
and  of  auriferous  rocks  in  Southern  Oregon.     Dana  did  not  regard  his  dis- 
covery as  of  any  j^ractical  value  ;  and,  if  he  said  any  thing  about  it  in  Cali- 
fornia, no  one  heeded   his  words.     Nevertheless,  many  persons  believed  the 
country  was  rich  in  minerals;    and  on  the  4th   of  May,   1846,  Thomas  O. 
Larkin,  at  that  time  United-States  consul  in  Monterey,  wrote   in  an  official 
letter  to  James  Buchanan,  who  was  then  secretary  of  state,  "  There    is    no 


Dana. 


674 


IND  US  TKIA  L     HIS  TO  A'  V 


doubt  but  that  gold,  silver,  quicksilver,  copper,  lead,  suli)hur,  and  coal  mines 
are  to  be  found  all  over  California  ;  and  it  is  eciually  doubtful  whether,  under 
their  present  owners,  they  will  ever  be  worked." 

Seven  years  later,  on  the  nineteenth  day  of  January,  1S48,  —  ten  days  before 
the  treaty  of  (luadalupe  Hidalgo  was  signed,  and  three  months  before  the 
Marshall's  ratified  copies  were  exchanged,  —  James  W.  Marshall,  while  en- 
discovery,  gaged  in  digging  a  race  for  a  saw-mill  at  Coloma,  about  thirty-five 
miles  eastward  from  Sutter's  Fort,  found  some  pieces  of  yellow  metal  which 


"  1 


I  'i 


Ii 


\\i\- 


SUTTER  S  SAW-MILL. 


he  and  the  half-dozen  men  working  with  him  at  the  mill  imagined  were  gold. 
Feeling  confident  that  he  had  made  a  discovery  of  great  importance,  but 
knowing  nothing  of  chemistry  or  gold-mining,  he  could  not  prove  the  nature 
of  the  metal,  or  tell  how  to  obtain  it  in  paying  quantities.  Kvery  morning  he 
went  down  to  the  race  to  look  for  gold ;  but  the  rest  of  his  companions 
regarded  Marshall  as  very  wild  in  his  ideas,  and  continued  their  labors  upon 
the  mill  antl  in  sowing  wheat  and  jilanting  vegetables.  The  swift  current  of 
the  mill-race  washed  away  a  considerable  body  of  earthy  matter,  leaving  the 
coarse  particles  of  gold  behind  :  so  Marshall's  collection  of  specimens  con- 
tiiiucd  to  accumulate,  and  his  associates  began  to  think  there  might  be  some- 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


675 


thing  in  his  gold-mine,  after  all.  About  the  middle  of  February  one  of  tlie 
party  employed  at  the  mill  went  to  San  Francisco  for  the  purpose  of  learning 
whether  this  metal  was  i)re(ious,  and  was  there  introduced  to  Isaac  Humphrey, 
wiio  had  washed  for  gold  in  (leorgia.  'I'he  experienced  miner  saw  at  a  glanc:e 
that  the  true  stuff  was  before  him,  and,  after  a  few  inquiries,  was  satisfied  as  to 
the  richness  of  the  deposits.  He  made  immediate  preparation  to  go  to  the 
mill,  and  tried  to  persuade  some  of  his  friends  to  go  with  him  ;  but  they 
Uiought  it  would  be  only  a  waste  of  time  and  money  :  so  he  went  with  Hennelt 
lor  his  sole  companion. 

Arriving  at  Coloma  on  the  7th  of  March,  he  found  work  at  the  mill  going 
on  as  though  no  gold  existed  in  the  neighborhood.     The  next  day  he  took  a 
[)an  and  spade,  and  washed  some  of  the  dirt  from  the  bottom  of  washing 
the  mill-race  in  places  .vhere  Marshall  had  found  his  specimens,   'oi'soid. 
and  in  a  few  hours  declared  the  mines  to  be  far  richer  than  any  he  had  seen 
or  heard  of  in  (ieorgia. 

He  now  made  a  rocker,  and  went  to  work  earnestly  washing  for  gold  ;  and 
every  da/  .   .  found  an  ounce  or  more  of  metal.     The  men  at  the   Renews  his 
mill  made  rockers  for  themselves,  and  all  were  soon  busy  in  search  eff<»''8- 
of  the  shining  stuff. 

Mvcxy  thing  else  was  abandoned  ;  yet  the  rumor  of  the  discovery  spread 
slowly.  In  the  middle  of  March,  Pearson  B.  Reading,  the  owner  of  a  large 
ranch  at  the  head  of  the  Sacramento  Valley,  happened  to  visit  other  dis- 
Sutter's  Fort ;  and,  hearing  of  the  mining  at  Coloma,  he  went  coteries, 
thither  to  sec  it.  He  said,  that,  if  similarity  of  formation  could  be  regarded 
as  proof,  there  must  be  gold-mines  near  his  ranch  :  so,  after  observing  the 
method  of  washing,  he  went  away,  and  in  a  few  weeks  was  at  work  on  the  bars 
of  Clear  Creek,  nearly  two  hundred  miles  in  a  north-westerly  direction  from 
Coloma.  A  few  days  after  Reading  had  left.  John  Bidwell,  formerly  a  repre- 
sentative of  the  northern  district  of  the  State  in  the  lower  house  of  Congress, 
came  to  Coloma ;  and  the  result  of  his  visit  was  the  organization  of  a  party 
of  Indians  belonging  to  his  ranch  to  wash  for  gold  on.  the  bars  of  Feather 
River,  seventy-five  miles  from  Coloma.  Thus  the  mines  were  opened  at 
several  distant  points. 

The  following  was  the  first  printed  notice,  in  a  California  newspaper  pub- 
lished in  San  Francisco,  of  the  discovery  :    "  In  the  newly-made   pointed 
race-way  of  the  saw-mill  erected  by  Capt.  Sutter  on  the  Ameri-   notice  of 
can  Fork,  gold  has  been  found  in  considerable  quantities.     One  ^'*'=''^"y- 
person   brought  thirty  dollars  to   New   Helvetia,  gathered  there   in  a  short 
time." 

On  the  29th  of  May,  the  same  paper,  announcing  that  its  publication  would 
be  suspended,  says,  "  The  whole  country,  from  San  Francisco  to 
Los  Angeles,  and  from  the  seashore  to  the  base  of  Sierra  Nevada, 
resounds  with  the  sonlid  cry  of  '  Gold,  gold,  gold  !  '  while  the  field  is  left  half 


',:'• 

'  r 

?'!.. 

i\ 

i.*U' 

ll 

f,.    ; 

si 

l*'t 

'I-  !• 


W  'r 


676 


/A'/;  ^'.V  TA'/A  L    ins  TOR  Y 


planted,  the  house  half  built,  and  every  thing  neglected  but  the  manufacture 
of  picks  and  shovels,  and  the  means  cjf  transportation  to  the  sj)ot  where  one 
man  obtained  a  hundred  and  twenty-eight  dollars'  worth  of  the  real  stuff  in 
one  day's  washing ;  and  the  average  for  all  concerned  is  twenty  dollars  per 
dicmr 

Towns  and  farms  were  deserted,  or  left  to  the  care  of  women  and  children ; 


CALII-OKNIAN  GO'-U-l'lNDlii;    rjiOSI'liCI  INo   Tllli  GKOINI). 


while  rancheros,  wood-choppers,  mechanics,  vaqueros,  and  soldiers  and  sailors 
Rush  for  who  had  deserted,  or  obtained  leave  of  absence,  devoted  all  their 
the  mines.  energies  to  washing  the  auriferous  gravel  of  the  Sacramento  basin. 
Never  satisfied,  however  great  their  profits,  they  were  continually  looking  for 
new  places  which  might  yielil  them  twice  or  thrice  as  much  as  they  had  made 
before.  Thus  the  area  of  their  labors  gradually  extended  ;  and,  at  the  end  of 
1848,  miners  were  at  work  in  every  large  stream  on  the  western  slope  of  the 
Sierra  Nevada,  from   the   Feather  to   the  Tuolumne  River  (a  distance  of  a 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


677 


I 


hundred  and  fifty  miles),  and  also  at  Reading's  diggings  in  the  north-western 
corner  of  the  Sacramento  Valley. 

The  news  of  the  gold  discovery  was  received  in  the  Atlantic  States  and  in 
foreign  countries  with  incredulity  and  ridicule  ;    l)ut  soon  the  recx'ipts  of  the 
precious  metal  in  large  ([uantitics,  and  the  enthusiastic  letters  of  Reception  o( 
army-officers  and  of  men  whose  word  was  untjueslioned,  changed   news  in  At- 
the  current  of  belief,  and  created  a  wonderfiil  excitement.     Ore- 
j;;on,  the  Hawaiian  Islands,  and  Sonora  sent  their  thousands  to  share  in  the 
auriferous  harvest  of  the  first  year  ;   and  in  the  following  spring  all  the  adven- 
turous young  Americans  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  wanted  to  go  to  the 
new  ICldorado,  where,  as  they  imagined,  everybody  was  rich,  and  gold  could, 
be  dug  by  the  shovelful  from  tiie  bed  of  every  stream. 

Though  the  phrase  "golden  sands"  is  often  lieard,  gold  is  found  in  a 
tough  clay,  which  envelops  gravel 
and  large  bowlders  as  well  as  sand. 
This  clay  must  be  thoroughly  dis- 
solved :  so  the  miner  fills  ^^^^  ^j 
his  pan,  —  which  is  made  washing 
of  sheet-iron  or  tinned  °^  ^° 
iron,  with  a  fiat  bottom  about  a  foot 
ill  diametei',  and  .sides  six  inches 
]iigh,  inclining  outwards  at  an  an- 
gle of  thirty  or  forty  degrees,  —  and 
goes  to  the  bank  of  the  river,  squats 
down  there,  puts  his  pan  under 
water,  and  shakes  it  horizontally, 
so  as  to  get  the  mass  thoroughly 
soaked  ;  then  he  picks  out  the  larger 
stones  with  one  hand,  and  mashes  up  the  largest  and  toughest  lumps  of  clay, 
and  again  shakes  his  pan  ;  and  when  all  the  dirt  appears  to  be  dissolved,  so 
that  the  gold  can  be  carried  to  the  bottom  by  its  weight,  he  tilts  up  the  pan  a 
little  to  let  the  thin  mud  and  light  sand  run  out ;  ar.d  thus  he  works  until  he 
has  washed  out  all  except  the  met:'!,  which  remains  at  the  bottom. 

The  rocker,  which  was  introduced  into  the  California  mines  at  their  dis- 
covery, is  made  somewb.at  like  a  child's  cradle.  On  the  upper  end  is  a  riddle, 
made   with  a  bottom   of  sheet-iron   punched  with   holes.      This 

Rocker. 

riddle  is  filled  with  pay-dirt ;  and  a  man  rock.;  the  machine  with 
one  hand,  while  with  a  dipper  he  pours  water  into  the  riddle  with  the  other. 
Reing  agitated,  the  liquid  dissolves  the  clay,  and  carries  it  down  with  the  gold 
into  the  floor  of  the  rocker,  where  the  metal  is  caught  by  traverse  riffles,  or 
cleats ;  while  the  mud,  water,  and  sand  run  off  at  the  lower  end  of  the  rocker, 
which  is  left  open.  The  riddle  can  be  removed,  thus  enabling  the  miner  to 
throw  out  the  larger  stones  which  are  mixed  with  the  clay. 


WASiiiNc;  uirii  ian. 


■ '  (.< 


LAM.iiJi 


!l!l 


li 


678 


/A'Z?  C/S  TRIA  L    HIS  TOR  Y 


The  year  1850,  two  years  after  Marsliall's  discovery,  was  marked  by  a  mul- 
titude  of  "  nislies,"  or  sudden  niigratiijiis  in  search  of  iniagiii,-  y  rich  (hj,'- 
gings.  The  miners,  although  generally  men  of  rare  intelligence  compared 
Early  ideas  with  the  laborers  in  other  countries,  had  vague  ideas  of  the 
of  miners.  geological  distribution  of  gold  ;  and  tlie  marvellous  amounts  vlug 
out  by  them  (sometimes  a  single  miner  extracting  thousands  of  dollars  per 
day)  excited  their  imagination  so  highly  as  to  ])revent  the  formation  of  a 
sound  judgment,  even  if  they  had  possessed  the  reiiuisite  information  ui)on 
which  to  act.  Many  believed  tliat  there  must  be  some  volcanic  source  from 
which  the  gold  had  been  thrown  up  and  scattered  over  the  hills  ;  and  they 
thought,  that,  if  they  could  only  find  that  place,  they  would  have  nothing  to  do 
except  to  shovel  up  the  precious  metal,  and  load  their  mules  with  it.  More 
than  once,  long  trains  of  pack-animals  were  sent  out  with  the  confident  ex- 
pectation of  getting  loads  of  gold  within  a  few  days. 

No  story  was  too  extravagant  to  command  credence.  Men  who  had  never 
earned  more  than  a  dollar  a  day  before  they  came  to  California  were  dinsalis- 
Learning  '''^'^^  when  they  were  clearing  twenty  dollars,  and  were  always  ready 
from  experi-  to  Start  off  on  some  exjK'dition  in  search  (jf  distant  diggings  whi(  h 
were  expected  to  yield  more  abimdantly.  Although  the  miners  of 
to-day  have  better  ideas  of  the  auriferous  de])osits  than  those  had  who  toiled 
sixteen  years  ago,  and  no  longer  count  upon  digging  up  the  pure  gold  by  the 
shovelful,  yet  they  are  now,  as  they  have  ever  been  since  the  discovery  of  the 
mines,  always  prepared  for  emigration  to  any  new  field  of  excitement. 

Of  course  the  chief  want  of   the  i)lacer-miner  is  an  abundant  and  con- 
venient   supply  of  water;    and   the   first  noteworthy   attempt    tf)    convey   the 
needful  element  in  an  artificial  channel  was  made  at  Coyote  liill, 

First  canal.       .  i  •        i-     , 

in  Nevada  Coimty,  in  March,  i<S5o.  I  his  ditch  was  about  two 
miles  long,  and,  proving  a  decided  success,  was  imitated  in  many  other  places, 
until,  in  the  course  of  eight  years,  six  thousand  miles  of  mining-canals  had 
been  made,  supplying  all  the  princi]:)al  placer-districts  with  water,  and  fiu-nish- 
ing  the  means  for  obtaining  the  greater  jjortion  of  the  gold  yield  of  the  State. 
Many  of  the  ditches  were  marvels  of  engineering  skill. 

The  problem  was  to  get  the  largest  amount  of  water  at  the  greatest  altitude 
above  the  auriferous  ground,  and  at  the  least  immediate  expense,  as  money 
_    ,  was  worth  from  three  to  ten  per  cent  per  month  interest.     As  the 

Early  expe-  '  i 

dients  for  j)ay-dirt  might  be  exhausted  within  a  couple  of  years,  ami  as  the 
anticipated  profits  would  in  a  short  time  be  sufficient  to  pay  for  a 
new  ditch,  durability  was  a  point  of  minor  im])ortance.  There 
was  no  imperial  treasury  to  supply  the  fimds  for  a  thirable  atiueduct  in  every 
township,  nor  could  the  impatient  miners  wait  a  decennium  for  the  completion 
of  gigantic  structures  in  stone  and  mortar.  The  high  value  of  their  time,  and 
the  scarcity  of  their  money,  made  it  necessary  that  the  cheapest  and  most 
expeditious  expedients  for  obtaining  water  should  be   adopted.     Where  the 


obtaining 
water. 


OF    THE    IWJTKD    SPATES. 


679 


\'  ii  mill- 

i<  li  (li^- 

Miipaivd 

"I'   iIk- 

Ills     ,!ll(r 

;irs  I )(.■!■ 
•  11  (if  a 
111   ii|i()n 

X'    t'lOlll 

ml  thry 
to  do 
More 

fill  c\- 


surface  of  the  ground  furiiislK'd  the  jiropor  grade,  a  ditth  was  dug  in  the 
earth;  and,  wliere  it  did  nut,  Humes  were  l)uilt  of  wooti,  sustained  in  tlic 
air  by  framework  that  rose  sometimes  to  a  height  of  tliree  humhed  feet  in 
crossing  deep  ravines,  and  extenthng  f(jr  miles  at  an  elevation  of  a  hundred 
or  two  hundred  feet. 

All  the  devices  known  to  mechanics  for  conveying  water  from  hill-top  to 
hill-top  were  adopted.    A([ue(hicts  of  wood,  and  jiipos  of  iron,  were   Aqueducts, 
suspended  u[)on  cables  of  wire,  or  sustained  o\\  bridges  of  wood  ;    s'phons,  &c. 
and  inverted  siphons  carried  water  up  the  sides  of  one  hill  by  the  heavier 
pressure  from  the  higher  side  of  another. 


ir-^TS?^^ 


-'■^-. 


I  i;Ks?,rui- r,n\-,  VI  r.A  ki\  11;. 


Ditches. 


The  ditches  \\\'w  usually  the  propertv  of  companies,  of  which  there  were 
at  one  time  four  hundred  in  the  State,  owning  a  total  length  of  six  thousand 
miles  of  canals  and  flumes.  The  largest  of  these,  called  the 
Eureka,  in  Nevada  County,  has  two  hundred  and  five  miles  of 
ditches,  constructed  at  a  cost  of  nine  ]uindre<l  thousand  dollars  ;  and  their 
receipts  at  one  time  from  the  sale  of  water  were  six  thousand  dollars  j)er  day. 
Unfortunately,  these  mining-canals,  though  more  numerous,  more  extensi\-e, 
and  bolder  in  design,  than  the  aqueducts  of  Rome,  were  less  (lural)le  ;  and 
some  of  them  have  been  abandoned,  and  allowed  to  go  to  ruin,  so  that 
scarcely  a  trace  of  their  existence  remains,  save  in  the  heaps  of  gravel  Irom 
which  the  clay  and  loam  were  washed  in  search  for  gold. 


I'lli 


M 


re ' 


!| 


r 


is 


^W^ 


rJi 


III! 


C8o 


/JVD  ^S  TRIA  I.    ins  TORY 


As  tlic  placers  in  many  districts  were  },'r;i(lii:iiiy  cxiiaiisted,  the  demand  for 
Destruction  wutcr,  anil  the  prolits  of  the  ditch-companies,  decreased  ;  and  tiie 
of  ditches.  more  expensive  Humes,  \v!ien  blown  down  by  severe  storms,  carried 
away  by  floods,  or  destroyed  by  the  decay  of  the  wood,  were  not  repaired. 

'I'lie  construction  of  hundreds  of  ditches  within  three  or  four  years  after 
the  successful  experiment  at  Coyote  Hill  createil  a  fresh  impulse  to  placer- 
invention  of  mining,  and  gready  modified  its  character.  New  inventions, 
the  "torn."  though  of  thc  rudcst  description,  were  multiplied  to  facilitate  thy 
process  of  gathering  the  yellow  metal.     Among  others  was  thc  introduction  of 


HYUKAUUC   MINING.— WASHING   DOWN    A   DANK. 


The  sluice. 


an  implement  which  had  been  previously  used  in  Georgia,  called  by  the  sliort 
and  unclassic  name  of  "  tom."  Tliis  was  a  great  improvement  upon  thc 
rocker;  yet  it  was  soon  superseded  by  a  still  greater,  —  the  sluice, 
which  is  a  broad  trough  from  a  himdred  to  a  thousand  feet  long, 
with  transverse  cleats  at  the  lower  end  to  catch  thc  gold.  \\\\\\  a  descent  of 
one  foot  in  twenty,  the  water  rushes  through  it  like  a  torrent,  bearing  down 
large  stones,  and  tearing  thc  lumps  of  clay  to  pieces.  The  miners,  of  whom 
a  dozen  or  a  score  may  work  at  one  sluice,  have  little  to  do  save  to  throw  in 
the  dirt,  and  take  out  thc  gold. 

Occasionally  it  may  be   necessary  to  throw  out  some  stones,  or  to  shovel 
the  dirt  along,  to  prevent  the  sluice  from  choking ;  but  these  attentions  cost 


OF    Tllli    UNITED    STATES. 


681 


nous 
methods. 


relatively  very  little  time.     The  sluice  is  the  best  device  heretofore  used  for 
washing  gold,  and  is  supposed  to  l)e  unsurpassable.     It  has  been    Superiority 
used  in  California  more  extensively  than  elsewhere  ;   although  it    °' ""  »'"'=•• 
has  been  introduced  by  American  miners  into  Australia,  New  Zealand,  Hriiish 
Columbia,  Transylvania,  and  many  other  countries. 

The  sluice,  though  an  original  invention  here,  had  been  previously  used  in 
Brazil ;  but  it  was  never  brought  to  much  excellence   ther<.',  nor   Formerly 
used  extensively  ;  and  no  such  implement  was  known  in    1S49  in    used  in 
the  industry  of  gold-mining.  '""' 

The  shovel  coukl  not  bring  earth  to  the  sluice  fast  enough,  anil  tlie  wages 
of  a  dozen  workmen  must  be  saved,  if  possible  :  so  in  1852  I'klward  K.  Matti- 
son,  a  native  of  Connecticut,  invented  the  process  of  hydraulic  Hydraulic 
mining,  in  which  a  stream  of  water  was  directed  under  a  heavy  ni'n'nB- 
pressure  against  a  bank  or  hillside  containing  placer-gold,  and  the  earth  was 
torn  down  by  the  fluid,  and  carried  into  the  sluice  to  be  washed ;  and  thus  the 
expense  of  shovelling  was  entirely  saved. 

The  man  with  the  rocker  might  wash  one  cubic  yard  of  earth  in  a  day ; 
with  the  torn  he  might  average  twice  that  quantity;  with  the  sluice,  four  yards; 
and  with  tiie  hydraulic  and  sluice  together,  fiftv  or  even  a  lumdred    _,,     . 

•'  o  '         ^  Effective- 

yards.     The  difference  was  immense.     The  force  of  a  stream  of  ness  of  va- 

water  rushing  through  a  two-inch  pipe,  under  a  pressure   of  two 

hundred  feet  perpendicular,  is  tremendous  ;    and   the  everlasting 

hills  themselves  crumble  down  before  it  as   if  they  were  but  i)iles  of  cloud 

blown  away  by  a  breath  of  wind,  or  dissi,)ated  by  a  glance  of  the  sun. 

And  yet  even  tliis  terrific  power  has  not  sufficed.     When   the  hills  have 

been  dried  by   months  of  constant  heat  and  drought,   the  clay   „   , 

•'  .  Hydraulic 

becomes  so  hard,  that  the  hydraulic  stream,  with  all  its  momentum,   mining  not 
did  not  steadily  dissolve  it :  and  often  the  water  ran  off  almost  as   '"'"'^y^ 

^  .  effective. 

clearly  as  ever  through  the  sluice,  and  consequenUy  was  wasted. 

The  sluice  could  wash  more  dirt  tiian  the  hydraulic  stream  furnished  when 
the  clay  was  hard  and  dry;  and,  to  prevent  this  loss,  the  miner  Efficiency  of 
would  often  cut  a  tunnel  into  the  heart  of  his  claim,  and  blast  the  ='"'==■ 
clay  loose  with  powder,  so  that  it  would  yield  more  readily  to  the  action  of 
water.  Two  tons  of  powder  have  been  used  at  a  single  blast  in  some  of  tiiese 
operations. 

With  the  introduction  of  the  sluice,  the  ditch,  and  the  hydraulic  process, 
the  hiring  of  laborers  began.     The  pan  and  the  rocker  retiuired   Hiring  of 
every  man  to  be  his  own  master ;  but  these  new  processes  led  to   ''^borers, 
other  modes  of  employment. 

There  was  an  abundance  of  rocker-claims  in  1849;  but  three  years  later 
there  were  not  enough  good  sluice-claims  to  supply  one-third  of  the  miners. 
The  erection  of  a  long  sluice,  the  cutting  of  drains  (often  necessary  to  carry 
off  the  tailings),  and  the  purchase  of  water  from  the  ditch-company,  required 


^t!['!!M-'| 


■^Xk 


iM' 


683 


INDUS  TRIAL    ///STORY 


h  t 


'II  ' 


i. 


I 


^i^M^ 


I 'I 


Capital ;  and  the  manner  of  clearing  up  rendered  it  pnssil)Ie  for  the  owner 
Causes  lead-  '**^  ''  ^lnic  e  to  ])rivint  his  servants  Irmn  ste.ihnj;  any  consitkralile 
inutoem-       portion  (jf  his  ^'old  l)etore  it  came  to  his  possession.     Thus  it  was 

rabo/"""'"'    ^'''^^  ''^^'  ''"^'*""  "'  l>'''ing  miners  for  wages  became  tonnuon  m 
the  pI.K  fr-(hL;^ings. 
Pla(er-g(jld,  it  is  sujjposed,  is  nothing  Imt  loose  jxjrtions  which  have  lucii 
(hsintegrated  from  rocks  by  tl)e  operatic«js  of  nature,  and  is  only  a  very  sni ail 

portion  of  the  gold  nut 
j\'\      .  yet   gathered.      \V  lu' n 

'^  Mnrchison     wroli'     his 

Plocer-gold,      Work     Upon 

what  it  iH.  11,^.  r„,  ks 
of  the  Silurian  age,  he 
declared  that  gold  veins 
were  ronhned  chieflv  to 
the  sihuian  nx  ks,  ami 
that  the  (luanlity  (  apa- 
Me  of  extraction  fioui 
them  at  no  distant  day 
would  be  exhausted. 
The  gold-l)earing  nx  ks 
in  the  I'lal  Mountains 
in  .Australia,  and  to  a 
considerable  extent  in 
California,  belong  to  the 
Silurian  period.  If  "we 
cast  our  eyes  to  the 
countries  watered  by 
the  Pactolus  of  Ovid, 
to  the  Phrygia  and 
Thrace  of  tlie  (Ireeks. 
to  the  Alps  and  golden 
Tagus  of  the  Romans, 
to  the  l!t)hemia  of  the 
middle  ages,  to  tracts  in 
Britain  which  were  worked  in  old  times,  and  have  cither  been  long  abandoned 
or  are  now  scarcely  at  all  productive,  or  to  those  chains  in  America  and  Aus- 
traha,  which,  previously  unscarched.  have  in  our  times  ]iroved  so  rich,"  —  in 
all  these  lands  gold  has  been  imi)arte(l  abundantly  Ko  only  the  siUn'ian  or  the 
associated  eruptive  rocks.  Vet  it  has  been  conclusively  proved,  since  the  tiiiK 
when  the  first  edition  of  Murchison's  "  Siluria "  was  published,  that  gold 
abounds  in  rocks  of  every  geological  age.  The  explorations  of  Trask  and 
Whitney  in  California  in   1853  and   1854,  and  subsequently  the  discovery  of 


FI.U.ME    NEAK   SMARTVII.I.li,    CAI  . 


Oh     THE    UNITED    STATES. 


683 


scrondary  fossils  in  the  main  belt  of  f;ol<l-l)carinR  States,  together  with  the 
(liMoveries  in  IIiiiiKMry  in  1S62,  prove  tliat  nx  ks  helon^^iii^^  to  llic  laiisl 
jicological  i)eri(j(ls,  even  as  late  as  the  tertiary,  cunlain  prodiu  live  g»)l<l-l)Lariiig 
veins. 

Again:   later  geological   investigation  has  shown    that   tin-  iiu.iMtity  idii- 
tained  in  llu'  rocks,  and  which  is  aeccssiltle,  is  more  abundant  than  geologists 
formerly  supposed,      Mnn  iiison    maintained   that  the  gold-veins   Quantity  oi 
p.irlcd,  as  tiu-y  descended  into  tiic  rocks,  till  they  became  mcrt'   Koid  more 
threads,  that  could  not  be  followed  or  worked  to  advantage.     Mr.   "(,unwa» 
.Silwyn,  in  his  report  to  tlu'   lln^li^h  Oovernment  at  .\usiralia,  in   once  sup. 
1.S56  and  1H57,  on  the  mining  resources  of  the  ( olony  of  \'i(  toria,   ''°"''' 
declared  that  there  was  no  evidence  from  the  mines  in  that  pKu  e  to  sustain 
Mtirchison's  position,  that  any  vein  rich  at  the  surface  dies  out,  (jr  suddenly 
becomes  unprofitable.     It  was  true  thai  the  upper  pcjrtion  of  many  veins  were 
once  fiir  riclier  than  they  are  now.     Hut  the  reason  was  \  cry  apparent :  the 
gold  had  been  removed  l)y  denudation.     The  viry  fac  l  that  many  veins  even 
thus  abraded  were  still  ot'ten  very  ri(  h  on  their  present  surface,  went  far,  in 
his   opinion,   to   prove   thai   the  dimimuicjn  (jf  yield  in  depth,  even   though 
admitted  to  be   true  on   a  large  scale,  was  still  so  slow  as  not  to  l)e  appre- 
( iable  within  any  depth  to  whic  h  ordinary  mining  operations  might  be  cairied. 
Raymond,  in  his  report  to  the  United-States  (Jovernment  in  1870,  said  that 
most  of  the  gold-veins    might  l)e  considered   as  j)ractically  inexhaustible  in 
depth:    indeed,   the   statement   of  Murchison,    according    to   this    authority, 
"is  completely  overthrown   by  experience."     IMr.  (1.  .Arthur    Phillips   speaks 
the  opinion   now   imiversally  acknowledged,   that   gold-ledges  are   not   more 
liable  than  ordinary  metalliferous  veins  to  become  impo\erished  in  ilepth. 

Since  the  discovery  of  the  original   home  of  gold,   the  extraction  of  it 
therefrom  has  l)een  carried  on  in  a  more  scientific  manner  than  placer-mining. 
It  is  true  that  many  of  the  earlier  enterprises  in  the  way  of  quart/-    proeress  of 
mining  were   failures.      Large   and    costly  mills  were   erected  ;    a   scientific 
multitude   of  laborers   were   em[)loyed  ;    but   they   did   not   know   '"'"'"s- 
how  to  select  the  rich  from  the  ])0()r  iiuartz,  and  too  often  located  their  mills 
where  there  was  only  a  small   p(i(  ket,  which  was   soon   exhausted.     IJesides, 
the  mills  were  too  large   to  be   fully  operated  without  receiving  all  the  poor 
as  well   as   the   rich   rock   accessible    in   the  vein  ;    the   amalgamator  did    iKJt 
understand  his  business  ;  the  rich  rock   in  which  the   Mexicans  had  worked 
«^)ften  failed  ;  the  creditors  who  had  loaned  money  for  the  erection  of  these 
structures   brought  suit  to  foreclose  their  mortgages  ;  the  work  stopj^ed  ;  the 
titles  of  the  property  became  insecure  ;  and  the  people  in  the  neighborhood 
declared  that  (piartz-mining  would  not  i)ay.     What  a  wonderful   (  hange  has 
occurred  since  those  early  and  disastrous  days  ! 

In    the    mode    of    pulverizing    and    reducing    quartz    comparatively    few 
changes  have  been    made.     In  some   mills   the    same   machinery  and   pro- 


n 


^-4H  KVii. 


684 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


I 


i     5: 


f\ 


cesses  have  been  used,  without  alteration   or  addition,  for  a  long  period. 
Failures  in      There  is,  however,  a  general  belief  that  the  business  has  not  been 
early  quartz-   properly  Studied  by  any  one;  and  it  is  certain  that  there  is  much 
'  "ng-  difference  of  opinion  in  respect  to  various   important  questions 

concerning  the  reduction  of  ores.  The  practice  is  not  uniform  in  regard  to 
the  fineness  of  pulverization,  or  the  size  and  speed  of  the  stamps,  or  the 
mode  of  amalgamation.  Wood,  as  a  material  for  the  shafts  of  stamps,  lias 
given  way  to  iron ;  the  square  form  has  been  replaced  by  the  cylindrical  : 
and  the  stamps,  instead  of  falling  with  a  simple  downward  motion,  now  come 


ts?S^ilWs^ 


::-na*iV"-rtrfc 


TAIL  SLUICES,   YUHA    K'lVER. 

down  with  a  twist.  The  mo/tar  into  whicli  the  stamps  fall  is  now  always  of 
iron  ;  and  the  stamps  stand  in  a  straight  line,  instead  of  forming  a  circle  as 
they  did  in  some  mills  years  ago. 

There  arc  otiier  modes  of  obtaining  gold,  which,  however,  arc    o  nearly 

obsolete  as  to  re   ,iire  only  brief  notice.     The  arastra,  for  instance,  was  used  in 

the  earlv  davs   to   i)ulverize  the   ore.     It   is  a   Mexican  contriv- 

'1  he  arastra.  ',       ,'  i 

ance,  rude,  but  (so  miners  say)  effective,  ^^'innowing,  or  "  ury- 
washing,"  v,as  practised  also  .ly  tlie  Mexicans.  It  is  still  used  in  some 
parts  of  Southern  and  Lower  California,  whc  --c  the  ore  is  found  too  far  away 
from  a  sufficient  supply  of  water  to  make  any  other  i)ractice  possible.  The 
wind  ])ears  away  tlie  dust  and  light  particles  of  earth,  and  leaves  the  gold- 
dust,  which  is  heavier. 


Du 

places, 
in  the 
York, 
remair 
less,  ir 
will   b 
proces 
than 
always 
robbe( 
condu 
the  pi 


OF    THE    UN/ TED    STATES. 


6S5 


During  the  progress  of  geological  surveys  gold  has  been  found  in  many 
places,  but  nowhere  in  such  quantities  as  in  California.     It  has  been  found 
in  the  White  Mountains  of  New  Hampshire,  in  Vermont,  in  New   vvhere  gold 
York,  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  and  in  still  larger  quantities  in  the   has  been 
remaining  Southern  seaboard  States,  as  far  as  Alabama,     Doubt- 
less, in  the  years  to  come,  unless  its  value  diminishes  very  much,  vast  quantities 
will  be   extracted  from   the  Alleghanies,  especially  with   the  more  scientific 
processes  now  in  use.     Gold-mining  contains  more  of  the  gambling  element 
than  any  other  regular  industry ;  and  this  is  one  of  the  reasons  why  it  has 
always  poi.sessed  such  a  singular  fascination  for  many.     But  quartz-mining  is 
robbed  essentially  of  this  uncertain  element ;    for  the  business,  if  properly 
conducted,  yields   more  regular  profits   than  any  other  mode  of  gathering 
the  precious  metal. 


Ilil' 


686 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


\ 


li' 


I 


CHAPTER   HI. 


SILVER. 


SILVER  is  the  latest  of  all  the  mineral  products  to  attain  prominence  in 
the  mining  industries  of  the  United  States.     Prior  to  the  year  1859  the 


Latent  metal 
to  att.tin 
prominence 
in  United 
Svates. 


silver  produced  in  this  country  was  utterly  insignificant.  Only 
faint  traces  of  it  had  been  found  here  and  there,  and  it  was  rarely 
made  the  object  of  special  exploration.  The  silver  coin  in  circu- 
lation was  almost  exclusively  of  foreign  metal,  as  was  also  the  plate 
in  common  use. 

The  early  Spanish  invaders  of  this  continent  found  the  Aztecs  of  Mexico, 
and  Toltecs  of  Peru,  possessed  of  great  quantities  of  this  precious  metal,  which 
Spanish  was  obtained  from  the  great  mountain-range,  which,  under  different 

discoveries,  names,  cxtcndr  from  the  southern  to  the  northern  extremity  of  the 
New  World.  Mining  was  carried  on  even  more  extensively  under  the  new 
governments,  aad  immense  quantities  of  treasure  were  carried  home  to  Europe 
in  Spanish  ships.  But  that  portion  of  this  great  treasure-vault  of  nature 
included  within  our  present  boundaries  remained  almost  entirely  free  from 
investigation  until  1 849,  and  for  ten  years  the  search  was  directed  almost  exclu- 
sively to  finding  gold. 

Silver  was  found,  however,  mixed  with  galena,  or  lead  ore,  in  small  quantities 
by  the  eastern  colonists  a  full  century  before.  Such  a  vein,  for  instance,  was 
discovered  in  Worcester  County,  Mass.,  in  1754,  and  worked  with 
profit.  Another  was  discovered  in  Columbia  County,  N.Y.,  as 
early  as  1 740 :  this  was  on  the  estate  of  Robert  Livingston. 
Near  it  was  an  iron  forge  for  the  reduction  of  metal  obtained  from 
Connecticut.  The  same  year  argentiferous  galena  was  found  in 
Dutchess  County  of  the  same  State,  and  later  in  Westchester  County ;  tiie 
former  being  worked  by  'he  Germans  of  that  vicinity.  In  a  vein  of  copper 
discovered  in  New  Jersey  in  1719  there  was  found  silver  in  the  proportion  of 
four  ounces  to  every  hundred-weight  of  ore.  The  Swedes  reported  the  discov- 
ery of  silver  in  Pennsylvania  in  their  day  ;  and  it  was  found  in  small  qu  ntities 
near  Davidson,  N.C.,  and  in  South  Carolina  along  the  Savannah  River.     Later 


Early 

discoveries: 
in  New  Eng- 
land, New 
York,  &c. 


OF    Till'.     UNITED    STATES. 


687 


Arizona. 


the  great  galena-mines  of  the  Upper  and  Lower  Mississippi  were  discovered  to 
contain  a  slight  proportion  of  this  precious  metal.  In  some  of  these  several 
localities  the  silver  was  ah,  i(l:int  enough  to  pay  for  extraction,  hut  rarely.  In 
the  early  colonial  days  it  was  not  possible  to  eliminate  it  as  easily  antl  success- 
fully as  now,  and  in  most  cases  such  experiments  were  soon  abandoned.  In 
later  days  it  became  more  ])roritable,  and  yet  in  few  cases  were  the  results 
more  than  tantalizing.  At  the  present  time  the  North-Carohna  mines  are  the 
only  ones  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  United  States  that  are  worked  for  this 
metal.  No  statistics  are  obtainable  showing  the  exact  amount  of  native  silver 
])ro(luce(l  in  this  country  in  1850 ;  but  it  is  asserted,  that,  at  that  period  of  our 
history,  ninety-nine  of  every  hundred  silver  dollars  then  in  use  in  the  United 
States  were  of  Mexican  or  Peruvian  metal. 

Just  previous  to  the  discovery  of  the  famous  Comstock  lode,  stock  com- 
panies were  organized  in  New  York,  Cincinnati,  and  many  other  cities,  to 
explore  and  work  abandoned  silver-mines  in  Arizona  which  had 
been  ceded  to  the  United  States  by  the  Gadsden  treaty.  The 
Sonora  Company  of  Cincinnati  was  the  most  prominent  of  these  ;  bit,  when  it 
began  operations  in  1858,  it  was  upon  a  new  mine,  seventy-five  mih.s  south  of 
Tucson,  very  near  the  Mexican  border.  Their  works  were  at  Arivaca,  seven 
miles  from  the  mines.  Operations  were  also  commenced  seventy  miles  north 
of  Tucson,  in  1870,  by  the  Maricopa  Mining  Company  of  New  York,  whose 
mines  yield  an  argentiferous  copper  ore.  The  outlet  for  the  product  of  both 
these  mines  was  by  wagon  to  Guaymas,  Mexico,  on  the  Gulf  of  California. 
These  mines  are  upon  the  Pacific  slope  of  the  silver-yielding  range  of  Sonora 
and  Durango  in  Mexico.  Other  mines  have  been  found  and  worked  with 
profit  in  Arizona,  farther  west,  near  the  Gila  River. 

The  greatest  event  m  the  history  of  silver-mining  in  America  was  the  dis- 
covery of  the  richest  deposit  in  the  world  —  on  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Sierra 
Nevada  —  in  1859.  The  crest  of  the  range  runs  along  the  eastern  Comstock 
part  of  California ;  and  in  the  Washoe  country,  twenty-five  miles  '°'^*- 
over  the  border  into  Nevada,  this  magnificent  vein  was  found.  All  during 
the  interval  bei;ween  1850  and  i860,  those  tireless,  even  heroic  investigators, 
the  prospectors,  had  ranged  the  whole  mountain-region  of  the  West  on  foot, 
with  knapsack,  hammer,  and  blow-pipe.  As  they  wandered  from  ledge  to 
ledge  they  picked  out  snecimens  here  and  there,  cracked  them,  and  studied 
the  appearance  of  the  ^racture,  and  r  <n  and  then  reduced  a  bit  of  the  ore  with 
the  blow-pipe  on  a  piece  of  charcoal.  In  1858-59  a  party  of  these  prospect- 
ors was  working  its  way  up  Six-mile  Canon,  in  the  Washoe  country.  There 
they  found  some  rich  sulphurets  of  silver  interspersed  with  free  gold.  Imme- 
diately Henry  Phinney  (or  Fennimore)  and  Henry  Comstock  filed  ;•  claim  to 
a  mine.  The  former  sold  out  his  claim  to  the  latter  for  a  pinch  of  gold-dust, 
not  realizing  the  immense  value  of  the  discovery  ;  a  id  Comstock  himself  soon 
parted  with  the  property,  although  his  name  still  chuig  to  the  whole  lode. 


Siifcft 


i 


m  •fit' 


688 


AV/;  C/S  TRIA  L    ins  TOR  \ ' 


Prospectors  keep  as  close  watch  of  one  another's  hick,  as  so  many  coast 
fishermen.  IJcfore  ^jractical  operations  began,  the  great  possibiHties  of  this 
region  began  to  be  suspected,  and  a  vast  number  of  claims  were  filed  all  along 
these  eastern  foot-hills  of  the  Sierra ;  and,  as  soon  as  mining  was  actually 
undertaken,  it  was  realized  that  the  richest  accumulation  of  this  precious 
metal  ever  known  was  beneath  the  feet  of  the  Washoe  operators.  Tidings  of 
the  marvellous  wealth  hid  away  there  spread  like  lightning,  not  over  ("alifornia 
alone  (Nevada  was  not  then  a  State,  and  had  scarcely  any  population),  and 


,  lllH 

iailiii«^ 


SECTION   OF   COMSTOCK   VEIN. 


not  over  the  United  States  alone,  but  over  the  whole  civilized  world.  One  of 
those  periods  of  frantic  excitement  and  wild  sensation  ensued  such  as  Mark 
Twain  has  made  us  all  familiar  with  in  his  "  Roughing  It."  A  most  extraordi- 
nary emigration  ensued.  Several  large  new  towns  sprang  up,  notably  Virginia 
City,  Carson  City,  and  Silver  City  ;  Nevada  took  a  place  among  the  States  of 
the  Union  ;  and  the  Central  Pacific  Railroad  was  extended  through  the  region, 
its  nearest  station  to  the  point  of  first  discovery  being  at  Reno,  on  the  Truckee 
River,  twenty  miles  away. 

In  ''The  Great  Industries  of  the  United  States"  it  is  remarked,  "There 
is,  perhaps,  no  instance  so  striking  of  the  promptness  antl  tlaring  with  which 


OF    THE    CNITED    STATES. 


689 


American  capitalists  launch  their  money  into  an  enterprise  in  which  they  have 
cunrulence  as  the  (levelojMneiU  of  this  Conislock  lode.  In  i<S6i  this  lode  was 
a  wall  of  black  suli)huret,  bedded  i)rinieval  granite  and  (luarlz.  on  the  steep 


' $m 


iiiiiiiiikfciiiiiifci'iiiiiiiii'iili 


slope  of  a  lonely  and  barren  mountain  two  hundred  miles  from  roads  and 
shops  and  wheat-fields,  paricd  from  them  by  the  gorges  and  snowy  peaks  of 
the  Sierras  :   four  years  afterwartl  a  city  of  twenty  thousand  inhabitants   was 


f 


690 


IND  US  TNI  A  L    JUS  TON  V 


planted  on  that  wild  declivity,  and  nearly  two  millions  and  a  half  in  assess- 
ments  had  been  paid  to  develop  the  mines." 

The  general  excitement  was  increased  by  the  discovery  of  argentiferous 
deposits  elsewhere  in  Nevada.  Many  thousand  claims  wore  located,  not  a  few 
of  which  were  large  and  well-defined,  yet  of  little  or  no  value.  In  the  greater 
number  of  cases,  however,  they  were  contracted,  and  the  lodes  on  which  they 
were  staked  lacked  the  features  of  true  veins,  or  proved  poor  below  the  sur- 
face. Says  Mr.  Kimball,  "  Notwithstanding  wide  differences  in  merit,  most  of 
these  claims  —  the  l)cst  as  well  as  the  worst  of  them  —  passed  at  greatly  in- 
flated valuations  into  the  possession  of  joint-stock  companies  organized  upon 
the  strength  of  extravagant  expectations.  During  three  years,  while  the 
excitement  lasted,  three  thousand  mining-companies  were  incorporated  in  San 
P'rancisco  alone  to  work  mines  in  the  Washoe  district,  their  nominal  caintal 
amounting  in  the  aggregate  to  a  billion  dollars,  though  their  market-value  never 
exceeded  sixty  million  dollars.  Companies  still  more  numerous,  with  locations 
in  other  parts  of  Nevada,  were  formed  in  Eastern  cities.  Without  waiting  for 
the  result  of  exploration  or  development,  most  of  the  companies  hurried  iniu 
enormous  expenditures  for  mill  anil  machinery,  of  which  a  great  deal  was  unlit 
for  any  use  whatever,  even  had  machinery  ever  been  needed ;  cities  were  built 
in  an  ambitious  and  luxurious  style  ;  -ind  speculation  in  city  and  town  lots  was 
scarcely  exceeded  by  the  traffic  in  mining-claims.  The  furore,  if  any  thing, 
grew  for  three  years,  rather  than  abated.  In  the  summer  of  1864  a  re-action 
set  in,  it  having  by  this  time  become  clear,  that,  in  the  Washoe  region,  the  only 
mines  of  any  considerable  and  well-established  value  were  those  upon  the 
Comstock,  and  even  those  for  a  time  were  objects  of  distrust ;  while  the  other 
regions  of  Nevada,  of  which  such  high  hopes  had  been  entertained,  had 
together  failed  to  contribute  more  than  five  or  six  per  cent  of  the  total  pro- 
duction of  the  State,  the  rest  having  been  furnished  by  the  Comstock  lode 
alone." 

Among  the  more  prominent  companies  at  work  on  the  Comstock  lode  are 
Gould  &  Curry,  the  Ophir,  the  Savage,  the  Imperial,  the  Yellow  Jacket,  and 
Prominent  the  Belclier.  Up  to  1865,  Messrs.  Gould  &  Curry  had  realized 
companies,  ^s  much  as  all  the  other  companies  put  together.  To  get  an  idea 
of  the  enormous  profits  of  the  business,  it  may  be  stated  that  it  cost  about  ten 
dollars  a  ton  to  get  the  ore  mined,  and  each  ton  yielded  fifty  dollars'  worth  of 
silver.  An  idea  of  the  rapid  development  of  these  mines  may  be  derived 
from  the  following  figures.  Wells,  I'argo,  &  Company  received 
and  transported  for  these  companies  silver  bullion  amounting  to 
^2,275,276  in  1861,  56,247,074  in  1872,  $12,486,238  in  1863,  $15,795,585  in 
1864,  and  $15,184,877  in  1865.  Altogether  some  $70,000,000  worth  of  silver 
was  taken  from  the  Comstock  lode  from  its  discovery  up  to  1866. 

Thereafter,  tor  a  few  years,  there  was  a  slight  subsidence  in  the  production ; 
the  lowest  point  touched  being  in  1869,  when  the  whole  lode  is  credited  with 


Production. 


OF  THE  rxrrF.n  states. 


691 


6l)2 


IND  US  TRIA  L    HIS  TOR  Y 


only  ;f!7, 5 28,607  of  precious  metal.  A  new  (levelo])nient  ensued,  however, 
which  was  very  rapid  between  i<S72  and  1875,  in  which  latTer  year  the  yield 
was  $26,023,036.  It  is  estimated,  however,  that  forty  per  cent  of  the  value  of 
the  pioduct  of  the  Comstock  lode  is  in  gold,  which  would  make  the  propor- 
tion of  silver  for  that  year  about  $16,000,000.  The  $200,000,000  yielded  from 
1859  to  1876  is  divided  roughly  into  $80,000,000  gold  and  $120,000,000  silver. 
Within  two  years  there  have  been  rumors  of  still  richer  deposits  having  bcrn 
discovered  on  this  lode ;  but  the  fixcts  are  concealed  from  the  public,  probably 
for  stock-jobbing  purposes. 

Nearly  ten  years  after  the  Comstock  claim  was  first  entered,  silver  was 
found  abundantly  in  the  white-pine  district  of  Nevada.  In  some  places  the 
White-pine  deposit  was  SO  rich,  that,  when  the  quartz  had  been  mined  away, 
district.  sheets  of  almost  pure  metal,  worth  $17,000  a  ton,  couhl  be  torn 

out  of  the  vein.  This  supply  was  limited,  however,  and  the  yield  has  not  been 
steadily  maintained.  Silver  has  also  been  found  in  other  parts  of  Nevada  in 
smaller  (juantities. 

Colorado  in  the  Central-City  region,  and  Idaho  and  Montana  in  ihe 
Colorado  Wasatch  region,  have  developed  silver-mines  of  considerable 
Idaho,  and      importance  since  1865  ;  but,  as  yet,  they  do  not  approach  Nevada 

on  ana.         -^^  ^.j^^  XoX.'^X  yield. 

At  the  present  time  the  United  States  produce  between  $20,000,000  and 
$25,000,000  of  silver  annually  (which  is  about  half  of  the  world's  product), 
Present  and  thrcc-quartcrs  of  the  amount  comes  from  the  Comstock  lode, 

yield.  ^  contributor  to  "The  Atlantic  Monthly"  remarks  that  this  coun- 

try contains  the  largest  proportion  of  silver,  compared  with  other  metals,  of 
any  in  the  world ;  that  the  production  of  silver  is  more  steady  than  that  of 
gold,  taking  the  world  over ;  and  that  the  signs  of  our  silver-supply  holding 
out  well  for  years  to  come  are  much  more  promising  than  those  concerning 
gold. 

Political  influences,  however,  as  well  as  the  discovery  of  an  increased  sup- 
ply, have  tended  of  late  years  to  depress  the  price  of  silver  considerably;  so 
Demoneti-  ^^at  there  has  been  far  greater  variability  in  its  value  than  in  that 
zationof  of  gold.  Even  before  demonetization  in  1873  it  had  fallen  off,  so 
*'  ^^^'  that  it  was  necessary  to  raise  the  ratio  between  silver  and  gold 

coinage,  in  weight,  from  15^  :  i  to  16  :  i.  But  the  removal  of  it  from  a 
place  in  our  dollar  coinage,  and  the  similar  action  of  Germany  in  1874,  had 
the  effect  of  reducing  it  by  degrees  nearly  one-eighth  of  its  former  price. 
Since  the  demonetization  act  of  1878  was  enacted,  however,  there  has  been  a 
tendency  toward  recovery ;  and  a  large  class  of  economists  think  it  will  regain 
its  old  value  and  place  in  the  coinage  of  the  world. 


im'^ 


OF    THE    UNITED    STAl  EH, 


693 


CHAPTER  IV. 


LEAD. 


LEAD  is  found  in  this  country  all  along  the  Appalachian  range  from  New 
England  to  (leorgia,  in  the  Sierra  Nevada,  and  at  two  points   where 
in  the  Mississippi  Valley ;  but  the  principal  development  of  lead-   f°""«'- 
mining  is  confined  to  the  last-named  region  and  to  the  last  fifty  years  of  our 
history. 

'I'his  metal  vyas  discovered  l)y  the  colonists  alone;  the  Atlantic  coast  long 
prior  to  the  ^  lution  ;  and  numerous  attempts  to  work  the  veins  were  made, 
though  often  with  such  poor  success  that  they  were  abandoned  after  a  few 
years.  The  re-discoveries  on  the  Upper  arid  Lower  Mississippi  about  1826 
still  further  disgouraged  Eastern  production ;  and  the  late  civil  war  and  other 
causes  depressed  the  lead-mining  industry  in  the  seaboard  States,  especially 
the  Southern  ones,  even  more  :  so  that  now  Carroll  County,  N.H.,  \V'ash- 
ington  County,  N.Y.,  Pulaski  and  Wythe  Counties,  Va.,  are  the  only  I-laslern 
producers ;  and  the  last-named  county  in  Virginia  is  the  only  one  of  the  num- 
ber whose  yield  is  of  conseciuence.  Kentucky  also  does  a  trifle  in  this  direc- 
tion still ;  and  Nevada  is  the  only  State  on  the  Pacific  side  of  the  continent 
which  has  a  lead-product  large  enough  to  be  recorded,  and  even  this  is  slight, 
and  of  recent  development. 

The  earliest  accounts  we  have  of  a  lead-mine  being  actually  worked  in 
Massachusetts  was  in  Worcester  County  in  1754;  although  the  existence  of 
deposits  nad  been  known  long  previously.  This  vein,  like  that  at  Early  work. 
Southampton,  worked  in  1765,  was  of  argentiferous  galena.  Lead  '"e  of  mines, 
was  found  elsewhere  in  the  State,  and  also  uj)  in  New  tLampshire.  In  the 
latter  State,  beside  the  Carroll  county  mines  now  in  oijcration,  those  of  the 
town  of  Shelburne,  which  have  been  abandoned,  also  paid.  Little  was  made 
of  the  discovery  near  Middletown,  Conn.,  until  1775,  when  the  Assembly 
directed  the  mine  there  to  be  worked,  and  smelters  and  refiners  imported  from 
New  York  and  New  Jersey  as  a  war  measure.  The  enterprise  never  amounted 
to  much,  though.  In  New  York,  specimens  were  picked  up  to  send  to  the 
mother-country,  Holland,  as  early  as  1629  ;  but  though  it  was  found  in  Ulster, 


■--*HW»KlJ*-«-:-.--  » 


H 


■i 


V 


694 


/jvn us /■/■/./ /,  J//S  roh'  v 


Columbia,  Dutchess,  and  Washington  Counties,  no  attempt  was  made  to  work 
the  veins  until  a  i);;ity  of  (lermans  developed  a  mine  near  North-east,  Dutdiess 
County.  Similai  enterprises  were  undertaken  by  IJvini^ston  farther  up  the 
Hudson  about  the  same  time.  I'rofitable  mines  have  since  been  (jperated  in 
St.  Lawrence  County,  but  are  now  abandoned.  I'erin  knew  of  the  existence 
of  lead  on  his  grants  as  early  as  1683  certainly;  but  wo  mine  was  work'.'l 
profitably  until  1778,  near  Krankstown,  on  land  once  surveyed  for  I'enn.  'I'liis 
was  a  war  measure,  and  the  product  was  all  bought  up  by  the  State.  In  l)oth 
Chester  and  Montgomery  Counties,  mining  has  been  kept  up  since  in  a  very 
desultory  way.  The  ChcMter-ccnrnty  Mining  Company  began  oper.uions  in 
1850,  and  kept  at  them  only  four  or  five  years.  Like  enterprises  of  a  prexious 
date  had  been  equally  short-lived.  A  lead-mine,  which  was  worked  to  a  slight 
extent  for  a  time,  was  found  in  Virginia  as  early  as  1621  ;  but  at  tlie  time  an 
Indian  massacre  terminated  operations  at  the  first  iron-mine  near  Jamestown 
this  lead-mine  was  lost,  and  not  re-discovered  until  long  after.  Operations 
werp  begun  at  Wytheville  as  early  as  i  754,  and  in  Montgomery  County  also 
about  the  same  time.  Lead-mines  are  known  to  have  been  worked  near 
Fincastle,  liotetourt  County,  during  the  Revolution.  Those  of  l-laslern  Ken- 
tucky and  Tennessee  were  probably  utilized  not  long  after.  Veins  were  'btnid 
in  South-western  North  Carolina,  which  yielded  ore  containing  seventy- five  per 
cent  of  lead,  before  the  Revolution.  This  was  along  the  l'"rench  Hroad  River. 
The  famous  Davidson  mines  are  located  near  the  centre  of  the  State.  These 
latter  are  noted  for  their  argentiferous'  galena,  and  have  l.ieen  worked  as  much 
for  the  silver  and  minute  (juantity  of  gold  to  be  obtained  as  for  the  lead. 
Work  has  been  revived  there  since  the  war,  and  the  mines  have  been  in  con- 
tinuous operation  nearly  a  century ;  but  the  procurement  of  lead  is  now  no 
object  whatever. 

Nineteen-twentieths  of  the  lead  produced  in  this  country  to-day,  however, 
comes  from  two  regions  in  the  Mississippi  Valley.  One  includes  one  comity 
Where  lead  °^  HHnois,  two  of  lovva,  and  three  of  Wisconsin,  contiguous  to  one 
principaUy  another,  and  yields,  perhaps,  twice  as  much  as  the  other,  which  is 
comes  rom.    gpj.gj^jj  q^j  .j]j  y^^,.  ^j^^j.  p^j.^  ^f  ^j^^  <S[a.{c  of  Missouri  south  of  the 

river  of  that  name,  although  mining  is  carried  on  in  only  ei^ht  or  ten  counties. 
The  Indians  of  the  Mississippi  Valley  knew  of  the  existence  of  deposits 
of  galena,  for  the  ore  is  found  in  their  mounds ;  but  no  evidence  exists  that 
J.  ^  they  knew  how  to  reduce  it  to  lead,   simple  as  is  the  process. 

knew  of  the     Galena  is   a  sulphuret,  and  can  be  redu'    d  by  merely  smelting 
existence  of     ^^j^]^  charcoal.     It  is  in  this  form  that  we  find  most  of  the  lead 

lead. 

in  this  country. 

In   1700  the  French   priest  Le  Sueur   made   his  voyage   of  exploration 

up  the   Mississippi,  discovering   many  le^  '-mines.     It  was  not   until   1788, 

however,  while  yet  all  the  region  west  of  the  river  belonged  to  Fran(  e,  that 

Dubuque  began  operations,  having  obtained  a  grant  from  the  Indians.     He 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


69s 


Dubuque. 


worked  those  mines  until  1809,  when  lie  died.  This  tract  of  land  —  on 
wiiidi  is  situated  the  city  tiiat  now  bears  his  name  —  was  ceded 
by  tlie  Inchans  to  the  United-States  ( loviTument  in  1807,  and 
sliiirtly  afterward  the  representatives  of  Dubiicjue  were  forcibly  ejected  No 
leases  were  grantetl  until  1822,  and  mining  was  not  resumed  until  1826.  A 
government  survey  was  had  in  1839,  and  a  general  sale  allowed  in  1844.  l!ut 
from  1826  the  progress  was  marked  and  rapid,  the  business  extending  over 
into  Illinois  and  Wisconsin  ;  and  tiie  first  great  climax  of  the  development 
of  this  region  was  reached  in  1846,  when  the  tariff  was  taken  off  from  lead 
almost  entirely,  and  agriculture  began  to  draw  uH  the  attention  anil  lal)or 
of  that  region.  Tiic  city  of  (Jalena.  111.,  as  also  other  cities  and  villages 
in  that  section,  was  the  product  ot  that  period  of  industrial  growth,  which 
was  marked  by  much  of  the  excitement  and  speculation  which  have  charac- 
terized mining  in  this  and  other  countries  of  the  world  at  almost  all  known 
stages  of  history. 

Lead-mining  began  in  Missouri  in  1720,  while  that  coimtry  belonged  to 
France,  and  under  the  patent  given  to  Law's  fiimous  Mississippi  Company. 
Mine  La  Mottc,  in  Madison  County,  named  after  a  mineralo-  Lead-mining 
gist  who  came  over  with  Renault,  was  among  the  first  discov-  '"  Missouri, 
cries.  Little  was  done  there  up  to  the  time  of  Renault's  return  to  France 
in  1742.  Schoolcraft  estimates  that  in  1S19  there  were  forty-five  mines  in 
Missouri,  including  the  region  in  and  about  Washington  County,  and  also  the 
locality  in  the  south-western  corner  of  the  State.  At  that  time,  he  estimates, 
there  were  eleven  hundred  persons  at  work  there  at  lead-mining ;  wliereas 
in  1854  Dr.  Litton  thought  there  were  not  more  than  two  or  three  hundred: 
yet  at  both  periods  the  average  product  was  fifteen  hundred  tons  annually. 
This  was  far  less  tiian  that  of  the  Upper-Mississi])pi  region.  During  tlie  late 
civi'  var  the  mining-business  was  greatly  prostrated  in  Missouri,  and  recuper- 
ated but  little  till  nearly  1870. 

It  might  be  remarked  of  these  Missouri  mines,  that  for  a  long  time  the 
rich,  white,  almost  transparent  carbonate  found  in  some  of  them  was  rejected 
as  worthless  \  its  character  not  being  known  to  the  miners,  who  were  used 
only  to  lead  in  the  form  of  galena.  Another  great  source  of  waste  in  this 
country  has  been  the  dissipation  of  lead  by  the  process  of  cupellation,  when 
there  was  silver  enough  in  die  ore  to  make  that  the  principal  object. 
Processes  have,  however,  been  invented,  by  which  the  vapor  can  be  caught 
and  congealed,  and  the  baser  as  well  as  the  choicer  metal  be  procured. 

It  is  very  difficult  to  get  accurate  siitistics  concerning  the   quantity  of 
metals  produced  in  this  country,  and  those  concerning  lead  are  regarded  as 
particularly  unreliable  ;   but  the  following,  taken  from  the  census   statistics  of 
of  1870,  will  give  an  idea  of  the  present  distribution  of  the  indus-   production, 
try,  although  the  production  has  nearly  quadrupled  since.     The  following  table 
shows  the  value  of  the  product :  — 


» 


H^« 


696  INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 

Wisconsin I3<3q,o67 

Missouri 201,885 

Illinuis 73i.P2 

Iowa 50,350 

Otiicr  States 36,500 

Total 1^736,004 

This,  at  four  and  a  half  cents  a  pound,  would  make  but  16,265,422 
pounds,  or  scarcely  more  tlian  7,000  tons.  The  taljle  of  metallic  production, 
prepared  by  R.  W.  Raymond,  however,  sets  down  the  production  for  1869 
(which  is  what  is  really  credited  to  the  census  year)  as  15,653  tons. 

Previous  to  the  development  of  the  Missihsippi- valley  mines,  I'jigland  and 
Spain  were  the  two  great  lead-producing  nations  of  the  world,  although  neither 
England  and  of  them  obtained  as  soft  and  fine  an  article  as  we.  From  1845 
Spain.  jQ  j8j2  England's  average  annual  production  was  55,000  tons: 

Spain's,  for  1847  ami  1849,  was  30,000,  In  1845  the  United  States  produced 
26,500  tons,  or  fully  one-fifth  of  the  whole  cpianlity  produced  in  the  world. 
Twenty  years  before,  we  hnd  produced  only  1,281  tons  of  2,240  poun<ls ;  in 
1832  we  produced  8,540,000  pounds  ourselves,  and  imported  5,333,588;  in 
1844  we  did  not  import  a  ton.  From  the  removal  of  the  tariff  in  1846  to 
1854  there  was  a  steady  decline  in  our  production.  In  1845  it 
was,  as  above  stated,  26,500  tons;  in  1854  but  14,000,  at  which 
figure  it  kept  until  about  1869.  Our  importation  in  1844  was  nothing;  in 
1859  about  64,000,000,  or  29,000  tons,  —  twice  our  own  production.  In 
1875  our  production  was  53,000  tons,  and  in  1877  our  importation  had 
dwindled  to  less  than  7,000  tons. 

Says  Kimball  regarding  American  lead-production,  "  No  country  is  so 
richly  endowed  with  lead  as  thi';.  nor  any  so  little  justified  in  importing  a 
Remarks  of  pound  of  it.  In  the  Far  West,  where  its  development  is  enor- 
KimbaU.  mous,  thcrc  is  no  help  at  present  against  wasting  what  is  not 
utilized  for  the  extraction  of  silver ;  but  it  is  a  '  penny-wise-and-pound- 
foolish '  policy  indeed  which  in  the  Northern  and  Atlantic  States,  or  wher- 
ever transportation  is  at  hand,  estimates  the  value  of  galenas  only  by  their 
tenor  of  silver." 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


697 


fi 


CHAPTER  V. 


COPPER. 


COPPER  IS  the  one  metal  discovered  and  put  to  a  practical  use  by  the 
aborigines  before  the  discoverers  from  Europe  came  to  tiiis  country  ;  and, 
wliat  is  a  still  more  interesting  fact,  tiie  native  Indians  of  long  ago  Copper  used 
uiulerstood  the  art  of  hardening  and  tempering  copper  so  as  to  ^'^  Indians, 
make  adzes,  chisels,  and  other  implements  therefrom,  —  a  step  in  civilization 
which  the  white  man  of  to-day  would  be  glarl  to  retrace,  were  it  not  that  iron 
and  steel  subserve  all  these  purposes  so  admirably.  The  great  mounds  of 
Indian  relics  in  the  West  contain  articles  showing  conclusively  that  tlic  abori- 
gines knew  of  the  existence  and  uses  of  copper,  which  they  doubtless  obtained 
from  tlie  Lake-Superior  region. 

The  search  for  metals  was  diligendy  conducted  by  colonists  on  the  Atlantic 
seaboard  at  an  early  day ;  and  copper  was  among  the  first  of  their  findings, 
inasmuch  as  it  was  distributed  more  or  less  all  along  the  ocean-  Early  dis- 
side  of  the  Appalachian  range.  Endicott  found  it  in  Massachu-  coveriesof 
setts  in  1648,  and  imported  Swedish  workmen  to  smelt  and  refine  *^°pp*''* 
it.  His  mine  proved  less  productive,  however,  than  he  anticipated.  Previous 
to  that  time,  copfier  pyrites  were  found  in  New  York;  but  the  mineral  having 
been  mistaken  for  gold,  ai^d  the  blunder  having  been  discovered,  it  was  little 
jmzed.  The  Shawangunk  Mountain  abounds  in  tliis  form  of  copper  j  and  it 
has  been  mined  to  some  extent  near  Kllenville,  Ulster  County.  The  Dutch  had 
found  pure  copper  near  Minisink,  Orange  County,  N.Y.,  before  they  surren- 
dered their  possessions  to  the  luiglish.  This  metal  was  found  nearly  a  century 
later  in  Dutchess  County,  in  veins  crossing  those  of  galena.  Copper  was  found 
in  Pennsylvania  in  lime  and  in  sufficient  (juantity  for  ^Villiam  Penn  to  mention 
it  in  a  letter  of  16S3.  The  remains  of  a  shaft  in  Lancaster  County  show 
that  copper  was  mined  by  the  French  or  settlers  from  Maryland  as  early  as 
Penn's  time.  An  extensive  vein  of  copper  was  found  in  Catocton  Mountain, 
Maryland,  soon  after  that  colony  was  first  settled.  Cop])er  was  found  in 
Virginia,  along  the  Roanoke,  in  Mecklenburgh  County  and  that  neighborhood, 
early  enough  for  three  thousand  pounds  of  ore  to  be  exported  in  i  730.     The 


698 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


same  metal  was  also  discovered  along  the  banks  of  the  James.  The  IMue 
Ridge  has  long  been  noted  for  its  cupreous  deposits  ;  and  they  were  discovered 
in  Polk  County,  Tenn.,  and  the  adjacent  districts  of  Georgia  and  Norlli  Caro- 
lina, at  quite  an  early  date.  Copper  was  also  found  in  small  quantities  i.i 
South  Carolina. 

Among  the  first  mines  to  be  systematically  worked  for  copper,  excepting 
Endicott's  in  Massachusetts,  were  tliose  at  Cranby,  Conn. ;  to  operate  which 
Early  work-  a  company  was  incorporated  in  1709.  About  the  middle  of  the 
ing  of  mines,  eighteenth  century,  tliese  mines,  having  been  abandoned,  were 
bought  by  the  colony  for  a  state-prison,   and   used   as  such   f.  •  sixty  years. 


COITUU-.MINING. 


Mining  was  resumed  there  in  1830,  but  soon  discontinued.  Most  of  these 
ores  were  shipped  to  England.  About  17 19,  the  Schuyler  mine,  in  New 
Jersey,  near  the  Passaic,  was  discovered,  and,  prior  to  the  Revolution,  was 
among  our  most  fomous  copper-produccis.  It  was  in  a  machine-shop  at  the 
smelting-works  connected  therewith,  at  Belleville,  that  the  first  steam-engine 
was  built  in  this  country,  in  1793-94.  In  1751  a  co])per-mine  was  opened 
near  New  Brunswick  ;  and  another,  near  Somerville,  was  operated  before  the 
Revolution.  New  Jersey  and  Pennsylvania  also  produce  in  small  (juantities 
the  green  carbonate  of  copper  called  "  malachite,"  which  is  almost  as 
precious  as  a  jewel.     Siberia,  however,  is  the  great  producer  of  this  mineral. 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


699 


When  it  is  known  that  in  1S30  our  total  prodiu:tion  of  copper  was  not  over 
fifty  tons,  and  that,  even  in  1840,  it  was  hut  a  hundred  tons,  it  will  be  realized 
huw  recent  is  the  principal  development  of  the  c()])per-mining  industry  in  tliis 
country.  Besides  the  discoveries  we  have  already  mentioned,  there  were  many 
others  in  early  colonial  days ;  but  active  operations  were  not  undertaken  in 
many  of  them,  and  in  most  cases  they  were  abandoned  after  a  lew  years  of 
unremunerative  labor. 

The  great  source  of  American  copper  is  Upper  Michigan.  Along  the 
northern  shore  of  that  great  peninsula  which  separates  Lake  Superior  from 
Lake  Michigan  stretches  a  rich  metalliferous  region.  In  Mar-  upper 
([iiettc  County  iron  abounds.  Faither  west,  in  the  traj.-rock  which  Michigan, 
begins  at  Kc/eenaw  Point,  and  nnis  through  Lloughton  and  (Jntonagon 
Counties,  meallic  copper  is  found  in  rare  abundance.  'Lhe  belt  containing 
it  is  from  <:\\fi  to  twelve  miles  wide,  and  a  hundred  and  fifty  miles  long. 
Alexander  Henry  was  the  first  white  man  to  operate  a  mine  there,  'i'his  was 
in  T771,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Ontonagon  River;  and  liis  success  led  Dr. 
Franklin,  our  minister  to  France  during  the  Revolution,  to  say,  in  connection 
with  the  probable  Canadian  boundary,  that  it  should  be  made  to  run  through 
Lako  Superior,  so  as  to  include  "the  most  and  best  of  the  copper  to  the  United 
States." 

l]ut  Lloughton's  report  on  the  geological  features  of  this  region  first  drew 
general  attention  to  it,  and  it  began  to  be  noiseci  abroad  that  tiiis  was  a  rare 
treasure-vault  of  copper  and  silver.  This  was  indeed  the  case,  altiiougii  the 
silver  —  found  in  distinct  nuggets  nearly  pure,  and  not  miiigled  with  the  copper 
—  proved  to  be  much  less  in  proportionate  cpiantity  than  was  supposed.  Ne- 
gotiations were  set  afoot  by  the  government  to  extinguish  the  Chippewa  tide  to 
tliose  lands  ;  and  then  ensued  a  tremendous  rush  thither  of  miners  and  specu- 
lators, and  one  of  the  greatest  excitements  that  have  ever  agitated  American 
industry.     Says  Kimball, — 

"  i  he  co]jper-region  of  Lake  Superior  owes,  in  a  great  measure,  its  rajjid 
and  .^nergetic  develoi)nient  to  one  of  those  i)opular  furores  so  frequent  in 
America,  —  the  '  coi)per-fever,'  as  it  was  termed,  which  became  epidemic  over 
the  whole  land  in  1845.  Preposterous  fables  as  to  the  occurrence  of  native 
silver  and  copper,  in  masses,  upon  and  just  beneath  the  surtace  of  die  whole 
Lake  Superior  country,  to  be  had  only  for  the  picking  up,  were  bruited  about 
in  all  the  cities,  unsettling  the  minds  and  habits  of  the  well-to-do  industrious 
folk  of  the  country,  and  opening,  for  the  first  time  in  the  United  States,  a 
promising  field,  on  their  own  grounds,  to  all  sorts  and  conditions  of  adven- 
turers for  the  exercise  of  the  cunning  manoeuvres  of  their  several  roles.  '  The 
shores  of  Keweenaw  Point,'  says  Mr.  Whitney,  *  were  whitened  with  the  tents 
of  speculators  and  so-called  geologists.'  Leases  of  lots  one  mile  s(]uare,  for 
mining-purposes,  were  taken  from  the  Federal  (lovernment  with  great  avidity 
wherever  they  could  be  obtained,  regardless  of  all  intelligent  discrimination  as 


'aainwwi||p|inLj,air:- 


Tl 


f'  ■ 


!»■    I 


.:jj 


700 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


to  their  metalliferous  character,  and,  indeed,  of  the  entire  absence  of  minera\ 
lodes  or  deposits,  or  of  the  logical  impossibility  of  their  existence  in  certain 
rocks.  'I'hese  leases  were  held  mainly  by  private  speculators  and  joint-stock 
companies,  whose  object  was  less  to  unearth  the  untold  metallic  wealth  which 
they  were  supposed  to  have  secured  than  to  profit  either  by  the  increasing 
market-value  of  their  mining-privileges,  or  by  the  proceeds  from  the  sale  of 
corporation  shares.  Speculation  after  this  fashion  flourished  for  upwards  of  a 
year.  In  1847  the  bubble  burst  of  its  own  overstrained  distention;  and  the 
collapse  overwhelmed  in  general  disaster,  and  swept  out  of  their  mock  exist- 
ence, several  hundred  distinct  corporations,  while  only  some  half  a  dozen 
survived  the  shock." 

Mr.  Hewitt  says  that  these  leases  were  granted  under  a  forced  construction 
of  existing  law,  but  were  soon  suspended  as  illegal,  doubtless  owing  to  abuses. 
He  adds,  "The  Act  of  1847,  authorizing  the  sale  of  the  mineral  lands  and  a 
geological  survey  of  the  district,  laid  the  ibundation  of  a  more  substantial 
prosperity."  It  should  be  remarked,  though,  that  some  of  this  enthusiasm  led 
to  practical  results,  and  that  a  few  of  the  companies  operated  in  good  faith. 
This  is  evident  from  the  fact,  that  whereas,  in  1840,  the  whole  country  pro- 
duced but  a  hundred  tons  of  copper,  the  product  in  1850  was  six  hundred 
and  fifty  tons,  the  gain  bemg  chiefly  in  the  Lake-Superior  region.  The  great 
development,  however,  has  been  since  then. 

The  progress  made  in  mining  necessarih'  gave  growth  to  the  population, 
built  up  towns  and  transportation-lines,  and  in  other  ways  gave  importance  to 
that  section.  The  Hon.  Alexander  Campbell  of  Marquette,  Mich., 
in  an  oration  delivered  early  in  1861,  thus  touches  on  this  point: 
"In  1855  Portage  Lake  was  comparatively  unknown  (its  population 
less  than  a  thousand),  while  no  great  interest  was  yet  attracting 
special  attention  :  to-day  they  have  a  population  of  over  six  thousand  souls, 
and  copper-mines  that  are  producing  a  monthly  product  of  a  hundred  and  fifty 
to  three  hundred  and  thirt}  tons.  No  man  can  now  go  to  this  interesting  point, 
and  behold  the  thrift  that  is  everywhere  apparent,  —  the  great  number  of  new 
buildings  being  erected,  the  stir  of  the  populace,  the  immense  investments  of 
capital,  the  copper-cars  as  they  thunder  doN/n  the  train-roads  to  the  lake,  the 
l^rodigious  quartz-mills,  and  tlie  power  and  success  with  which  they  stani])  the 
copper  rocks  and  separate  the  cnnp'=>r  from  the  rock,  the  large  merchandise 
that  is  carried  on  to  supply  so  large  a  population,  the  new  enterprises  in  the 
form  of  spacious  docks,  new  hotels,  founderies,  stamp-mills,  smelting-works, — 
without  receiving  a  deep  impression,  especially  if  he  possess  an  observing 
mind.  '.\or  is  this  all.  As  these  developments  began  to  assume  sucli  pro 
portions,  some  of  the  corporations,  and  a  few  of  the  enterprising  citizens 
of  the  place,  in  order  to  facilitate  the  commerce,  appropriated  thirty-five 
thousand  dollars  from  their  treasuries  and  pockets  to  open  the  harbor  known 
as  Portage  Entry,  fourteen  miles  below  the  villages  of  Houghton  and  Han« 


Develop- 
ment of 
industry  in 
Michigan. 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


701 


cock,  which  are  located  near  tlie  mines,  and  on  what  is  known  in  common- 
place as  Pertage  Lake ;  so  that  steamers  of  the  largest  class,  with  a  full  freight, 
have  been  ei.abled  to  cross  the  bar,  run  up  to  the  mines,  discharge  their  cargo, 
and  receive  the  copper.  Previous  to  this  improvement,  tugs  anil  scows  were 
used  to  transport  the  freight  to  and  from  the  steamers,  which  dropped  their 
ancliors  in  the  lake  outside  the  *  entry,'  to  the  docks  at  the  mines,  at  a  cost  of 
two  dollars  per  ton.  When  the  lake  was  rough,  as  was  often  the  case,  steamers 
could  not  discharge  or  receive  freight.  'I'his  difficulty  is  now  obviated,  and  the 
expense  saved,  while  the  business  has  much  greater  despatch.  .  .  .  At  the 
other  points  on  the  copper  range  —  Magle  Harbor,  Eagle  Ri\er,  and  Ontona- 
gon—  the  development  was  much  earlier  than  at  Portage  Lake,  and  Hrst 
gave  prominence  and  importance  to  the  country.  The  celebrated  Cliff  mine, 
wliose  annual  product  for  over  ten  years  has  exceeded  fifteen  hunilred 
tons,  was  opened  in  1845.  I'""^  Copper- Falls,  Central,  and  other  mines  in 
the  same  district,  known  as  Keweenaw  Point,  were  opened  at  a  later  day. 
The  equally  famous  Minnesota  mine,  in  wnat  is  known  as  the  Ontonagon 
district,  and  whose  product  the  lasi  year  was  twenty-one  hundred  and  eighty 
tons,  was  opened  in  1S48.  The  National  and  Rockland,  whose  products  are 
now  large,  were  opened  some  years  after.  It  was  the  early  opening  of  these 
mines,  and  their  success  under  all  the  disadvantages  which  the  country  suffered 
at  an  early  day,  and  the  working  of  many  others  in  the  same  districts,  which 
have  not  yet  been  as  successful,  tliat  for  many  years  gave  business  and 
interest  to  the  country ;  and  now  that  other  points,  with  the  light  and  facility 
which  existed,  have  bounded  into  being  with  wonderful  de\elopment,  it  in 
no  way  detracts  from  those  whose  entire  success  gave  birth  to  all  that  has 
followed." 

Mcat  of  Michigan's  copper  is  metallic,  embedded  in  quartz;  but  in  1846 
a  vem  of  black  oxitle  was  discovered,  which  was  exhausted  after  twenty  tons 
were  taken  out.  It  was  exceedingly  rich,  and  had  mucli  to  do  with  the  sensa- 
tion of  that  period. 

It  now  remains  to  consider  the  progress  made  by  the  copper-mining  indus- 
try of  the  country  as  a  whole  for  the  past  few  years,  and  note  in  what  other 
regions  besides  this  the  business  is  carried  on. 

As  we  have  already  remarked,  the  United  Sta'jes  produced  but  fifty  tons  of 
copper  in  1830,  a  hundred  in  1840,  and  six  hundred  and  fifty  in  1850.  During 
the  two  decades  thus  included,  tlie  product  of  the  whole  world  had  statistics  re- 
increased  from  25,500  to  54,700  tons.  In  1S53  we  produced  2,000  latingto 
out  of  the  whole  55,700  tons.  Our  product  for  1866  was  10,790  ^'^° 
tons.  The  census-returns  for  1070  put  the  total  value  of  our  copper-product 
at  $5,201,312,  which,  at  $400  a  on,  makes  about  13.000  tons  ;  wh.ch  is,  per- 
haps, an  under-estimatc  as  to  quantity.  Dr.  Raymond  estimat.;s  that  the 
copper-product  of  the  country  in  1875  was  15,625  tons.  In  1870  the  census 
accredited  four-fifths  of  the  whole  country's  yield  to  Michigan ;  and,  of  the 


''■*f»*IWWI|pt»!P' 


•J02 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


■-^    '  ^ — - 


SFPARATING   COPPER   KOCKS. 


three  counties  that  monopoHzed  that  State's  supply,  —  Hougliton,  Keweenaw, 
and  Ontonajron,  —  the  lirsl-named  produced  three-([uarters  of  it. 

It  should  be  noted  in  this  connection,  that  competition  with  the  Lal^c- 
Superior  region  ot  America  has  seriously  cut  down  the  liritish  production.  .\t 
the  close  of  the  last  century,  and  from  that  time  to  1S65,  Great  Lritain  was 
the  greatest  producer  of  copper  in  the  world.  In  1864  her  yield  was  14,247 
tons,  the  joint  contribution  of  196  mines.  The  next  year  203  mines  aggre- 
gated only  11,888  tons,  and  their  product  is  diminishing.     In  1865  the  United 

States  produced  8,472  tons,  in  ^piie 
of  peculiar  disadvantages  that  are 
estimated  to  offset  3.000  more 
tons;  and  in  1866  we  had  raised 
our  figure  to  10.790.  Chili  has  of 
late  )ears  come  to  be  the  great 
ri\al  of  great  Britain  and  the  United 
States,  having  produced  12,500  tons 
in  1S50,  and  14,000  in  1S53.  The 
blockade  of  the  Chilian  ports  in 
1S66  by  Spain  cut  off  this  supply, 
and  gave  a  temporary  stimulus  to 
American  and  British  production ; 
but  the  cessation  of  hostilities  a 
few  months  later  was  followed  by  a  corresponding  re-action. 

In  1 86 1,  in  the  midst  of  the  Washoe  fever,  copper  was  found  in  Calaveras 
County,  ('al.,  in  sufficient  cjuantities  to  create  a  great  sensation,  and  to  incite 
Discovery  of  '''•  ^^'arcli  for  similar  deposits  all  along  the  Sierra  Nevada.  The 
copper  in  rcsult  was  to  dcvclop  a  belt  of  copper  lodes  all  the  way  from 
a  1  ornia.  Southern  California  up  into  Oregon.  Nevada  and  Arizona  wcio 
also  found  to  contain  the  metal.  Few  of  the  mines  begun  proved  remunera- 
tive, however.  Says  Kimball,  '•  Work  was  energetically  begun  in  many  dis- 
tricts, and  soon  sufficient  was  accomplished  to  demonstrate  the  extent  of  the 
copper-resources  of  California  and  neighboring  territories  to  be  nowhere 
equalled,  and  at  the  same  time  the  premature  character  of  an  extensive 
copper -industry  in  interior  sections  of  the  country  neither  supplied  with 
mineral  coal,  nor  ready  means  of  transportation.  The  Copperopolis  (Cala- 
veras County,  ('al.)  mines,  which  had  been  the  first  to  attract  attention, 
sustained  the  high  opinions  which  had  been  formed  of  their  capabilities ; 
though,  up  to  this  time  (1867),  the  Union  appears  to  be  the  only  mine  that 
has  yielded  profit,  it  having  done  so  from  the  first  on  a  scale  hitherto  unknown 
in  copper-mining,  notwithstanding  the  many  commercial  obstacles  it  has  at 
present  to  encounter." 

The  census  of  1870  gave  the  following  returns  of  the  copper-production 
of  the  country  for  the  year,  by  value  :  — 


i^m 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES, 


703 


\ 


n.     At 
liii  was 

11  ^\)\W 
Kit   are 
more 
raised 
las  of 
-'  great 
L'nited 
3o  Ions 
he 
Ji'ts    in 
supply, 
ilus  to 
iction  ; 
itics  a 


Michigan  . 
Vermont    . 
Tennessee , 
North  Carolina 
Maryland  . 
Nevada      . 
Virginia 
Pennsylvania 
Arizona 


Total 


•  •  •  • 


•  •  •  • 


•  • 


•  • 


^4,3' 2,  T  67 

35S-«45 

310,000 

96,000 

7 1 ,000 

30,000 

8,000 

7,Soo 

7,000 

$5,201,312 


As  the  price  was  then  about  four  hundred  dollars  a  ton,  or  less,  it  is  a 
simjile  matter  to  reduce  these  figures  to  tons.  The  census  commissioner 
remarks,  however,  that  his  estimates  are  not  altogether  trustworthy.  It  will  be 
observed,  f- "  instance,  that  he  omits  California  altogether ;  and  other  accounts 
indicate  that  Calaveras  County  in  that  State  alone  yields  as  much  as  either 
Vermont  or  Tennessee.  Vermont's  production,  nearly  a  thousand  tons  annu- 
ally, is  confined  to  Orange  County  in  that  State ;  Tennessee's,  to  Polk  County ; 
North  Carolina's,  to  Chatham  ;  Maryland's,  to  Carroll  and  Frederick ;  Ne- 
vada's, to  Humboldt ;  Pennsylvania's,  to  Berks  and  Lebanon ;  Virginia's,  to 
Louisa ;  and  Arizona's,  to  Yuma  and  Mohave. 

Our  production  of  copper  exceeds  our  needs  at  the  present  time  by  nearly 
one-half,  as  will  appear  from  the  following  statement  of  our  exports  antl  im- 
ports for  I S  7  7  :  — 


EXPORTS. 

IMPORTS. 

Ore 

Pigs,  bars,  &c 

Manufactured  articles. 

$'59,550 

2,295,711 

226,059 

$70,912 
163,104 
363,250 

Total 

Balance  of  exports 

7alue  of  our  production,  about . 

$2,681,320 

$596,266 
$2,085,054 

6,000,000 

The  little  ore  wc  import  is  mostly  smelted  at  Boston,  Bergen  Point  (near 
New  York),  and  Baltimore. 


lUih 


704 


INDUSTRIAL    ]JISTORY 


CHAPTER  VI. 


J:    \     \i 


COAL. 


W- 


THE  discovery,  mining,  and  transportation  of  coal  is  one  of  the  most 
interesting  as  well  as  instructive  chapters  in  American  industrial  history. 
Importance  As  coal  is  the  product  of  some  of  the  grandest  growths  and  trans- 
of  r.cai.  formations  in  the  natural  world,  so  does  it  play  an  ecpially  important 

part  in  modern  industries  and  civilization.  Its  history  is  crowded  with  interest 
from  that  far-off  time  when  gigantic  coal-ferns  grew  in  the  greatest  profusion, 
and  during  the  steaming  and  fiery  period  when  this  enormous  growtli  was 
decaying,  and  transforming  into  fuel,  to  our  time,  when  the  product  is  col- 
lected, transported,  and  brought  to  our  doors,  to  serve  a  highly  useful  purpose. 

A  single  fact  will  reveal  its  importance  ;  namely,  tliat  the  /alue  of  the  coal 
mined  in  the  United  States  is  equal  to  that  of  all  the  gold,  silver,  and  iron 
Coal-mining  pi"oduced  in  the  country.  The  colonists  were  amply  suppUed  with 
inthecoio-  fuel  from  the  forests;  and  it  was  not  until  1750  that  coal  was 
discovered  near  Richmond,  Va.  Not  much  was  done  in  the  way 
of  coal-mining  until  after  the  Revolution,  when  it  was  exported  to  Philadel- 
phia, New  York,  and  Boston  :  indeed,  the  demand  at  these  ports  for  Virginia 
coal  continued  until  thirty  years  ago. 

Perhaps  some  of  our  readers  will  be  surprised  to  learn  how  short  is  tlie 
history  of  anthracite-coal  mining  in   Pennsylvania.       It  is  true,  the  existence 


Discovery  of 

anthracite 

coal. 


of   coal    there    was    known   long    before    the    close    of   tlie    last 


century.  To  fix  the  date  more  definitely,  it  was  in  the  year  1791 
when  Philip  Gunter  discovered  it.  He  was  a  hunter,  and  lived 
on  the  eastern  side  of  the  mountain  drained  by  the  Lehigh  River.  On  tlic 
day  of  this  great  discovery,  which  must  certainly  be  reckoned  among  the 
greatest  ever  made  on  tliis  continent,  lie  had  spent  the  hours  in  the  woods 
without  finding  any  game.  Mis  heart  was  dei)ressed  (so  the  story  goes)  ; 
for  he  had  left  his  wife  and  children  in  the  morning  with  a  scanty  breakfast, 
and  both  he  and  they  were  in  sore  need  of  food.  As  night  drew  on  he  was 
still  several  miles  from  home,  on  the  summit  of  Sharp  Mountain.  As  rain 
was  falling,  and  darkness  approaching,  iie  quickened  his  steps  ;  but,  as  he  was 


OF    THE     I 'A/ 7 '/■:/)    SV'ATF.S. 


70s 


1  .f-ii.' 


,u;:p'ng  along  through  the  woods,  he  stumbled  ()\ct  the  roots  of  a  tree,  and 
fell  near  cnyugh  to  a  large  black  stone  for  him  to  recognize  its  color,  lie  had 
heard  of  such  a  thing  as  stont-coal,  and  he  thought  that  this  must  be  a  speci- 
men. Giving  it  a  few  days  after  to  Col.  Jacob  Weirs,  who  then  lived  near 
the  present  site  of  Mauch  Chunk,  it  was  forwarded  to  Philadelphia;  and  in 
due  lime  it  was  learned  thac  Cunter's  sail  huntingday  was  not  fruitless,  after 
all  :  for  he  had  really  disc(jvjred  coal.  Soon  after,  several  thousand  acres  of 
land  in  that  vicinity  were  piu-chased  at  a  very  low  figure,  as  it  was  not  regarded 
valuable;  and  the  Lehigh  Coal  Mine  Company  was  fori.  .'d.  containing  among 
other  members  Robert  Morris,  the  famous  finaiK  ier  01   the  Kexoliition. 


Four  laborers  were  employed   in   the  beginning  in  mining  coal  :    yet  these 
soo.'.    proved    loo   many;    for  where  was   the   market?     Of   .  oal    ^.    ^   ^ 

'  -'  First  at- 

there  was  an  abundance:    but  where  the    customers?    and    how   tempt  to 
could  it  be  brought  to  them?     There  were   no  roatls  ;    and    the   "1'"^  a"- 

"  thracite. 

river  ran  a  wild  career,  and  would  not  suffer  the  intrusion  of  any 

kind  of  boat  for  a  momein.     .\fler  a  short  lime  the  mine  was  suspended. 

In  I  79<S  a  company  was  organized  to  improve  the  navigation  of  tlv  Lehigh 
River,  and  the  i)rospect  of  Oiv^ning  a  watery  highway  for  the  trans])<jrtation 
of  coal  revived  the  e.\[)iring  hopes  of  the  coal  company.     The 
improvements  were  completed  four  years  later ;  and  a  committee,   ^^^tot' 
consisting  of  five  persons,  was  appointed  to  examine  and  report   navigation 
the  condition  of  the  river.     .\  canoe  was  launched,  and  the  i)artv   °.    ^"^ 
began  to  descend  the  stream.     The  boat  glided  along  gracefully  at 
first ;  but  before  going  fiir  the  frail  craft  upset,  ami  the  committee,  notwith- 
.^tanding  the  important  capacity  in  which  they  were  serving,  took  a  very  sudden 
and  unwelcome  bath.     It  is  said  that  two  of  them  narrowly  escaped  drowning  , 
but  all  succeeded  in  rescuing  themselv(.'s.  when  they  halted  in  their  labors, 
and  betook  themselves  to  the  nearest  inn,  where  llicv  warmed  the  inner  and 


:'||':11 


m^.sii 


?f:f 


f 

I: 

j^ 

1 

ll 

1 

Mi! 


I 


\ 


\\i  fli" 


706 


/.  vnrs  VA'  /.-/  /.   ///.v  ro.v  i  ■ 


(Irifd  the  outer,  man.  and.  now  that  tlie  (lan,c:er  was  passed,  lan^du'd  heartily 
over  the  occurrence.  As  they  soon  after  souj^ht  their  homes,  it  is  lii^rhlv 
imi)rol)al)le  tliat  tlie  examination  was  continued,  especially  in  a  boat  of  ihc 
( anoe  style. 

Whatever  report  was  made  hy  the  committei-,  it  is  certain  that  ihe  ( oal 
roni|Kin\'  resumed  operations  ;  and  the  next  spring  it  was  determined  to  send 
Lively  ex-  ^'"^  ark-loads  of  coal  to  Philadelphia  durinj,'  the  time  c<f  freslu-t. 
perimentin  wlu'U  the  ri\er  was  lii^li,  and  many  of  the  rocks  impechni,'  it> 
coa""''"'^""^  <ourse  were  snl)mer,ged.  Having  hauled  the  coal  to  the  boat-,  hv 
means  of  horses,  one  iiundred  tons  were  put  on  hoard  of  eai  h 
vessel,  and  tiien  the  voyage  began.  I'^or  the  fir^t  fiftim  miles  the  river 
descends  three  hundred  feet,  and  the  current  always  runs  rapidlv  ;  wi. 
swollen  as  the  stream  was  by  heavy  rains,  the  current  was  very  much  wilder 

than  upon  ordi- 
nary occasions. 
Six  men  went  on 
board  of  ia(  h 
vessel  ;  and.  li.u- 
ing  cut  1  h  c  111 
loose  from  tluir 
moorings,  thev 
started  on  a  \erv 
exciting  voyage. 
We  can  easily 
imagine  how  ani- 
mated they  were 
as  their  vessels 
began  to  descend 
the  stream.  Reing  sheltered  from  the  current  at  their  place  of  mooring. 
they  moved  slowly  at  Inst,  like  a  steam-engine  when  a  long  train  is 
behind  :  but  after  a  little  they  floated  into  deeper  water,  where  they  were 
suddenly  cai'ght  by  'he  current,  and  swept  along  with  great  s])eed.  'I  he 
stream  was  r.ot  very  wide,  but  it  roared  furiously  ;  and  not  only  were  its  sides 
lined  with  rocks,  but  its  bottom  also  ;  while  many  an  ugly  monster  peered  u]i 
through  the  foaming  waters  to  frighten  the  daring  navigators.  The  boats 
whirled  around  and  past  these  rocks  in  safety,  yet  receiving  many  a  thump 
and  bump,  which  cause<l  them  to  shake  worse  than  Harry  (iill  or  a  man 
stricken  with  the  palsy.  I*A-ery  moment  tl;  y  bent,  twisted,  and  cracked  :  and 
those  who  embarked  thinking  they  were  going  to  l^n-e  such  a  lively  trij)  were 
realizing  their  anticii)ations  to  a  painful  excess.  Oa.-s,  and  whatever  means 
they  had  to  guide  their  boats,  were  of  as  little  account  as  feathers.  They  were 
utterly  unmanageable,  and  were  swept  along  in  so  rude  o::d  unceremonious  a 
manner  as  to  make  the  heads  of  the  boatmen  fairly  dizzy.     .As  the  descent 


I'LANl-l.MriiliSSlO.S'S   IM   COA' 


L 


v-*'.t-*  ..■■■^ 


Ol-     THE    ex  I  TED    STATES. 


707 


artily 

'I     Ihr 


grew  iiiiirf  r,i|)i(',  and  the  nx  k-,  -sonu-  IkiII  Mihinctxcd,  while  others  weir  111 
full  slight  —  became  more  pk'iitifiil.  Hu'  da n,L,'er  seemed  more  aijpareni.  l-'irst 
one  boat,  ami  tiu'ii  another,  swuiil;  ro'md  a^'ain>t  the  rocks,  and  die  (  inri'nt 
rushed  over  her;  while  the  boatmen  mana,i;ed  to  L;et  to  the  shore  as  best  the\ 
could,  leaving  their  treasure-,  to  their  unkindly  late.  Of  the  six  Ijoals.  ()nlv 
two  reached  Philadelphia  :   and  thest'  were  ni'arlv  shaken  t.i  pie(  es. 

Hut.  when  the  market  was  reached  throu,L;ii  >u<  h  ,L;real  perils,  ihe  (  jr^o  mi'l 
with  a  very  slow  sale,  and  mo^l  of  the  piu'c  haso  were  >impl\  for  tri;il.  I'mally, 
the  municipal  authorities  l)on,nht  a  (|uaiUily  to  feed  an  engine.  Failure  to 
which  was  then  in  use  pumping  water  to  supply  the  (  it\  :  but  it  is  >'<•■"  coal, 
said  that  all  their  attempt.-;  to  liurn  it  prosed  unavailing.  "■  I  )i.sgusti'il  w  ith 
what  they  e.stcemed  a  iiuisaiK f,  liu\  (  aused  whal  remained  of  it  to  be  brokiai 
lip.  and  scattered  over  the  tool  walks  of  the  grounds.  .Xnd  heii'  and  ihu^ 
ingloriously  terminated,  lor  a  jieiiod  of  seveiitet'U  _\\vun  thence  ensuing,  the 
operatio"-  of  the  I.ehigh  (oal  .Mine  ('om])an\."  .Sin  h  is  the  history  of  the 
early  mcjsement  to  open  the  great  authra(  ite  coal  ix'gion  of  i'ennsybania.  and 
find  a  mnrket  for  this  now  highlv-pri/ed  fuel. 

In  iSio  coal  was  found   in   the   \icinit^   of   I'oltsville,  whicli  ws  tested   1)\- 
the   blacksmiths  there,  who  pro\ed  .ible   to  ignite  it.       It  seems   ihnost    unbe- 
lievable to  us  in  these  tlays  thai  there  should  ever  have  1)een  any    oisccvery  of 
doubt  about  the  burning-fiualities  of  coal  ;  yet  in  truth,  during  the    coal  at 
e.irly  part   of  tiiis  century,  this  was  the  greatest  difficulty  in  the      o"«viiie. 
way  of  introducing  it  into  market.     In    181  7  ("ol.  (leorge  Shoemaker  loaded 
several  wagons  with   c(jal  froni  Pottsvillc,  aiu'    sent    it    to    I^hiladelphia.      lint 
they  had  not  forgotten  their  experience  with  the  coal  from  I    high    Early  effort 
Valley.     Still  he  was  able  to  sell  considerable  (]uantities  by  guar-    to  sell  it. 
anteeing  to  all  who  insisted  upon  it  that   the  ''stones'"  would   burn.     Some, 
however,  who  bought,  failed  to  ignite  them,  and   their  indignation  was  kindled. 
Their  friends  tormented  them  for  their  exhibition  of  folly,  and  the  clouds  began 
to  grow  black  around  the  colonel's  head.     Writs  were  issued  for  his  arrest,  and 
he  beat  a  retreat.      V- ;  pursuing  a  circuitous  path,  he  was  able  to  reach   his 
home  without  falling  into  the  clutches  of  the  law-officers  of  the  town.     .Among 
other  [)urchasers  was  the  I'airmount  \ail-\\'orks.     A  whole  morning  was  spent 
by  the  proprietor  and  his  men  in  trying  to  light  the  stone,  but  without  success. 
.Ml  sorts  of  experiments  were  tried  :  it  was  raked,  poked,  and  blown  upon  with 
huge  blowers,  but  all  in  \ain.     iMually,  the  men,  disheartened  and  desperate, 
shut  the  furnace-door,  and  went  off  to  dinner.     .All  the  while  they  are  gone, 
we  imagine  we  can  hear  them  talking  about  those  black  stones  which  would 
not  burn,  and  how  the  pro|)rietor  had  l)een   imposed  upon,  and    oisj-overy  of 
had  thrown  away  his  money  ;  how  their  forenoon  had  been  wasti'd  ;    true  method 
and  what  would  have  been  -accomplished  liad  they  gone  on  their   o^'enifng 
regular  track,  and  not  attempted  to  try  uncertainties.     But,  w!;on 
tlu'V  come  baik.  imagine   their  consternatii.  1   in  beholding  the  f.irnace-door 


t  I 


Ji  .     Id 


■ 

'1 

M 

W 

m 

P! 

H 

Sh 

1 

1^ 

11! 

|>   1 

ijl 


ii 


i'K 


^;    It 


708 


/A'/J  l/S  7'A'/A  J.     Ills  TOl!  J 


Vr.."-!;*,.. 


tOAL-MlMlNO  ANU  COKK-liUKNiNlj. 


Oh     77/ r-.     CXITF.n    STATES. 


709 


rf<l-hot,  and  the  lirt'  within  glowing  with  intcnscst  heat  !     Tinrt'  liu-y  stand, 
wonder-stricken,   all   their   many   propiiccics  osirtiirown,  widi   llio   sc(  ret  of 
liurning  coal  at  last  found  out,  and  whicli  was  now  to  work  sik  h  a  mighty 
revolution  in  the  industries  of  the  country.      The  secnt  was  soon  blazoiud 
aliroad  through   the   i)ress  ;   and  tiie  next  time  t'ol.  Shoeniaki-r  apijeared   in 
the  streets  of  I'hilaileiphia  he  was  not  chased  by  indignant  coal-purchaser^, 
nor  compelled  to  take   lodgings  in  jail.     His  guaranty  had  proved  good,  and 
from  that  hour  a  new  impetus  was  given  to  the  production  of  anthracite  coal. 
As  wood  near  I'hiladelphia  was  growing  scarce,  the  price  was   Resumption 
raised  so  high,  that  the   Lehigh  C!oal-Mine  Company  once  more   ofcoai-min- 
renewed  operations.      In  1820  they  siiip|)ed  365  tons  to  I'hiladei-    h"ghCoaw 
phia,  and    1,000  tons   the   following  year.     In   1822   the  amount   Mine  Com- 
reached  2,240  tons,  and  as  much  more  the  year  following.     Pre     ''""^' 
vious  to  thii  time  a  company  had  been  formed  to  improve  the  navigation  of 


i--:^. 


-^^"..:' 
"^^***^' 


ti  toJr,*^-      I 


a^s^^ 


I  "imnMiMii  r 


T'^F"-- 


the  Srhuylkill  River;  and  in  1823  the  two  concerns  were  merged  under  the 
title  of  the  "  Lehigh  Coal  and  Navigation  Company  ;  "  and,  having  a  large 
capital,  they  began  su<-h  imj)rovements  as  the  rapitUy-increasing  business 
demanded.       .' 

The  river  was  made  navigable  for  boats,  which  were  but  little  more  than 
^'luare  boxes  twentv-five  feet  long  and  eighteen  feet  in  width.     A  writer  says, 
'■  At   first  two  of  them   were  joined  together  l)y  hinges,  so  as  to 
allow  them  to  bend  up  and  down  in  i)assing  over  the  sluices  ;  but        p''°^<^- 

1  [  !-<  '  ment  in 

as  the  boatmen  became  more  accustomed   to  the  wcjrk,  and  tlie    modes  of 
channels  continued  to  be  imijfoved  from  time  to  time,  the  number   'ransporta- 

'  tion. 

of  sections  thus  lashed  together  was  increased,  until  their  whole 
length  reached   a   hundred  and   eighty  feet.     They  were   piloted  and  steered 
with  long  oars  like  a   raft.     Machinery  was  deviled   for  jointing  and  |)utting 
together  the    planks  of  which  the  boats  were  made  ;    and  the  men  were  so 
expert  at  it,  that  five  of  them  could  put  together  one  of  the  sections  and 


jy^UL 


I« 


710 


rNn  us  TK  /A  I.    HIS  I  OK  Y 


I 


111  ^  ■ 


4'My\ 


at  Sharp 
Mountain 


launch  il  in  forty  live  iiiinutcs.  lioats  of  this  description  were  used  until  1.S51, 
when  tlie  coul-prochu  tioii  hud  increased  to  such  an  extent,  that  the  boats 
employed  to  transport  it,  had  they  all  l»een  stretched  out  into  line,  uuulil 
have  reached  over  foiu'teen  miles  in  K'nj,'lh.  Upon  the  completion  of  the 
Pennsylvania  Canal  in  this  year  the  I.ehi;^h  was  ( onverled  into  a  slack-water 
navigation,  with  locks  and  towing-path  for  horses.  It  has  been  o|)erate(l  ui 
this  way  ever  since,  with  no  less  achantage  to  the  [)ublic  than  to  the  <  ()mp;uu 
themselves." 

The  next  improvement  worthy  of  note  in  the  way  of  transporting  (oal  wa-. 
nothing  less  than  the  c.onstruction  of  a  railway,  nine  miles  in  li'iiglh,  from 
„      ,      ,.       the  sununit  of  Sharp  Mountain  to  the  river.     This  was  bcLum   iu 

Construction  '  ^^ 

of  railroad  January,  and  finished  nine  months  afterward.  With  a  single  ex- 
ception, it  was  the  first  railroad  biiili  in  the  United  Stales,  for 
many  years  it  drew  visitors  from  every  part  of  the  country  ;  au<l  it 
is  said,  that,  whenever  a  railroad  was  proposed,  a  preliminary  (oinmit'ee  \>as 
apiK)inte(l  to  examine  and  report  its  characteristic:  features,  'i'he  grade  w;i^i 
very  great  (about  a  hundred  feet  to  the  mile),  so  that  loatled  cars  moved  by 
their  own  gravity;  while  they  were  drawn  back  by  mules,  which  were  favored 
with  a  free  ride  in  the  other  direction.  It  is  recorded  that  they  enjoyed  their 
ride  exceedingly,  expressing  their  approbation  of  the  arrangement  by  all  the 
tokens  which  long-eared  animals  are  capable  of  using.  They  learned  to  regard 
the  privilege  of  riding  down  as  an  inalienable  right,  and  no  earthl\  pretext 
could  intluce  them  to  go  on  tbcjt. 

While  the  affairs  of  the  company  operating  in  the  Lehigh  regiciii  were 
going  on  swimmingly,  the  coal-deposits  in  Schuylkill  ("ounty  were  not  neg- 
Coai-mining  l<-'<'tcHl.  In  1822  1 ,500  toiis  were  shi])i)e(l  over  the  S(liu\lkill  Ca- 
in Schuyikin  nal ;  and  four  years  later,  when  the  canal  had  been  thonMighly 
region.  repaired,  i  7,000  tons  were  sent  to  market  ;  and  the  amount  swelled 

to  60,000  tons  the  year  following.  As  the  coal-tratle  was  now  thoroughly 
established,  stoves  and  hearth-grates  adajjled  for  such  fuel  were  made  ;  and 
the  public,  very  slow  at  first  in  using  it,  had  become  excited.  The  coal  region 
was  explored,  and  lands  which  had  long  been  regarded  as  worthless  found 
eager  purchasers  at  fancy  prices.  Towns  were  laid  out,  roads  were  built  over 
mountains  and  along  their  steep  sides,  railroads  and  canals  were  [H-ojecled, 
new  mines  were  opened  ;  in  short,  the  fever  of  s])eculation  set  in  almost  as 
strongly  as  it  did  in  California  when  the  gold-discoveries  were  blazoned  abroad. 
It  is  said  that  within  a  ])eriod  of  six  months  frcjin  the  outbreak  of  the  specu- 
lative movement,  which  continued  active  for  nearly  three  years,  five  million 
dollars  had  been  invesi^J  in  the  coal-lands  in  Schuylkill  County.  Tracts 
which  were  purchased  in  1827  for  five  hundred  dollars  were  sold  two  years 

culation 


afterward  for  sixteen  thousand.     This  fact  will  show  to  what  height 
had  been  carried. 


spet 


The   mode   of  conducting  mining-operations    in  this  coal-field  was  (luitd 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


7i» 


different  from  those  in  tin-  I,t.'hij,'h  rc'nion.     ThtTc  a  single  company  mineci  all 
the  ( oal  ;  while  in  the  Sciiiiylixill  region  ;i  large  number  of  operators 

1   •      .1       1       ■  I.   ■     .  .1     .  I        .•  Mode  of  con- 

were  engaged  \\\  the  biisniess.     ll  is  true  tluil  a  « oiiple  ol  concerns   jmnn- 

were  organized,  possessed  of  a  consiilerahle  amount  of  capital ;  mining  in 
liut  there  were  many  beside  who  leased  their  lands,  and  who  pro-  ^'='^">'"*"' 
(liiced  only  small  ([uantities  compareil  with  the  output  of  the 
present  day.  The  expensive,  wasteful,  and  slow  niotle  of  mining  can  Ik* 
comprehended  from  the  single  fact,  that  the  same  number  of  master  colliers 
were  recpiired  to  produce  a  hundred  thousand  tons  as  are  now  engaged  in  pro- 
ducing forty  times  that  ([uantity.  Still  it  was  not  to  be  expected  that  this  new 
industry  would  be  economically  (  )ndu(  led  in  the  beginning.  Perfection  in 
mining,  like  i)erfection  in  every  other  pursuit,  was  to  couu-  only  by  manifold 
experiment.  'The  leases  of  the  operators  usually  covered  a  "  run  "  upon  the 
out-crop,  or  strike  of  the  vein,  of  from  fifty  t(j  seventy  yards,  with  an  allowance 
of  sufficient  space  to  perform  the  necessary  outside  functions  o''  i  mine  con- 
ducted on  strictly  ancient  principles.  Tiic  |)its  varieil  from  tl.  y  to  forty  feet 
in  depth,  and  the  coal  wa;;  hoisted  in  wooden  buckets  by  means  of  a  rope 
and  windlass.  The  same  "machinery"  drained  the  mine  of  water,  unless  the 
iiillux  was  extraordina.y ;  in  which  emergency  its  abandonment  became  a 
matter  of  necessity.  A  few  of  tiie  more  enterprising  operators  —  such  as  had 
a  "run"  of  one  or  two  hundred  yards  on  the  vein  —  erected  gins,  and 
raised  their  coal  and  water  by  horse-power.  Tiiese,  however,  were  the  Napo- 
leons and  Civisars  of  the  trade,  who  thought  nothing  of  shipping  two  or  three 
thousand  tons  per  annum.  Mvery  thing  proceeded  cheerfully  and  satisfactorily 
until  1830,  when  the  market  became  suddenly  and  unex[)ectetlly  overstcjcked. 
The  increased  production  was  frightful,  —  63,000  tons  over  the  ])revious 
year.  Prices  fell  to  a  ruinous  figure.  The  paper  of  the  siiippers  was  ])rotcsted, 
and  many  of  the  mines  were  discontinued.  The  implements  employed  in 
mining  were  converted  into  cash,  and  more  than  one  operator  lied  from  the 
region  to  some  other  which  afforded  a  safe  immunity  from  im|)risonment  for 
debts.  Among  other  conseiiuences,  there  was  a  large  diminution  in  production 
during  the  following  year. 

Two  years  later  the  business  revived,  and  the  shii)meiits  exceeded  209,000 
tons;    which  was  more  than   double   the   (piantity  mined   during   Revival  of 
the  previous  year.      In   the    same  year,  many  marked   improve-   t^usiness. 
ments  were  effected  in  the  mining  and  trans])ortation  of  this  "  stone  "  fuel. 


coal-mi\i:ks. 

Miners  are  exclusively  foreigners,  who  come  chiefly  from  I'.ngland,  Ireland, 
Scotland,  Wales,  and  dermany.  There  is  nothing  peculiar  about  their  appear- 
ance, except  that,  when  at  work,  a  lamp  is  attached  to  the  side  of  their  cap, 
and  they  are  usually  besmeared  with  coal  and  mud.      They  are  a  healthy  class 


Hr|.  I; 


iMi'> 


'        f: 


(NDUSTK/AL    Hi  STONY 


\i 


of  people  :  and,  though  their  life  is  one  of  unusual  peril  and  gloom,  they  rarely 
Nationality  abandon  it  for  any  other  pursuit.  In  the  West,  during  du.ll  sea- 
arid  habits       sons,  efforts  have  bcjn  made  to  employ  them  in  farming,  but  willi 

miners.       ^^^^  success.     They  prefer  to  live  below  ground,  amid  the  darkness, 
dirt,  and  danger  of  the  coal-regions,  to  a  life  above  in  the   sweetness  of  sun 
light,  and  surrounded  with  greater  excitement.     So  much  for  the  force  of  habit. 
Indeed,  they  have  become  so  accustomed   to  their  toil,  and  to  the  positions 
often  necessary  for  them  to  assume  in  the  course  of  their  daily  tasks,  that  jjain 
ful  as  these  would  be,  especially  after  a  few  moments,  to  other  people,  niiner> 
are  often  seen  even  in  their  hours  of  leisure  occupying  them.     One  may  go 
into  a  saloon  where  miners  are  in  the  habit  of  congregating  during  the  even 
ing,  and  he  will  see  perhaps  half  a  dozen,  or  twice  or  thrice  that  number,  sitting; 
around  in  the  form  of  a  circle  on  the  floor,  their  legs  bent  under  them  ;  and 
there  they  will  sit  for  hours  engaged  in  social  conversation. 

The  miner  has  acquired  the  reputation  of  being  a  lawless  man,  whose  liand 
is  against  every  one  outside  of  hie  own  class ;  but  this  is  an   altogether  one 
Bravery  of      sidcd  view.     They  are  quite  as  industrious  and  law-abiding  as  other 
miners.  workmen  ;    and  though    many  of  them    are    cjuite    ignorant,  and 

steeped  in  prejudice,  yet  they  possess  many  noble  (lualities,  and  constantly  are 
performing  deeds  in  the  way  of  rescuing  their  imperilled  brethren  which  testify 
in  the  strongest  manner  to  their  sympathy  and  iicroism.  As  their  work  is  amid 
constant  danger,  they  are  schooled  in  bravery ;  and  eery  now  and  then  an 
instance  occurs  of  devotion  to  the  suffering,  and  heroism  displayed  in  their 
rescue,  which  is  thrilling.  Who  does  not  remember  the  account  repuile*.!  in 
Rescue  of  "The  Ncw-York  Tribune"  last  year?  One  evening,  as  the  men 
miners  in        were  On  the  point  of  leaving  work  in  a  mine  in  Wales,  the  roar  of 

*  "■  rushing  water  was  heard,  and  the  galleries  and  tunnels  suddenly 

began  to  fill.  The  water  had  broken  through  from  an  abandoned  and  flooded 
mine,  and  of  course  rose  in  the  main  shaft  and  the  lateral  workings  until  it 
found  its  level.  Most  of  the  men  made  their  escape  ;  but  when  the  roll  was 
called  tourtccn  were  missing.  An  exploring-party  went  down  to  look  for  them. 
They  tbund  all  the  galleries  within  a  few  hundred  yards  of  the  bottom  filled  to 
the  roof;  but  a  knocking  heard  behind  a  wall  of  coal  indicated  that  some  of 
the  missing  men  were  imprisoned  alive  in  a  gallery  which  sloped  upward,  its 
mouth  being  under  water.  The  wall  was  several  yards  thick.  Volunteers  went 
at  it  with  their  picks.  The  prisoners  worked  from  within.  In  a  few  hours  they 
could  hear  one  another's  voices.  But,  the  moment  a  hole  was  broken  through, 
the  confined  air,  kept  under  great  pressure  l)y  the  rising  water,  burst  out  with  a 
terrific  explosion,  and  one  of  the  imprisoned  miners  was  shot  into  the  opening 
as  if  he  had  been  blown  from  a  gun.  He  was  taken  out  dead.  Four  others 
in  the  chamber  with  him  were  rescued  uninjured.  Knockings,  however,  were, 
heard  f.irther  on  ;  and  it  appeared  that  other  mi;:sing  men  were  in  a  similar  but 
still  worse  predicament.  —  shut  into  a  chamber  of  compressed  air.     It  is  with 


rarely 
11  sea- 

with 
kness. 
f  suiv 
haljit. 
sitioiis 

paiii 

lay  no 
even 
'ittinir 

and 


was 

em. 

to 

of 

its 

ent 

K7 


ers 
-re. 


OF    r//E    (IN /TED    S7\'ITF.S. 


7^3 


i 
W 


ii 


lit 


lii 


mi 


7'4 


Ih'DUS  TRIA  r.     ins  TOR  V 


4 


the  efforts  to  releas'>  this  second  party  that  the   chief  interest  of  the  story 
begins. 

The  wall  l)ehiii(l  wiiich  they  were  confined  was  in  a  heading  thai  was 
flooded,  and  nothing  could  be  done  with  the  pick  until  the  water  had  hrcn 
Extra^rdi-  puuiped  out.  Divcrs  first  attempted  the  perilous  feat  of  reachin- 
nary  en  ry  the  opening  from  the  main  shaft  through  half  a  mile  of  water,  ami 
displayed.  jj.  ^^^^  afterward  ascertained  that  one  of  the  men  within  liad  tried 
to  escape  in  the  same  way.  'I'his,  however,  was  impossible.  It  was  not  until 
the  fifth  day  that  the  volunteers  were  able  to  begin  digging.  The  distam  . 
to  be  cut  was  a  hundred  and  twenty  feet.  The  work  went  on  day  and  night 
with  an  eagerne.  s  that  seemed  like  desi)eration  ;  and  yet  it  was  so  slow  !  Cut 
ting  through  the  solid  coal  in  a  gallery  not  more  than  three  feet  high,  wlurc 
the  water,  only  kept  down  by  constant  pumping,  threatened  every  moment  to 
rise  and  ingulf  them,  with  trouble  from  gas,  and  the  danger  of  another  explo- 
sion of  air  always  before  them,  the  rescue-|)arties  took  their  lives  in  their  haixl 
whenever  they  went  into  the  mine  ;  and  their  wives  followed  them  with  sad 
eyes  as  they  entered  the  shaft,  iloubting  if  they  would  come  up  alive.  The 
ho])e  of  saving  their  comrailes,  shut  up  so  long  without  food,  was  at  best  but  a 
forlorn  one.  To  reduce  the  danger  from  the  sudden  liberation  of  the  air,  — 
danger  not  ouly  of  a  violent  explosion,  but  of  a  sudden  rise  of  the  water  in  the 
chamber  as  soon  as  the  ])ressure  should  be  relieved,  —  air-tight  doors  were 
constructed  in  the  cutting,  and  an  air-pump  was  set  in  operation  to  establi.ili 
an  eciuilibrium  on  both  sides  of  the  wall.  A  week  after  the  accident,  voices 
were  heard  ;  and  the  working-party  were  cheered  by  a  faint  cry,  "  Kee[)  to  the 
right  side  ;  you  are  nearly  through."  The  next  day  the  work  had  matle  sui  h 
progress,  that  an  iron  tube  was  forced  eight  feet  through  the  barrier  of  coal, 
and  an  attempt  was  made,  but  witlunit  success,  to  introduce  milk  through  it  to 
the  fainishmg  prisoners.  'I'he  miners  learned  then  that  there  were  five  of  thei;- 
comrades  in  the  chamber,  all  alive,  but  two  of  them  nearly  exhausted.  At 
night  there  remained  only  eighteen  inches  to  be  cut  away,  and  the  excitement 
rose  to  tever-heat.  .\n  enormous  assemblage  of  ])eoiile  surrounded  the  mouih 
of  the  mine  ;  physicians  were  in  readiness  ;  a  temporary  hospital  was  prepared  ; 
and  a  house  near  by  was  put  in  order  for  the  sufferers,  if  haply  they  should  be 
got  out  alive.  The  state  of  the  work  was  discussed  in  Parliament,  and  bulle- 
tins were  flashed  at  short  intervals  to  the  farthest  ends  of  the  kingdtjni.  I'ul, 
just  when  it  seemed  that  a  few  strokes  of  the  pick  might  complete  the  labor, 
an  eruption  of  gas  took  place,  and  the  working-party  had  to  run  for  their  lives. 
In  time,  however,  the  air  was  renewed,  and  the  work  went  on.  The  afternoon 
of  the  tenth  day  a  hole  was  knocked  in,  and  one  of  the  cutting-party  entered 
the  cavern.  .Ml  was  still.  In  their  weak  condition,  the  agitation  of  the  moment 
made  the  im]jrisoned  men  speechless.  The  rescuer  felt  about,  and,  not  finding 
any  one,  shouted,  "  Don't  be  afraid  !  "  The  answer  came,  "  All  right,  we  are 
not  afraid  ;  "  and  then  a  pair  of  rough  arms  were  thrown  about  his  neck.     Tlv 


lit-'  slorv 

hat  was 
^<1  lice  11 
<-■achin^ 
t<.'r.  and 
ad  trii'd 
ot  until 

istiUK  (■ 


or    ri/R    UX/TED    STATES. 


7' 3 


I 


r  W 


l¥4i 


|( 


i:    i 


r  OLLISKIN    Ol"    -n  r.S    IN    A    MIAl 


i 


''M 


.     -11 


I! 


■  u 


n 


716 


/A'D  I 'S  Th'/A  I.     H/S  TOR  } ' 


first  to  be  taken  out  was  a  boy  named  Huglics  :  and  it  is  related  that  when  the 
car  came  to  the  surface,  and  the  long  suspense  was  over,  the  vast  crowd  of 
spectators  "  did  not  cheer,  nor  use  any  of  the  orcHnary  means  of  showing 
enthusiasm  ;  all  seemed  too  serious  for  that." 

Miners  usually  receive  a  certain  sum  per  ton  for  mining  coal ;  but  for 
several  years  disagreements  between  them  and  their  employers  in  respect  to 
Difficulty  wages  have  been  numerous,  leading,  in  some  instances,  to  vcrv 
in  adjusting  serious  conscqucnccs.  It  is  not  an  easy  matter  to  ascertain  the 
^°^""  exact  truth  concerning  these  controversies  ;   but,  if  the  account 

which  we  shall  now  proceed  to  give  does  not  perfectly  square  with  the  facts, 
it  is  not  because  we  have  failed  to  make  many  intjuiries,  nor  through  indiffer- 
ence to  present  correctly  so  important  a  page  of  our  history. 

When  prices  rose  during  the  war,  including  the  price  if  coal,  it  is  affirmed 
upon  good  authority  that  miners,  notwithstanding  the  greatly  enhanced  cost  of 
Advance  of  l'^''"g>  received  no  higher  wages  without  first  making  a  demand, 
wages  dur-  and  then  following  it  up  with  a  strike,  or  a  threat  of  that  nature, 
ingt  e  war.  ^^  operators  were  making  large  profits,  they  were  \ery  unwilling  to 
suspend  operations ;  and  so  the  demands  of  the  miners  were  complied  with, 
and  wages  were  several  times  advanced. 

I'roduction  in  a  few  years  enormously  increased  ;  and  duri  .g  the  spring  of 
1868  the  coal-market  was  glutted,  and  prices  went  down  as  low  as  they  were 
Strikes  dur-  in  1 844,  with  the  single  exception  of  a  short  neriod  at  the  outbreak 
ing  1868.  (^,f-  ^]^g  \y,^r.     Had  the  coal-mining  business  been  in  the  hands  of  a 

few  operators,  as  it  was  ten  years  before,  the  market  would  have  been  obliged 
to  suspend  production  ;  but  the  business  was  now  carried  on  chiefly  by  five 
companies,  which  had  a  large  amount  of  ca])ital  invested,  and  which  could  not 
suspend  operations.  It  was  deemed  necessary,  however,  to  reduce  the  wages 
of  the  miners.  The  latter  contended  that  a  reduction  of  their  wages  would 
not  prevent  the  glut  of  coal  ;  tiiat  as  long  as  all  the  companies  continued  to 
work  every  mine,  and  to  open  new  ones,  there  would  be  an  incessant  glut,  an<l 
it  would  be  impossible  to  find  a  market  for  coal,  even  if  the  workmen  con- 
senteci  to  work  without  wages.  Twice  did  the  workmen  submit  to  reductions, 
but  urged  each  time  the  folly  of  overloading  the  market.  l>ut  the  "ompanies 
were  determined  ;  and  the  history  of  i86S  was  a  succession  of  strikes,  suspen- 
sions, agreements,  resumptions,  and  again  suspension,  accompanied  by  violent 
fluctuations  in  i)rice,  and  at  one  time  an  advance  to  the  very  highest  figures  cf 
war  times. 

The  following  year  (1869)  things  grew  worse.  The  winter  had  been  mild, 
and  there  was  an  accumulation  of  more  than  seven  hundred  thousand  tons  ot 
The  strike  coal  belonging  to  the  five  principal  companies.  After  vain  efforts 
of  1869.  among  themselves  to  agree  upon  a  reduction  of  the   supply,  the 

miners,  with  great  shrewdness,  offered  a  voluntary  susjiension  of  thirty  days  to 
enable  the  companies  to  work  off  their  accuinulated   sto(  k:-..      The  offer  wa? 


Oh     THE    i^NlTF.n    STATES. 


V7 


accepted  ;  and.  und(.r  pretence-  of  this  so-called  strike,  the  companies  increased 
the  freight-charges  over  tJicir  roads  nearly  onedialf.  ran  up  the  price  of  coal  to 
very  high  figures,  and  reaped  a  small  fortune  from  the  suspension.  When  the 
thirty  days  had  expired,  the  companies  exi)ected  the  men  to  go  to  work  at  the 
old  wages  :  but  the  men  declared,  not  without  an  appearance  of  justice,  that,  if 
the  market-price  of  coal  was  to  depend  upon  their  suspending  and  resuming 
work,  they  were  certainly  entitled  to  some  portion  of  the  advantages  of  their 
aition;  and  they  demanded,  that,  if  coal  advanced  beyond  that  price,  their 
t.i^vo  were  to  advance  in  proportion.  —  on  precisely  die  same  jjrinciple  as  that 
which  the  companies  had  invariably  enforced  in  reducing  wages  the  moment 
UK"  selling-price  of  coal  declineil.  This  was  called  the  "  basis  system."  the 
supposed  lowest  price  of  coal  being  taken  as  the  basis  of  wages.  The  com- 
panies at  first  were  unwilling  to  accede  to  this  proposition  ;  but,  after  a  long 
struggle,  several  of  them  submitted.  Others  have  refused  to  this  day,  prefer- 
ring to  i)ay  the  men  higher  wages  rather  than  recognize  the  hated  basis. 

l'"or  the  ne.xl  three  years  no  very  serious  strikes  occurred,  although  grum- 
hl'iigs  were  heard,  and  occasionally  there  was  an  outbreak.  No  very  general 
disturbances  arose,  however,  until  the  close  of  1874.  As  the  year  strike  of 
was  drawing  to  a  close,  another  strike  was  inaugurated,  against  ■^74' 
the  advice  of  the  Labor  Union  which  had  been  formed,  and  without  the 
faintest  realization  of  the  long  and  bitter  contest  which  was  to  come  i)efore 
even  a  short-lived  peace  was  secureil. 

It  will  be  remembered  that  this  was  not  long  after  the  ])anic,  when  nearly 
c\ery  kind  of  business  was  depressed,  and  when  prices  were  tending  down- 
ward, with  no  probability  of^  a  recovery.  NotwithstandinL,  this  commence- 
vcry  clear  outlook,  the  miners  demanded  an  increase  of  wages;  ment  of 
and,  the  demand  being  refused,  a  strike  took  place.  The  strike, 
lu)\vever,  in  the  beginning,  was  not  regarded  as  serious,  although  at  an  early  day 
the  workmen  were  informed  that  not  only  would  th.^ir  demands  not  be  acceded 
to,  but  that  wages  would  be  reduced.  This  was  not,  however,  believed,  and 
ni;;iters  remained  ([uiet;  good  humor,  in  the  first  instance,  prevailing.  The 
strike  was  inaugurated  at  a  time  when  the  great  body  of  workmen  expected  to 
he  idle  ;  navigation  had  closed  ;  the  winter  stock  of  coal  of  the  East  and  South 
had  been  laid  in  :  it  was  the  period  of  limited  demand,  of  what  is  termed 
"  dead  work,"  in  preparation  for  the  coming  season.  As.  however,  the  attitude 
of  the  Coal  Exchange  was  firm,  very  early  came  annoyances  in  the  refusal 
of  the  men  to  allow  even  sufficient  coal  to  be  mined  for  the  use  of  the  fiirnaces 
ii!i  the  line  of  the  road  and  for  the  locomotives  of  the  railroad  companies. 
In  the  mean  time  the  general  business  and  manufacturing  interests  of  the 
<  ountry  were  still  more  depressed.  l>y  the  latter  ])art  of  February,  1875,  all 
hopes  of  even  a  partial  re\ival  of  lousiness  in  the  spring  had  died  out.  Many 
of  the  large  manufacturing  and  Iron  establishments  of  the  country,  which  had 
ijtruggled  through   the  past   year  on   the   accumulated  capital  resulting  from 


H'    !' 


'I 

ill 


Ikii^' 


I  >l 


'Xi 


I 


ill 


OF    THE    UN! TED    STATES. 


719 


seasons  of  prosperity,  cithc-r  totally  stopped  work,  or  ran  on  iKilf-tinu'  ;  whilst 
the  area  of  the  anthracite  coal-market  had  somewhat  extended,  the  use^  were 
being  curtailed,  and  a  Irxge  flilling-off  in  the  demand  during  the  ( oniing  year 
was  felt  to  be  a  certain  i)rospect.  The  facilities  for  mining  coal  creale'd  a 
supply  largely  in  excess  of  the  demand  ;  and  the  fact  was  perfectly  understood, 
that  no  combination  of  the  coal-mining  companies  would  enable  coal-operators 
to  run  on  full  time,  and  maintain  prices  of  ccnil  or  wages. 

"As  a  ( ()nse(|uence,  in  the  beginning  of  March,  1S-5.  when  the  jjolicy  of 
the  coal-operators  was  fully  developed,  the  struggle  began  in  earnest,  the 
o|)Lrators  maintaining  that  the  reduction  of    wages   was  to  them   - 

'  ^  '^  urowing  in- 

a  matter  of  necessity;  whilst  the  Labor  I'nion  remained  firm  in  tensity  of 
the  demand  that  at  least  the  prices  of  the  preceding  year  should  '^"■''*^' 
be  maintained.  The  stock  of  money  act  umulated  by  very  many  of  the  work- 
men was  now  exhausted,  and  a  call  was  made  on  kindred  associations  for 
assistance.  These  associations  sympathized  with  the  struggles  of  the  miners 
and  laborers  ;  but  they  had  their  own  interests  to  guard,  and  in  most  instances 
had  themselves  yielded  to  the  pressure  of  the  times.  The  response  was, 
tlierefore,  made  with  a  necessarily  sparing  hand." 

Many  were  willing  to  go  to  work,  l)Ut  feared  the  Molly,  whose  history 
will  soon  be  sketched.  "  Intense  feeling  began  to  manifest  itself  on  both  sides. 
The  Labor  LTnion  yielded  the  ]  '  ■  -.  on,  so  far  as  the  ^L'.estion  crisis 
of  reduction  was  concerned,  but,  as  a  question  upon  which  its  reached, 
existence  was  involved,  demanded  to  have  a  voice  in  the  settlement  of  the 
basis  of  wages.  A  number  of  coal-operators  were  willing  to  commence  ivork 
on  these  terms ;  but  the  great  coal-mining  companies,  with  the  entire  approval 
of  many  inc'ividual  operators,  refused  to  treat  with  the  Labor  Union  at  all. 
l{y  the  action  of  the  great  carrying  companies  in  the  regulation  of  freights  this 
policy  was  enforced." 

At  length,  in  June,  1875,  the  miners  yielded.  This  was  the  most  severe 
defeat  the  mi  lers  had  experienced.  "Most  of  the  'labor-strikes'  previously 
inaugurated  had  been  local  in  their  character  ;  in  some  instances.  Defeat  of  the 
confined  to  particular  collieries  ;  in  others,  to  districts  ;  and  again,  ""^ers. 
i'l  others,  to  the  coal-shipments  by  particular  lines  of  railway.  In  none  of 
these  contests  had  the  men  suffered  overwhelming  defeat :  they  had  not 
alwavs,  it  is  true,  obtained  their  full  demands ;  but  the  result  had  generally 
lieen  a  compromise,  in  which  their  powc  was  acknowledged,  and  the  out- 
rages coinmitted  either  by  unruly  members  of  the  Lniion,  or  indirectly  result- 
ing therefrom,  were,  to  a  certain  extent,  c-ondoned."  But  in  this,  the  longest 
and  most  expensive  strike  to  miners  as  well  as  to  oper-'ors,  the  former  were 
<  lirripdied  to  succumb.  Yet  it  had  been  begun  cona..ry  to  the  advice  of 
many  of  the  leaders ;  for  they  saw  with  the  eye  of  a  prophet  the  whirlwind 
thu  was  to  co'iie.  With  declining  markets  and  an  over-production  of  coal, 
what  could  thi,'  miner  expect  beside  lower  wages,  unless  it  were  no  wage* 
at  all? 


;;7;f¥ 


'-'1     l! 


i'1 


iiikii    % 


•JiO 


IND  US  TRIA  I.    HIS  TOR  Y 


lllIC    MOI.LV    MACiUIKKS. 


Th 


IS 


11 


I 


'  1 


1 


1  '''^ 


^liM*^'" 


lol  a  lovely  or  ^ngagnig  i.iit'iin' :  yci  no  pursuit  is  witliout  it-, 
.arlvcr  side;  ami,  if  the  history  of  c:oal-mining  be  shaded  more 
leasily  than    nost  of  our  numerous  in(:  istries,  it  must  he  remeiii 


Why  a  c.  11- 
sideration  of 

the  Mollies      hcred     hat  most  of  the  workers  in  it  li\e  a  dark,  sunless  lift 


and 


IS  ncces&ar' 


It  is  (juile  in  keepir.g  with  the  industry  itself  for  terrible  ineideiii 


lo  aiise  'ncrem. 


sad  and  teml* 


The  record  of  the    Molly  Maguire  in  this  country  is  very  brief,  but  very 
li'.      I'lie  SI,.  ii'iN  to  which  he  belongs  is  neither  new  nor  recently 

known  ;  for  it  had  its  birth  long  ago  m 
the  Emerald  Isle,  and  many  an  im  i 
dent    of   thrilling    interest 
has    bt 


Record  of 
Mollies  in 
this  country 
of  brief 
duration. 


)een    walled    to   our 
shore.       These    we    hav- 
not   space   to   relate  :    !;>■ 
sides,  the  cup  of  their  i..,:,- 
deeds,  notwithstanding  their  short  ex- 
istence  in   the    anthracite   regioi        '" 
Pennsylvania,  was  long  ago  filled  lo 
overflowing. 

All  of  our  readers  have  heard  of 
the  famous  Ribbonmen  of  Ireland, 
Ribbonmen      whose  deeds   fill  SO  large 

of  Ireland.         ^   gp,^^.^.    j,^    jj^^.    ;,„,ials   of 

crime  in  that  country.  The  society 
was  organized  to  maintain  the  rights  of 
tenants,  which  the  landlord,  according 
to  general  belief,  sought  co  crush  out. 
He  was  regarded,  not  as  the  rightful 
owner  of  the  land,  but  as  a  usurper, 
who,  if  possible,  was  to  be  extirpated 
from  the  soil.  Time,  instead  of  burying  this  belief,  only  strengthened  it ;  while 
the  breach  between  the  two  classes  was  still  further  widened  by  differences  in 
religion  and  education,  and  the  rank  and  poisonous  growth  of  prejudice. 
*•  Under  the  influence  of  such  prejudice  and  feelings,"  says  a  writer  who  hns 
thoroughly  studied  the  subject,  ''  a  certain  unwritten  code  of  laws,  or  '  tenant 
rights,'  came  into  being,  by  which  the  tenant  claimed  to  possess  his  leasehold 
estate,  without,  under  any  circumstances,  the  right  of  disp'  ssession  existing  in 
the  landlord.  The  landlord  might  be  desirous  of  improving  his  estate,  or  rent 
be  largely  in  arrears  :  nevertheless,  any  action  on  his  part  in  maintenance  of 
his  right  of  property,  was,  under  the  Ribbon  code,  to  be  resisted  to  the  death, 
lint  not  only  upon  the  landlord  did  the  Ribbonmen  exercise  their  deadly  veii- 


J.\MliS   KEUKU;.\N. 


OF    THE    UMJED    STATES. 


721 


out  it. 
more 
i-'mciu 

It  vrrv 
<  (-'iitly 
;',:;■()  ill 

ilK  i 
lltTL'St 

o    our 
hav. 

ir  ...i:i- 

ort  ^'x- 
or  •  ■♦' 
llc'd    u. 


geance  :  other  tenants  entering  upon  tlic  possession  oi"  tiic  disputed  \  -  perty 
were,  ecjually  with  the  hndlords  and  land-agents,  the  victims  of  murderous  and 
generally  fatal  z  cks.  I'his  society  sprang  into  existence  in  the  early  part  of 
the  present  t;'"iti  .y,  maintained  its  imhallowed  existence  for  many  years,  and 
only  receivef'  tinanent  check  upon  the  execution  of  llodgens  and  15run, 
convicted  of  conspiracy  to  murder  Patrick  iMcArdle,  at  C'arrickmacross,  in 
1.S52."     Such,  in  brief,  is  the  history  of  the  rise  of  this  world-famous  society. 

How  long  it  was  after  their  appearance  in  the  anthracite  regions  before 
they  obtained  control  of  the  Ancient  Order  of  Hibernians  is  not  known  ;  but 
the  history  of  this  association  under  the  new  rc;^iine  deserves  Ancient 
notice,  for  it  has  ueen  very  imperfectly  imderstood  by  the  jiublic.  Order  of 
I'rcvious  to  its  capture  by  the  Mollies,  this  society  had  borne  an  "'•'""'""»• 
honorable  record  for  its  many  deeds  of  disinterested  benevolence.  It  was 
because  of  its  good  name  that  the  Mollies  were  so  desirous  of  getting  control 
of  it ;  for  they  hoi)ed,  under  the  guise  of  its  fair  reputation,  to  do  many  things 
which  could  not  be  easily  done  in  any  other  manner.  It  is  unnecessary  to 
describe  here  iiow  the  Mollies  executed  their  design  :  suffice  it  to  say,  that  in 
due  time  this  order  was  completely  under  their  baneful  control,  and  in  its 
name  a  series  of  outrages  were  com:.iitted  which  the  entire  land  vividly  but 
sadly  remembers.  It  iias  been  (piestioned,  however,  whether  any  organiza- 
tions belonging  to  this  order  existing  l)eyond  the  anthracite  regions  were  drawn 
into  the  fatal  net.  Doubtless  assistance,  in  the  way  of  contributing  money  to 
defend  the  Mollies  when  their  crimes  were  exposed  and  they  were  brought  for 
trial,  was  rendered  by  many  members  who  resided  elsewhere ;  but  certainly  it 
has  never  appeared  that  any  society  in  an  organi/x-d  capacity  furnished  such 
assistance.  It  was  contributed  personally,  not  in  a  corporate  or  organized 
way  ;  and  therefore  there  is  no  reason  for  charging  the  societies  belonging  to 
this  order,  lying  beyond  those  direcll)  imj)licated,  as  guilty  of  sympathizing 
with  the  Molly  Maguires,  or  furnishing  any  assistance.  The  sins  of  members 
individually  are  not  to  be  visited  u])on  the  organizations  themselves  ;  for,  if 
they  are,  what  church  or  other  social  organization  can  plead  innocence? 

The  conquest  of  the  Labor  Unions  ere  long  by  the  Mollies  was  as  easy 
and  successful  as  the  sid)jcction  of  the  Ancient  Order  of  Hibernians.  Yet  the 
public  generally  have  formed  a  wTong  idea  of  these  Labor  Unions,  Labor 
on  account  of  the  presence  and  activity  of  the  Mollies  amongst  Unions, 
them  ;  just  as  the  worthy  fame  of  the  Hibernian  Society  was  blasted  by  the 
conduct  of  the  Mollies,  who  in  an  evil  hour,  and  when  no  wrong  was  sus- 
pected, came  in  and  stealthily  took  jwssession  of  the  organization.  It  may  be 
thought  singular  how  so  small  a  number,  comj^arcd  with  all  the  miners,  were 
able  to  effect  this  result ;  and  hence  many  have  believed  that  the  Mollies  were 
far  more  numerous,  even  in  the  beginning,  than  they  were  in  fact,  or  else  that 
very  many  of  the  miners  were  in  sympathy  with  them.  Either  alternative  is 
without  much  foundation,  as  we  shall  endeavor  to  prove  before  concluding  this 
chapter. 


722 


IND  US  TKIA  I.    I//S  TOR  V 


•fe 


"m 


Wrong 

impression 

respecting 

their 

ignorance. 


Let  it  be  remcml)crcd  that  the  coal-workers,  though  for  the  most  part 
foreigners,  are  not  so  densely  ignorant  as  to  be  unable  to  perceive 
their  rights,  and  comprehend  tiieir  surroundings.  I'hough  possess- 
ing less  education  than  the  average  American,  they  are  neither  so 
ignorant  nor  lawless  as  many  suppose  them  to  be  ;  and  one  who 
is  well  qualified  to  judge  declares  that  none  rejoice  more  earnestly 
than  they  in  the  belief  that  a  reign  of  terror  is  over,  and  that  law  and  order 
will  rule  once  more. 

Keeping  this  point  in  sight,  we  proceed  to  note  that  the  Labor  Unions 

arose  as  a  defence  to  the  demands 
of  capital,  which  was  massing  itself  to 
Object  of  control  the  entire  anthra- 
"  Labor  citc-rcgion.  When  almost 
the  whole  field  was  ab- 
sorbed by  five  companies,  representing 
an  enormous  amount  of  capital,  and 
capable  of  dictating  any  terms  it 
pleased  to  the  workmen,  so  long  as 
they  continued  in  their  old  ways,  was 
it  not  about  time  for  them  to  do  some- 
thing to  meet  this  niigiity  power  which 
hung  over  them  like  a  thunder-cloud, 
and  which  grew  blacker  every  mo- 
ment? 

We  do  not  see  how  any  one  can 
blame  them  for  combining.  If  they  did 
wrong,  it  was  not  in  taking  this  step,  but  in  subsequent  ones.  At  first  they 
Not  to  be  '^^'■^  "°  hostile  intentions  against  life  or  capital :  it  was  only  to  pro- 
biamed  for  tcct  themselvcs,  and  prevent  future  aggression.  Unluckily  they  had 
com  ining.  ^_^^^  been  going  long  before  the  Mollies  stole  in,  and  announced 
their  xmwelcome  i^resence.  Under  their  evil  sway  the  Unions  made  new 
demands,  founded  harsher  rules  for  the  government  of  members,  and  extended 
Their  de-  '^'"'■- '^  powcr  over  the  miners  who  held  aloof  from  the  organization, 
mands  and  Thus  they  went  on  until  they  demanded  of  the  mining-companies 
powers.  ^j^^^  j^^  ^^^^^^  should  be  employed  or  discharged  without  the  sanc- 

tion of  the  Union.  To  this  demand  others  were  added  of  hardly  less  impe- 
rious nature.  The  manner  and  hours  of  working,  and  the  superintendents 
and  bosses,  were  regarded  as  under  their  control.  Moreover,  they  claimed 
the  right  to  determine  the  rates  of  wages,  and  times  of  payment,  and  other 
equally  extravagant  and  surprising  demands.  Says  Mr.  Dewees,  "Some  of 
these  acts  are  attributable  to  the  circumstances  which  gave  them  the  power, 
and  others  to  the  pernicious  influence  of  the  band  of  criminals  who  foisted 
themselves  among  them.     Whilst  it  is  an  act  of  simple  justice  to  the  leaders 


MANUS    KULL. 


OF    THE    UN/ 77': J)    STAI'IiS. 


723 


of  the  Laltor  Union  to  a(  knowk-dj^c,  tliat,  as  a  general  rule,  the  tni';  inter- 
est:, of  the  workinj^-nien,  frtjin  their  stand-point,  were  sougiU  to  be  obtained 
pcac  eably  anti  through  compromise,  and  whilst,  in  such  eflbrts,  they  had  the 
approval  of  the  great  body  of  the  society,  unreasonable  demands  were  pressed 
tliiough  the  influence,  and  granted  through  fear,  of  the  Molly  Magtiirc. 

"  Under  the  influence  of  organi/ation  and  of  general  prosi)erity,"  continues 
Mr.  Dewees,  "  the  Mollies  increased  in  numbers  and  in  power.  Throughout 
the  coal-regions  they  completely  controlled  the  organi/ation  known  Aimiofthe 
iis  the  A.  O.  H.,  or  Ancient  Order  of  Hibernians,  and,  using  that  MoiUeg. 
order  as  a  cloak,  endeavored  to  increase  still  further  their  ininibers  and  their 
inlliience,  on  the  pretext  that  the  order 
was  chartered  by  the  legislature  for 
legal  and  proper  purposes  as  a  benev- 
DJcnt  association.  The  ambition  of 
the  leaders  among  them,  many  of 
whom  deserted  labor  and  the  mines 
for  the  more  congenial  and  influential 
jiositions  of  small  tavern  and  saloon 
keepers,  kept  pace  with  their  increased 
[lower.  They  sought  not  only  to 
(ontrol  tlu;  mosements  of  the  Labor 
I'nion,  to  inspire  whole  coal-mining 
interests  with  a  fear  of  their  displeas- 
ure, but  also  to  have  a  potent  voice 
in  politics."  Tiieir  more  especial  am- 
bition was  to  control  the  affairs  of  tlie 
touiishi]),  and  control  the  collection 
and  expenditure  of  the  public  funds. 
Possessed  of  but  little  taxable  projjerty 
themselves,  it  was  of  immense  imi)or- 
tance  to  them  to  get  hoKl  of  the 
pii])lic  purse,  and  be  able  to  empty 
and  rejjlenish  it  according  to  their  own  will  and  pleasure. 

As  they  were  successful  in  an  eminent  degree  in  their  designs,  the  history 
of  their  management  is  but  little  more  than  a  repetition  of  the  man-  Doings  of 
agement  of  the  Tweed  ring  on  a  smaller  though  not  less  frightful  doilies, 
scale.  Large  sums  were  assessed  to  repair  roads  which  needed  only  a  small 
outlay  for  this  purpose  ;  and  even  the  school-funds  were  [)erverted,  though  it  is 
believed  the  misapplication  was  not  as  extensive.  They  almost  succeeded,  in 
Schuylkill  County,  in  electing  as  associate  judge  a  notorious  Molly  who  has 
since  been  convicted  of  crime.  Both  of  the  great  political  parties  bid  for 
their  support,  and  the  rewards  demanded  and  received  were  neither  few  nor 
small,     "  Rumors  of  a  vote  to  be  given  on  account  of  a  pardon  to  be  extended 


THOMAS    p.    [TSIIER. 


■■"■■^i^mmmmmm' 


724 


/A/)l'.S  TNI  A  I.    Ills  TON  Y 


m 


their 
operations. 


ITS" 


to  Home  offi'ndor  or  ofTi'iidcrs  whom  no  |)i'tjury  could  siivi-  iVuin  the  niosIuM 
of  the  law  have  Ijccii  coniinon  ;  and  sucli  |):irdoii,  followinf;  ([iiickly  after  tlu' 
result  of  an  election  lias  become  known,  has  f,'iven  those  niiuors  a  force  aixl 
effect  they  would  not  otherwise  possess." 

The  effect  of  such  an  accession  of  power  to  an  orf^anization  so  irrespon- 
sible,  corrupt,  ami  desperate,  may  be  easily  imaj^ineil.     Nor  is  it  difficult  to 

trace  the  devastating  effects  of  the  or- 
ganization u|)on  the  property,  <U'>,i};us, 

Effect  of  *'"•'   '-'^■'-''^    'i^*-'^'  •''    diose 

who  dwelt  in  the  co.il- 
rej^ions.  "  'l"he  owiut  oI 
prochictive  coal  lands,"  says  I  )ewees, 
*'  wearied  by  the  continual  strugf^K' 
between  his  tenants  and  the  men, 
whereby  his  income  was  seriously  im- 
paired, was  glad  to  sell  his  lands  at  a 
moderate  figure  in  comparison  with 
their  true  value  ;  whilst  the  owner  of 
unproductive  lands,  borne  down  by 
taxes,  and  seeing  no  hope  in  the  fu- 
ture, was  glad,  at  a  com])aratively 
small  price,  to  dispose  of  property 
that  was  becoming  an  intolerable  bin- 
den.  The  control  and  management  of  the  mines,  the  manner  of  their  work- 
ing, the  right  to  employ  and  discharge  hands,  were  passing  away  from  the 
owners,  and  were  fast  resting  in,  not  the  Lal)or  Union  i)i-oper,  but  the  ],abur 
Union  under  the  direction  of  the  Molly  Maguires." 

The  time  had  come  for  the  great  comj)anies  to  make  a  determined  effort 
to  rescue  their  property.     After  a  long  period   of  suffering,  and 

Prosecution  .  . 

of  Mollies  by  another  of  preparation,  the  blow  was  struck  which  delivered  them 
railroad-         of  -^,-,  enemy  whose  history,  though  short,  had  been  truly  terrible, 

and  whose  long  catalogue  of  misdeeds  the  public  have  read  and 
remember  with  horror. 

Two  causes  ^^  "^^X  ^''^  ^^^^'    '*^''<-'f^  ^''^^  it  was  possible  for  any  organization 

of  success  of  in  this  late  age,  in  a  county  of  Pennsylvania,  —  whose  courts  were 
Monies.  supposed  to  be  alwa-^  open,  and  where  the  law  never  failed  of 

execution  through  lack  of  force,  —  to  continue  such  hellish  work  for  so  long  a 
period.  Two  causes  conspired  in  a  remarkable  degree  to  aid  them  in  their 
dark  and  bloody  work,  the  absence  of  either  of  which  would  have  proved  fatal 
to  their  plans. 

The  first  was  secrecy.      It  is  difficult,  perhaps,  for  many  to 

realize  how  thoroughly  this  idea  is  engraved  into  the  texture  of  the 
Irish  race.     To  inform  of  a  crime,  in  many  instances,  is  regarded  a  wrong  as 


PATKIIK    llKSIl'.K. 


Secrecy. 


01-  rirn  UNirri^  status. 


735 


h'l 


f(ro;U  as  the  crime  itself;  and  to  sik  h  an  i.xUni  lias  this  Iti-linf,'  <li'vclt)pc<l,  lliat 
It  lias  truly  become  a  part  nt'  tlu'  Iii>li  (  liaracter.  In  llu'  plottinj^s  of  tiic 
Mollies  a  large  ninnher  were  en^^aj^ed,  yet  tiie  utmost  secrecy  was  preserved  ; 
and  llieir  ways  and  movements  would  have  been  unknown  to  this  day,  for 
aii^lit  we  know,  had  not  a  detcc  live  been  sent  among  them.  I'rom  the  begin- 
ning to  the  end  of  their  feariiil  <  areer  they  kept  their  own  sf(  rets  imtil  secrecy 
would  no  Icjnger  avail  any  thing.  It  is  a  wonderful  trail  of  character  whi(  b 
they  have  exhibited,  nor  could  it  havi;  bloomed  so  perfei  tly  on  American  soil 
(luring  the  short  period  the  organization  has  existed.  This  trait  is  the  product 
of  many  years  of  education,  —  education  of  a  fearful  sort,  in  which  tyranny 
and  revenge  were  the  twin  stimulating  fore  es. 

The   other  cause   is  the   secrecy   afforded   by   nature   for   executing  their 
designs.    Vast  forests  lie  in  close  proximity  to  the  villages,  to  which  the  Mollies 
(onld  flee  and  Cmd  sure  protection.     It  was  not  possible  to  fill  the   secrecy 
woods  with  police;  and  a  hunt  there  after  the  law-breaker  would   afforded  by 
have  proved  a  fruitless  undertaking.     'Thus  a  shelter  was  afforded    "■*""• 
fur  the   criminal,  ;;o   secure    as   to  stimulate    him    in    executing   his    lawless 
[iiirposcs. 

In  this  chapter  we  have  paid  less  attention  to  the  Molly-Maguire  move- 
ment (as  that  is  known  to  all)  tiian  to  underlying  causes  of  it,   _,      ,    , 

^  .  singularity 

as  well  as  the  machinery  employed  to  accomplish  their  designs,   of  Moiiy- 
It  is  a  singular  blur  upon   the    industrial    history  of  the  United    "^^KU're 

movement. 

.States,  and  one  which  will  not  soon  be  forgotten. 

LATER    HLSTOKY. 

Having  traced  the  history  of  mining  and  transporting  coal  to  1.S30.  let  us 
take  up  the  thread  at  that  point,  and  follow  it  until  the  present  time.  The 
anthracite-coal  fields  of  Pennsylvania,  which  embrace  nearly  all  Er-ent  of 
lliat  kind  of  coal  known  in  the  world,  lie  in  three  basins,  or  coa'-fic'ds- 
\alleys,  which  are  called  the  southern,  middle,  and  northern  coal-fields. 
Though  tlie  total  area  is  only  472  miles,  the  coal  is  of  .such  great  average 
thickness,  varying  from  fifty  to  a  lumdretl  feet,  that  the  entire  region  is  esti- 
mated to  contain  26,361,070,000  tons;  from  which  amount,  after  deductirg 
(iiie-half  for  waste  in  mining  and  breaking  the  coal  for  market,  and  for  other 
losses  occasioned  by  faults  and  irregularities  in  the  beds,  13,180,538,000  tons 
•iie  left.  Subtracting  from  this  amount  the  206,666,325  tons  mined  between 
1820  Mul  1870,  there  is  still  remaining  a  sufficient  supply,  allowing  consump- 
tion to  go  on  at  the  rate  of  25,000,000  tons  per  year,  to  last  for  525  years. 

Ts  VIS  in  the  southern  or  Schuylkill  region  that  mining-operations  of  any 
i!iiiioi:.mce  first  began.     In  1833  a  charter  was  granted  for  build-   Reading 
ing  a  railroad  from  Philadelphia  to  Reading ;    and  a  year  or  two   Raii^ad. 
later  il  was  empowered  to  extend  its  road  farther,  so  as  to  pierce  the  anthra- 


'mmmmmmm^i 


k 
If; 


<m 


i> 


726 


INDLTS TRIAL    I/ISlOh' Y 


ilii 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


727 


cite-coal  regions  of  Schuylkill  County.  The  road  was  completed  in  1842,  and 
was  fifty-eight  miles  in  length  ;  but  it  has  stretched  itself  out,  by  building  addi- 
tions and  leasing  other  roads,  until  it  has  found  its  way  into  every  valley  of  the 
southern  and  middle  coal-fiekls,  and  in  the  year  1870  operated  1,168  miles  of 
single-track  railroad,  of  which  466  miles  were  located  in  the  coal-regions. 

The  Delaware  and   Hutlson  Canal  Company  was   chartered  as  early  as 
March,  1823,  to  run  from  Rondout  on  the  Hudson  to  Honesdale 
on  the  Delaware  River  ;  from  which  point  the  northern  or  Wilkes-   ^^^^  Hudson 
barre  coal-field  was  entered  by  the  addition  of   a  short  railroad   Canai 
extending  to  Carbondale.     Aljout  a  quarter  of  a  century  later  the     °™P3"y- 
Pennsylvania  Coal  Company  was  formed,  being  comiioscd,  either  wholly  or 
nearly  so,  of  stockholders  and  directors  of  the  Hudson  and  Dela-    pennsyi. 
ware  Canal  Compary.     To  this  new  concern  was  leased  a  portion    vania  Goal 
of  the  coal-lands  owned  by  the  present  organization  upon  condi-     °'"p^">'- 
tion  that  the  coal  mined  shoultl  be  always  transported  over  its  line  to  Rondout. 

A  itw  years  later,  however,  when  the  F.rie  Railroad  was  in  fiill  operation, 
and  the  organization  of  the  Pennsylvania  Coal  Company  had  somewhat 
changed,  it  began  shipping  coal  over  the  new  route  to  Jersey  City   ,         .  . 

o       '  »  1  1       c  J  .  /     Lawsuit  be- 

and  other  points.  This  action  of  theirs  gave  rise  to  a  famous  tween  Deia- 
iawsuit  between  the  two  comiianies,  which  lasted  for  a  long  time,   ^^''f  ^"'^ 

'  '  t^  '     Hudson 

and  was  conducted  with  a  great  deal  of  ability  as  well  as  bitterness.  andPennsyi- 
The  president  of  the  coal  company  studied  law,  so  it  is  said,  for   ^^"'^  '-°^' 

Company. 

the  very  purpose  of  takmg  an  active  part  in  the  defence  of  the  suit, 
and  was,  in  fact,  the  cliief  counsel  in  defending  the  company  from  its  enemies. 
In  the  end  the  Pennsylvania  Coal  Company  won  their  cause,  whicl'  virtually 
ended  the  agreement ;  and  since  that  time  it  has  transported  coal  over  the 
Erie  Railway  without  any  further  interference  by  the  rival  concern. 

The  Delaware  and  Hudson  Canal  Company  was  not  simjily  a  carrier  of 
coal,  but  mined  it  also,  having  purchased  large  tracts  in  the  begin-    Miner  smd 
ning,  and  added  more  from  time  to  time,  according  to  the  judg-   transporter 

r   -^  of  coal. 

ment  of  its  managers. 

In  1853  two  other  railroads  were  chartered,  which  also  engaged  in  the 
business  of  mining  coal,  as  well  as  in  transi:)orting  it,  —  the  Dela-    ,.  , 

^  '  1  o       '  iJelaware, 

ware,  Lackawanna,  and  Western  Railroad,  which  entered  the  north-    LacUawan- 
ern  coal-field  at  Scranton  ;  and  the  Lehigh-Vallev  Railroad,  which   "^'  ^"'^ 

'^  •  Western. 

confined    its   operations    to   the   middle    coal-field.     .Although    it 
was  simply  a  carrier  of  coal  in  the  beginning,  a  union  was  effected  with  the 
Beaver-Meadow  Railroad,  which  was  also  a  minvr  :  and  thus  the  fifth  great 
mining-concern  was  engaged  in  this  great  and  rapidly-growing  industry. 

The  year  previous,  however,  the  New-Jersey  Central  Railroad,  concerning 
which  so  much  has  been  heard  ui'  late,  was  chartered  to  extend   New-jersey 
from   the    sea-coast   to    P'aston,   Penn.,  on    the    Delaware    River.   Central. 
Ai,  first  it  was  simply  a  transporter  of  coal ;  but,  not  content  with  doing  this,  it 


H  '4 


l-!;ti1. 


W:f 


I:    '^ 


;M. 


M 


728 


/jVD  us  TA  I  a  L    I//S  TOR  Y 


1.7       \  '■' 


was  possessed  with  a  more  ambitious  aim,  and  accordingly  leased  the  Lehi<'h 
Canal  and  the  Lehigh  and  Susciuehanna  Railroad  Company,  together  wiih  ilic 
mines  which  these  concerns  were  operating,  and,  in  addition,  the  Wilkehhario 
Coal  Comjiany,  which  was  chartered  in  March,  1849.  These  si\ 
^ln!es°dhief  t;oi"P!-^i'>ics  havc  been  the  chief  miners  and  transporters  of  ainlua- 
miners  and  cite  coal  for  several  years,  although  other  concerns  have  also 
transporters    ,^-,i,-,(,,i  .^,-)j  transported  considerable  (luantities.     The  chief  intcitst 

of  coal.  '  .  ' 

of  anthracite-coal  mining,  however,  centres  around  the  railroad 
corporations  above  mentioned,  which  united  the  business  of  mining  with  thai 
of  transporting  coal. 

Until  within  a  very  few  years,  the  Delaware  and  Hudson  Canal  Company 
had  been  uniformly  prosperous.  Its  affairs  have  always  been  conducted  hv  a 
,   .     .  .  conservative  board  of  tlirectors  ;  and  with  its  short,  easv,  and  cheau 

tory  of  Del-     mode  of  getting  coal  to  tide-water,  for  years  it  yielded  rich  returns, 

aware  and  j^j^j  ,^jj  ^f  jj^.  .^ff^jj-g  y^-Q,[(^  highly  prosperous.  But,  when  other 
Hudson.  a     J     I         L 

railroads  undertook  to  mine  as  well  as  to  transport  coal,  chis  con- 
cern also  believed  ii  was  necessary,  in  order  to  retain  its  markets,  to  lease  and 
build  railroads  ;  and,  accordingly,  the  Albany  antl  Suscjuehanna  Railroad  was 
leased,  and  other  roads  extending  northward  to  Whitehall  and  Rutland,  while 
a  railroad  was  built  from  the  former  point  to  Montreal.  This  was  a  bold  push, 
and  the  experiment  has  not  yet  proved  successful  ;  but  it  is  too  early  to  pro- 
nounce final  judgment  upon  the  scheme.  The  new  policy  has  its  friends  and 
its  enemies ;  and  a  much  longer  space  is  required  to  determine  whether  it  will 
fulfil  the  anticipations  of  its  projectors,  or  continue  a  burden  from  which  relief 
in  some  way  must  ultimately  be  sought. 

Concerning  the  New-Jersey  Central,  its  history  is  fresh  in  the  public  ear ; 
for  its  terrible  collapse  occurred  only  a  short  time  ago.  For  several  years  after 
its  plans  were  developed,  it  was  successful.  Enormous  quantities 
toty^of  New-  °^  ^°^^  wQve.  mined  ar.d  transported  ;  its  stock  rose  very  high,  and 
Jersey  was  regarded  so  secure,  that  large  numbers  of  persons  along  the 

^""^^  ■  line  of  the  road  invested  in  it.  in  some  cases,  all  they  possessed ; 

trust-funds  were  put  into  it ;  and  it  was  supposed  to  be  one  of  the  most 
profitable  concerns  of  the  day.  I'ut  the  company  saw  its  unlucky  hour,  and 
collapsed,  scattering  ruin  and  misery  far  and  wide.  The  immediate  causes  of 
this  sudden  decline  will  be  soon  given. 

The  history  of  the  Reading  Railroad  is,  perhaps,  the  most  astonishing  of 
all  the  railroads  concerned  in  mining  coal.  h\  the  beginning  it  was  simply  a 
carrier,  'he  mining  of  coal  being  done  by  a  large  number  of  operators,  who,  for 
Later  his-  ^^^^  most  part,  leased  the  privilege  of  mining,  as  we  have  previous- 
toryofRead-  ly  described.  But,  like  the  Delaware  and  Hudson  Canal  Com- 
ing Railroad.  p^,,y^  it  fgij.  impelled  to  unite  the  two  branches  of  mining  and 
transporting  coal :  so  another  company,  called  the  Reading  Coal  and  Iron 
Company,  which  was  really  the  same  thing  as  the  railroad  itself,  was  organized. 


OF    THE     I'M  TED    STATES. 


729 


Lehiuii 
ith  the 
:hl)aiTc 
-'■sc  six 
mthra^ 
L'  als(j 
ntcivst 
lilroad 
1  that 

il)anv 
l)v  a 

-turns, 
other 

i  con- 

c  and 

cl  was 
while 

push. 


princiiially  to  engage  in  tlie  business  of  mining  th.is  fuel.  At  uncc  it  began 
the  iiurchase  of  coal-lantls,  and  this  policy  was  continued  until  large  tracts 
were  ac(iuired.  New  mines  were  opened  in  every  direction,  raiU'oads  were 
hiiilt  and  leased,  and  large  tracts  in  the  anthracite-coal  fiel('  were  purchased. 
Pretty  nearly  the  entire  antiiracite-coal  field  is  now  owned  by  the  live  com- 
panies which  have  been  already  described. 

The  Northern  Central    Railroad  of  Pennsylvania  owns  some  coal-land  in 
the  Shamokin  Valley,  which  lies  in  the  middle  coal-field  ;  and,  as   Pennsyiva- 
this  company  is  leased  to  the    Pennsylvania   Central   Railroad,  it   "'^  Central. 
may  be  reckoned  as  the  sixth  largest  concern  engaged  in  the  business. 

While  the  Reading  Railroad  was  merely  a  transporter  of  coa),  its  dividends 
for  many  years  were  regularly  earned  and  paid ;  but.  with  a  change  of  policy 
(whether  necessary  or  not  is  a  (luestion  lying  outside  of  our  prov-  Effect  of 
iiice),  the  outlay  forth(}  extension  of  roads  and  leases,  the  purchase  "'="'  policy, 
of  coal-lands,  and  the  opening  of  new  collieries,  were  attended  with  enormous 
expense.  Then  the  strikes  occurred  which  we  have  already  described,  and 
the  |)rices  of  coal  began  to  decline  ;  and  the  railroads  which  were  engaged  in 
this  business  of  mining  coal  saw  that  it  was  necessary  to  do  something  in 
oixler  to  continue  the  payment  of  dividends.  The  jiroduction  of  coal  had 
enormously  increased,  and   so    had   their  expenses :    what,  then,  was   to    be 


(kme  ? 

It  was  finally  determined  to  form  a  combination  for  the  purpose  of  limiting 
the  production  of  coal,  the  amount  which  each  of  the  five  companies  should 
furnish,  and  the  rates  for  selling  the  same.  This  seemed  a  bold  combina- 
measure,  and  was  strenuously  opposed  by  many  of  the  newspapers  ;  *'°"- 
but  the  companies  saw  no  other  mode  of  relief.  Such  a  coml)ination  was  no 
new  thing  ;  for  long  ago  English  mine-owners  united  for  the  purpose  of  fixing 
the  price  of  coal. 

This  modern  combination,  which  was  formed  in  1873,  had  only  a  short  life  ; 
though,  during  the  three  years  in  which  it  held  together,  it  had  a  very  remarka- 
ble history.     Great  as  the  necessity  for  its  existence  seemed  to  be    short  life  of 
among  those  who  entered  into  it.  they  were  constantly  violating  it   combina- 
in  one  way  and  another,  each  being  anxious  to  dispose  of  more 
coat  than  was  permitted  by  the  agreement.     All  sorts  of  schemes  were  de- 
vised for  escaping  from  it  ;  while,  of  course,  each  concern  strenu-    Evasion  of 
uusly   maintained   that   the   others   should   maintain   the   compact    agreement, 
inviolate.     All  the  railroad-companies  transported  more  or  less  coal  for  private 
operators  ;  and,  as  the  cpiantity  which  they  were  allowed  to  mine  was  i.ot  fixed 
in  the  stipulation,  in  some  cases  their  product  enormously  increased,  although 
it  was  generally  believeil  that  the  railroad-companies  themselves  were  carrying 
and  selling  their  own   coal  under  other  names.     Then  rates  were  cut,   and 
\arious  expedients  were  resorted  to  by  the  several  companies  to  increase  their 
sales  beyond  the  limit  fixed  l)y  agreement. 


ii 


hi 


;5i 


730 


IND  US  7'A' /A  I     ins  TOR  Y 


One  of  the  new  ])hases  wliieh  ai)i)eare(l  in  llir  luisiness  was  the  (utliii',' om 
of  the  middlemen,  in  threat  measure,  by  the  Keading  Raihoad  ('()ni|)aiu.  It 
Waron  sold   cor'   by  retail,  as  well  as   in   largtT  (luanlities,  at   l'hila(lc|]ihi,i 

middlemen.  .,,^,1  other  places,  and  sought,  so  far  as  iiossihle.  to  brini;  (ousuuki  , 
into  ihreet  communicatit)n  with  themselves,  thus  saviiiLj  the  proi'il-,  oi  iju' 
middlemen.     This  caused   some  ill   fecUng  among  them,  as  one  ma\  readiK 


STAnLE   IN    A    MINK. 

imagine  wiio  knows  any  thing   about   human   nature  ;   and  they  succeC'  :d  in 

investiga-       procuring  an  in\estigalion.  bv  order  of  the  legislature  of  the  St.ue 

tionofRead-    of  Pennsylvania,  into  some  of  the  doings    of  the  Reading  K. fil- 
ing Railroad  '   .  .  ' 

by  legisia-       I'oad,   particularly    their    mode    of    selling    coal.      The    comp  aiy 
*"''^-  emerged  from  the  <ontest  completely  victorious  ;  and  since  ilieii 

nothing  has  been  said  a])oul  short  weights  and  other  practices  on  the  part  of 
this  concern. 

The  repeated  violations  of  the  agreement  among  the  companies  concern- 
ing the  ])rjducti(jn  and  sale  of  coal  led  to  an  abandonment  of  it.  and  at  once 


(;/•     I  III-:     U  Nil  ED    STATES. 


731 


tlu    |»ri(  (•  1)1'  (  oal   l)fgaii  to  decline'.     'I'liis  also  affcrled  the  price  of  stocks 


aiui 


liter  a  sliorl  time  the   N'ew-J  Tsey  Rail 


road  siicciimhed,  and 


End  of  com- 


passed into  the  hands  of  a  receiver,     'i'hoiisands  who  had  invested    binaton.and 
tluir  fortunes  in  it  were  either  seriously  crippled  or  ruined  ;    for 


ever  was  the  collapse  o 
hk 


effect  of 
dissolvinj;  it. 


the  sti)(  k  rajjidly  fell  from  i  16  to  2;^.      N 

a  vast  (()ri)oration  mure  imexpected,  sudden,  or  leriil.le  ;  never  were  the 
jii(li;iiients  of  men  more  coi;i[)letcly  set  at  nou,L;ht  ;  never  \' as  a  solid  enter- 
prise more  speeddy  ruined  by  too  sanguine  calculations,  and  what  proved  to  he 
iiiuvise  manaij;ement. 

p.rn'MiNotrs-coAi,   mimnc;. 


!.!.,;  ^ 

'^m 


IIk-  bituminous  coal  held  is  far  more  extensive  than  the  antlira(  ile  ;  for  it 
underlies  the  western  half  of  l'enns\lvania,  the  eastern  ])ortion  of  ( )hio,  West 
Viri^inia,     i'^asteni     Kentucky,    and,    stretching;    throuj^h     ICastern    Extent  of 

bituminous- 
coal  field. 


Tennessee,  extends  as  far  as  ,\la] 
hearinur  rocks  of  nearlv   fiftv-eiiiht   tlu 


)ama,  embraciuLf  ;'.n  area  of  coa 


ousand    souare 


mil 


es. 
the 


( 


oal 


Ded 


of  this  kind   is  also  found   in   Michigan  and    Indiana 

State    beiiiLT    a    continuation    of   that    in    Illinois,   where  was    made 


m    the  latter 


tl 


le 


hrst 


It   was   dis- 


(iiscovery  of  coal   of  which   any  written    account   is  preser\ed 

covered  by  I'ather  Hennepin  in  1669;  and  in  his  Journal,  ])ublished  in  169.S, 

there  is  a  maj)  on  whic  h   is  located  a  coal-mine    by  the   side  of  th 


River,   near  Ottawa.     Thi^ 


UIK 


piestionably,   is   the  earliest  notii 


IIIUJlS 


e   on   recoil  1 


of  the   existence  of  coal    in    America.     The   coal-bearin,i(    strata    ( omprise    a 
lar'^T  area  than  in  anv  other  Slate    in   the   I'nijn,  alllioii'di   the  coal-measures 


of  Iowa,  Kansas, 


and 


ome  of  the  other  Slates,  are  very  extensive. 


Monti  th 


e  eastern   he 


Mtler  of  the  field   in   V 


■nnsylvania  and  .\lar\land  are 


.\h 


sevei.il  small  areas  which  contim  a  semi-bituminous  coal,  whic 


tl 


le  inire 


bituminjus  coal  farther  vest  and  the  anthracite  re; 


[ions 


he  between 


Scmi- 


011  the  east.     The  position  of  this  coal,  thus  lying  between  the  two    bituminous- 
so  differeiilly-formed  coals,  has  given  rise  to  a  great  deal  of  sjjecu- 
lation  concerning  the  formation  of  coal  ;  l)ut  no  theory  has  yet  gained  exten- 
sive currency.     The  two  localities  most  extensivelv  worked  are  Pjlossburgh  on 
the  north,  and  (!umberland,  Md.,  on  the  south  :    but  there  are  other  points 


which  ha\e  been  worked  to  acKantaLa'.  —  at  liroad 


op, 


Johnst 


own. 


owanda, 


and  Ralston.  The  IMossburgh  region  was  o])eiie(l  by  railwr.y  in  i<S4o  ;  and  two 
years  later  the  Cumberland  field  was  pierced  l)y  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio, 
which  first  brought  this  coal  to  tide-w.Uer,  displacing  the  bituminous  (oal  of 


\' 


irginia. 


This  enormous  area  of  bituminous  coal,  which,  including  lignite,  stretches 


icross  tfie  c(Miti.H'nt,  an( 


1  as  f 


ir  nortn  as 


th 


.'Mask 


"i.  IS  beam  contmu- 


Area  of 


ally  t)i)enetl  wy  and  employed  for  a  highh'  useful  purpose.      I'he    bituminous 

mode    of  extraction    somewhat    differs   from   that    in  the   anlhra- 

cito  mines  :    and   as    the   o])enings    arc    far  more    numerous,  while  the    men 


I--  ,^- 


'  ♦■, 


w^nm^  \ 


'32 


ryDUSTRlAf.    II  f STORY 


m 


m 


'3 


m 


ifj 


V.  M-  ( 


I:'- 


y.  !■: ! 


DKSrKNT  OK    A    IIOKSK   DOWN   A    MINE-SU/iK! 


OF    THE     rXlTEn    STAri:S. 


M 


t'lnployt'd  ill  each  arc  fewer,  no  such  extensive  (oinbin.itions  aiiioii^'  ihein 
have  arisen,  nor  have  strikes  been  so  numerous  or  disastrous.  Still  there 
have  been  some,  especially  in  ( )hio.  and  of  a  very  serious  nature  too. 
rcijuiring  the  presence  of  troops  to  protect  the  propert\  of  the  operators 
and  of  those  who  were  willinic  t<'  work.  lUit  a  more  curious 
,()i;dition    of   tliinifs    hai)pened    in    the    autumn   of   1S76    in    the    ^""'''=^  •'-■^^ 

^'  '  '  '  frequent 

( o.il-districts  of  St.  Clair  and  Madison  Counties,  III.,  from  \^hich    than  in 
St.   I.ouis,    the    manufac  tiirers    anjund    there,    and  the  steamboat   ^"'^"^^'='*=- 

Lcal  nelds. 

interest,  c-hiefly  derive  their  supplies.      It   is  not  often,    es])eciallv 
ill  these  "  hard  times."  that  the  spectacle  is  presented  o{  a  numerous  body 
ol  workmen  voluntarily    going  into   idleness  in  order  to   get    lower  rates  of 
wages  ;  yet  that  is  precisely  what  hap|)ened  in  this  instance. 

I'ntil  February,  1S76,  the  miners  were  getting  out  coal  at  the  rale  (jf  two 
cents  ]ier  bushel.  'I'hev  had  formed  a  rnion  among  themselves;  but.  as 
tlurc  never  was  a  I'nion  yet  whi(  h  did  not  generate  a  non-rnion,  singular 
it  was  not  long  before  it  was  discovered  that  .i  P'unerous  boily  of  ^"■''*'=- 
'•blacklegs"  (the  sol>i-i(]Uft  of  men  not  l;eio.;f.,uig  to  the  society)  were  at 
work  for  less  than  the  regulation  i)rices.  ■|'hereui)on,  in  order  to  beat  them 
with  their  own  weapons,  the  Union  men  i)roi)oscd  to  the  operators  to  work  for 
one  cent  and  a  half  per  bushel.  I'heir  intention,  of  course,  wis  to  starve  out 
the  non-l'nionists  ;  but  the  operators,  failing  to  discover  how  their  interest.>i 
would  be  liromoted  by  the  adoption  of  a  crushing-out  policy  of  this  kind. 
refused  to  accede.  The  Union  men  then  (|uit  work,  and  remained  idle  for 
a  fortnight  or  so  ;  when,  (ailing  to  carry  their  ])oint.  they  returned  to  work 
at  two  cents  a  bushel. 

'The  Western  coal-miner  lias  lu'en  more  fortunate  in  obtaining  and  retain- 
ing higher  ])riccs  for  his  work  llian  his  fellow-laborer  in  the  anthra- 
cite regions.      Yet.  since  this  strike  occurred,  several  reductions   „'l  " 

'■'  wages 

have  been   made  ;    though   it  is  probable  that  in  every  case  these   received  by 
were  necessary  in  order  to  sa\e  operators  from  a  loss.     Heavy  as       "'=''" 

•'  '  •'  coal-miner. 

the  decline  in  wages  has  been,   those   operating  mines  in  many 
cases  have  lost  much. 

Concerning  other  strikes  among  the  miners,  as  we  shall  < onsider  them  in 
another  place,  it   is   unnecessary  to  say  more  here.     The  devel- 

r    1  ■.         ■  •  I  •         1        1  1-1      Bituminous 

opmcnt  of    bituminous-mines    has    never   involved   so   much   risk    ^^^  anthra- 
and   large    pre])aratory  outlay  as  anthracite-mining,  and   produc-   cite-coai- 
tion  has  kept  more  nearly  apace  with  the  wants  of  the  people  :    '"'"'"s  com- 
conseciuently  no  great   panics     r  collapses   have  occurred  ;    and 
the  history  of  the  bu-.iness.  as  ..  whole,  has  been  peaceful,  and  fairly  pros- 
perous.    It  is  true  that  ilisturbances  in  some  localities  have  arisen  from  strikes 
antl  other  difficulties  with  the  miners  ;  but,  for  the  most  part,  these  have  been 
short,  and  no  severe  losses  Ivivc  followed  in  their  train. 

It  is   more   dit^kult   to    colktt   statistics   concerning   the    production    of 


^:   "y 


\-}m2 


rm- 


734 


fND  US  TRIA  L    HIS  TOR  Y 


bituminous  coal  than  anthracite,  on  acrount  of  the  much  larger  number  of 
mines,  and  varied  regulations  of  the  different  States  ;  but  we  will 

Statistics.  ,  ,  ,  ,11-  e  1    •     , 

close  the    chapter   by  adding   a    few,  which    at   once    sliow   the 
importance  of  this  branch  of  coal-production  :  — 


i 


STATE. 

Pennsylvania 
Maryland    . 
West  Virginia 
Ohio    . 

Kast  Kentucky 
Tennessee    . 
Alabama 
Micliii^an     . 
Indiana 
Illinois 

West  Kentucky 
Iowa    . 
Missouri 
Nebraska    . 
Kansas 
Arkansas    . 
Texas  . 
Virginia 
North  Carolina 
Massachusetts 
Rhode  Island 


7,800,356 

2.345. '53 
6o«,878 

2,5-7.2^5 

35-4SS 

'33.4>!i 

1 1 ,000 

28,150 

437.«70 
2,624,163 

1 1 5,094 

263,487 

62 1 ,930 

1,425 

32,938 


6t,8o3 


14,000 


nous  coal  during  thf 


The  above  table  represents  the  production  of  bitum 

year  1S69:  the  production  of  anthracite  for  the  same  year  was   16,375,678 
tons. 

YEAR.  TONS. 

1870 17,819,700 

1871 17. 379.355 

1872 22,084,083 

1873 22,880,921 

1874 21,667,386 

1875 20,643,509 

1876 19,000,000 


1877 


23,000 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


735 


CHAFFER   VII. 


IRON. 


* 


TIII'lRl']  is  no  known  variety  of  iron  ore  entering  into  the  commercial 
and  industrial  transactions  of  the  world,  no  matter  how  fiimous  or  rare, 
which  does  not  have  its  exact  counterpart  in  the  United  States.  The  cele- 
brated ores  of  Sweden,  which  supply  to  England  the  best  iron  variety  of 
she  makes,  have  an  exact  facsimile  in  those  of  Central  North  °''*'' 
Carolina;  while  New  York  and  other  States  possess  ores  substantially  resem- 
bling them  in  great  abundance.  The  eeiualty  famous  blackband  iron  of 
Scotland  is  duplicated  in  Ohio,  Virginia,  and  Alabama ;  the  titaniferous  ores 
of  Norway  lie  in  great  beds  of  incalculable  richness  and  value  in  Northern 
New  York  and  Virginia;  the  spathic  ores  for  steel-making  (carbonates)  are 
abundant  in  Connecticut  and  New  York  ;  and  the  manganiferous  varieties,  so 
(lesiral)le  for  the  manufacture  of  spiegeleisen  (consumed  in  the  ISessemer 
stccl-works),  exist  in  Missouri  and  elsewhere  in  all  luxuriance.  The  whole 
Lake-Superiot  region  abounds  in  hematites  and  magnetic  ores  of  the  richest 
character,  and  Missouri  contains  deposits  unequalled  in  extent  and  purity  in 
the  most  celebrated  regions  of  other  parts  of  the  world.  Hog-iron  ores  are 
scattered  all  along  the  northern  .\tlantic  seacoast.  Not  only  in  (juantity,  but 
in  variety,  the  iron  of  America  is  the  most  remarkable  in  the  world  ;  and  when 
we  consider  that  its  quantity  is  so  enormous  that  it  cannot  be  exhausted  for 
centuries  to  come,  nor  the  fuel  recpiircd  in  its  manufactures,  it  will  be  seen 
how  favored  a  part  of  the  earth  is  diis  republic.  Its  people,  with  sucli  sup- 
plies of  iron  to  manufacture,  are  certain  to  be  rich,  strong,  free,  and  aggressive, 
even  if  there  were  nothing  in  the  character  of  the  race  to  make  them  so. 

The  first  iron-mining  in  the  United  States  was  done  in  Virginia  by  the 
early  colonists  of  Jamestown.      The  little  band  of  white  men  who  emerged 
trum  the  ship  which   had   brought   them  from   England,  like   the   Early  iron- 
animals  from   Noah's  ark,   to    populate  and  occupy  a  new  and   -nining  in 
strange   world,  kept  their  eyes  wide  open  and   their  wits  about      "^^' 
them  when  they  took  up  their  residence  in  Virginia  ;  and  they  were  soon  aware 
of  all  the  resources  of  the  region  of  which  they  had  taken  possession.     John 


^K^ 


^m^w 


736 


INfy  VS  TRIA I     ms  TOR  Y 


Hi 


Smith,  havfiig  reliirned  from  his  voyage  up  the  Chickahoniiny  Riwr,  \vhi(  h  !„. 
had  thoii;4ht  was  a  water-way  lead i ml;  to  the  I'acific  Ocean,  settled  dnwn  »o 
the  conviction  tiiat  the  N'irginia  (.'olony  would  have  to  depend  for  its  future 
wealth  on  the  riMiiuces  of  Virginia  alone,  and  not  on  those  of  India;  aiu,  liu 


\     ,  ) 


^.■aff//J^^^zJ:3f^:''^    ^^-, 


IKCIN-MINIC. 


I      ■'"    '.-in 


if*-'-'" 


set  about  with  his  people  to  labor  truly  to  get  a  living  in  that  part  of  die  world 
to  which  it  had  pleased  God  to  call  tlnm.  One  of  the  first  discoveries  which 
was  made  created  a  great  excitement  in  the  colony,  which  took  the  form  of 
what  would  be  calletl  in  the  Territories  in  these  times  a  gold  "stampede." 


<;/•  tiH']  UiXiTf'.n  states. 


737 


vliii  h  h(. 

'If)\Vll    to 

'j^  future 

■iiiii  he 


Iron  pyrites  had  l)een  found  ;  and  the  excited  colonists,  who  imnK'(Hatcly 
saw  themselves  roiling;  in  wealth  in  their  mind's  eye,  sent  a  ship-  The  gold 
lo;uI  of  it  to  lOnj^land.  'This  was  the  first  iron  mining  in  America,  "»t«mpede." 
(iluoin  followed  the  discovery  of  the  true  characttT  of  those  yellow  crystals ; 
but  thai  did  not  prevent  Virj,'inia  fnun  being  the  lirst  coh^ny,  after  all,  to  begin 
iron-mining  seriously.  The  bog-ortrs  and  brown  hematite.-,  of  the  vicinity  were 
soon  brought  to  liglit ;  and  in  [60S  a  <|uantity  of  them  was  sent  to  England, 
and  seventeen  tons  of  good  merchant-iron  extracted  therefrom.  In  1620  iron- 
works were  erected  to  utilize  these  ores.  In  1  703  the  bog-ores  of  Massachu- 
setts were  put  to  use  ;  and,  for  a  century  at  least  after  that  date,  the  spongy 
iron  crusts  from  the  bottoms  of  the  bogs  all  along  the  whole  North-.\liantic 
cu.ist  were  tal^en  out  freely,  and  converted  int<j  pig  and  bar  iron  by  the 
colonists. 

The  stony  ores  of  iron  in  (Connecticut  were  discovered  as  early  as  165  i, 
when  (iov,  Winlhrop  obtained  a  license,  with  exlraordinarv  privileges,  for  the 
working  of  any  mines  that  he  might  choose  to  open.  The  legis-  Salisbury 
Inture  took  cognizance  of  the  ores  of  the  State  several  times  ores  of  Con- 
aftcrwartl.  It  does  not  appear,  however,  that  any  iron-mines  were  "*"^'"=' ' 
worked,  in  consequence  of  the  charters  and  privileges  granted,  until  very 
nearly  the  time  of  the  Revolutionary  war.  The  famous  Salisbury  beds  of 
brown  hematite  (a  hydrated  peroxide  containing  fifty  or  sixty  i)er  cent  of 
iiietallic  iron)  were  then  opened.  The.ie  beds  were  a  gieat  source  of  strength 
lO  our  forefathers  in  the  Revolutionary  war,  and  they  have  now  been  the 
means  of  supporting  the  population  of  that  ])art  of  Connecticut  in  active  and 
'  profitable  industry  for  a  period  of  over  a  hundred  and  thirty-five  years,  Tiie 
Salislniry  ore-hill  still  supplies  the  furnaces  of  the  IJarnum-Ricliardson  Com- 
pany, and  the  metal  retains  its  reputation  to-day  for  a  good  tough  car-wheel 
iron.  The  quantity  of  shot,  shell,  and  cannon,  cast  from  Salisbury  iron  during 
the  fight  for  independence,  was  very  large.  Another  iron-mine  of  Connecticut 
was  also  worked  at  a  very  early  date.  It  was  opened  at  Mine  Hill  in  Roxbury 
in  1760,  as  a  silver-mine,  by  Mtirlbut  and  Hawley,  and  was  worked  again  in 
1764  under  a  Cerman  jeweller  named  I'euehter.  It  is  said  that  this  latter 
ingenious  person  supplied  the  company  I'rom  time  to  time  with  a  small  ingot 
of  silver,  which  he  said  he  had  obtained  from  the  mine,  but  which  is  at  present 
believed  to  have  lieen  obtained,  if  at  all,  from  Mine  Hill,  by  a  process  which 
is  popularly  termed  in  these  days  "  salting,"  'i  hese  ingots  affected  the  com- 
l)any  as  the  bag  of  oats  on  the  wagon-tongue  affects  the  charger  harnessed 
behind  it.  They  were  a  stimulus  to  renewed  efforts  to  reach  the  rich  stores  of 
siher  which  were  ever  thought  to  l)e  only  a  few  feet  farther  down  in  the  rock  ; 
and  the  company  kept  on  until  it  had  sunk  a  shaft  a  hundred  ;.nd  twenty-five 
feet  deep  :  it  then  gave  up  in  disgust,  A  New-York  company  afterwards 
tried  its  hand  at  silver-mining  here,  and  still  later  a  C.oshen  company.  Finally 
a  resident  of  the  locality,  by  the  name  of  Asahel  Bacon,  who  realized  better 


1 1 


ID  i 


I 


i     I 


IMAGE  EVALUATiON 
TEST  TARGET  (MT-3) 


1.0 


I.I 


|J0     ""^^ 

s  1^ 


tarn 
1 2.2 

20 

1.8 


III 


1-25  II U   |i.6 

1111==    lllll^^ 

r 
It 

< 

6"     

► 

•-^^ 


7 


-<^ 


Photographic 

Sdences 

Corporation 


23  WEST  MAIN  STREET 

WEBSTER,  N.Y.  14580 

(716)  873-4503 


738 


IND  US  TRIA  L    HIS  TOR  Y 


\  \ 


.  ..J.iii 


V,  \ 


than  the  other  owners  of  the  mine  that  the  way  ai/  astra  was  not  uj)  ;i  step. 
ladder,  and  who  saw  more  wealth  in  hunting,  per  aspcra,  for  a  humbler  int.ial 
than  silver,  tried  the  mine  for  iron,  and  got  out  an  ore  which  yielded  a  virv 
tough  iron  and  an  excellent  steel.     It  was  thereafter  mined  only  for  iron. 

New  Jersey,  IV-nnsylvania,  North  Carolina,  and  Maryland  were  also  iiiinin ' 
iron  twenty  or  thirty  years  before  the  Revolution,  'i'he  first-named  Stale  has 
Iron-mining  always  been  the  main  dependence  of  tin;  furnaces  of  the  ^rcit 
before  th  Lehigh  region  in  Pennsylvania.  Its  ores  are  the  rich  mai^'iKtic 
ev  ution.  (^^i(^^.^^^  ^^jf]^  some  specular  peroxides  and  limonites,  and  arc 
needed  in  Pennsylvania  for  mixture  with  the  brown  hematites  of  that  region. 
In  New  York  the  mines  of  the  northern  part  of  tiie  State  were  opened  atiLr 
1800.  The  iron  of  the  other  States  of  the  Union  was  taken  from  the  grf)nn(l, 
and  manuflictured,  as  fast  as  the  wave  of  population  flowing  in  from  the  Mast- 
em  States  and  from  Europe  had  subdued  the  soil,  and  had  given  the  different 
localities  a  census  large  enougli  to  demand  the  creation  of  other  industries 
besides  agriculture. 

The  citizen  who  is  interested  in  the  resources  of  his  country,  and  desires  a 
general  idea  of  the  subject  now  under  discussion,  would  not  be  edified  bv  a 
minute  account  of  the  beginning  of  the  mining-industry  in  each  of  the  several 
States  of  the  Union.  The  details  would  be  confusing,  and  no  useful  end 
would  be  subserved  by  relating  them.  Instead  of  going  into  the  subject  in 
tliat  way,  it  is  proposed  to  give  merely  a  general  account  of  the  character  of 
the  principal  ores  found  in  the  United  States,  and  of  their  distribution.  The 
character  of  the  deposits  of  a  few  of  the  great  iron  States  will  be  glanced  at 
afterwards,  with  possibly  some  detail. 

There  appears  to  be  no  better  practical  classification  of  the   ores  thnn 
cia.  -ifica-       Prolcssor  J.  P.  Lesley's.     It  is  as  follows  :  — 
tionof  oi.s.  j_  i^rimary  ores,  including  the  specular  and  magnetic,  and  tlic 

red  oxides  or  red  hematites. 

2.  Brown  hem-itites  (limonites). 

3.  Fossil  ores. 

4.  Carbonates,  including  those  of  the  coal-fields. 

5.  B'li^-ores. 

Three-quarters  of  the  iron  made  in  the  United  States  is  from  the  first  two 
classes.  The  magnetic  ores  are  the  richest  of  all.  They  are  an  oxide  of  iron 
containing  about  seventy-two  per  cent  of  iron  and  twenty-eight  per  cent  of 
oxygen.  They  are  heavy,  black,  compact,  or  in  coarse  crystalline  grains,  and 
mixed  with  quartz  and  other  rocks.  Chunks  of  the  ore  are  magnetic,  and 
not  only  affect  the  needle,  but  often  support  small  bits  of  iron  like  nails.  The 
richness  of  this  variety  of  iron  ore  makes  it  peculiarly  fit  for  working  in  a 
bloomary-furnace.  The  Catalan  forge,  invented  in  old  Spain,  was  set  at  work 
upon  this  class  of  ore ;  and  in  Northern  New  York  and  North  (Carolina,  where 
it  abounds,  a  large  number  of  bloomaries  are  still  employed  in  its  reduction. 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


739 


It  is  often  difficult  to  work,  and  is  conscciucntly  more  generally  smelted  with 
the  licmatitcs. 

Specular  ore,  so  called  from  the  shining;  plates  in  which  it  is  often  found,  is 
a  peroxide  of  iron  containing  seventy  per  cent  of  the  metal  and  thirty  per 
cciU  of  oxygen.  It  is  very  nearly  the  same  as  the  magnetic  va-  specular 
ricty.  but  differs  from  it  in  being  red  (making  a  red  powder  instead  °''** 
of  a  black  powder),  and  having  distinct  ciualilies,  which  are  observable  in  smclt- 
ini;.  It  makes  metallic  iron  very  fast.  It  is  generally  found  in  the  vicinity  of 
the  magnetic  ore,  and  is  \,idely  distributed  throughout  the  United  States.  The 
red  liematites  are  merely  a  variety  of  the  specular  ores. 

The  fossil  ores,  which  comprise  the  so-called  red  fossiliferous  and  oolitic 
ores,  are  found  in  shale,  limestone,  and  sandstone  formations,  in  bands  of  ore 
which  are  generally  from  one  to  six  feet  in  thickness.  Attention  has  been 
recently  called  to  tiic  enormous  deposits  of  red  fossiliferous  oxides  in  the  State 
of  Alabama,  where  they  exist  in  bands  from  fifteen  to  twenty  and  thirty  feet 
in  thickness.  The  fossiliferous  ores  appear  to  have  been  formed  by  the  filtra- 
tion of  iron  into  beds  of  marine  shells,  which  they  gradually  replaced  in  the 
form  of  peroxide  of  iron.  They  vary  in  richness  from  twenty  to  sixty  per  cent 
of  metallic  iron.  Wisconsin  has  seventy-five  per  cent  ores.  The  beds  aboimd 
in  tlie  forms  of  organic  life,  encrinital  stems,  and  fossil  shells.  The  oolitic 
variety  is  often  found  compact ;  but,  both  in  Middle  Pennsylvania  and  Wis- 
consin, it  appears  often  in  the  form  of  grains  resembling  flaxseed.  The  fos 
siliferous  variety  is  divided  into  hard  and  soft  ores,  the  former  often  resembling 
red  hematite  ;  but  its  blood-red  powder  always  betrays  its  true  character. 
The  red  oxides  are  eagerly  sought  after  wherever  found.  They  contain  car- 
bonate of  lime  and  silica,  and  are  therefore  easily  worked  ;  and  their  richness 
and  good  ([ualities  make  them  desirable  ores. 

Tlie  hematite  ore  is  a  peroxide  of  iron  containing  from  seventy-two  to 
eighty-five  per  cent  of  t'.ie  metal.  This  class  of  ore  constitutes  the  great  body 
of  the  iron  of  Pennsylvania,  Connecticut,  and  Tennessee,  and  is  Hematite 
found  in  greater  or  less  degree  in  all  the  iron-producing  States.  It  °''^- 
occurs  in  large  tleposits  of  irregular  form,  sometimes  in  ledges  and  strata  of 
great  size,  as  in  Missouri  and  Pennsylvania,  and  often  in  scattered  lumps  and 
blocks.  In  Michigan  it  occurs  in  lens-shaped  masses  of  great  extent.  The 
hematites  are  readily  and  cheaply  worked  ;  but,  as  they  contam  very  little  silica, 
the  magnetic  ores  are  generally  added  to  them,  these  ores  containing  quartz  ; 
and  a  silicious  limestone  is  employed  for  a  flux  in  smelting. 

The  carbonates  are  not  of  the  highest  importance  ;  but  they  are  good  ores 
wiicrever  found,  and  are  so  readily  reduced,  owing  to  the  amount  of  lime  they 
contain,  as  often  to  require  no  flux  whatever.  They  occur  in  Great  Britain  in 
enormous  quantities,  but  occupy  a  minor  position  among  the  ores  of  the  United 
States.  The  carbonates  are  found  in  seams,  in  balls,  or  flattened  spheroidal 
masses,  and  are   often  called  the  "  kidney  "  ores  in  consequence.     They  are 


■ '""siflpiRJBff'* 


Ill 


i'. 


740 


/AV:>  r  \S  TKIA  L    HIS  TOR  Y 


easily  picked  out  of  the  shales  in  which  they  exist.  The  spathic  ore  is  a  <  ar 
bonate.  I'he  mine  in  Roxhury,  C'onn.,  to  whicli  alUision  has  been  made,  is  ot 
this  variety.  It  contains  sixty  i)er  cent  of  the  protoxide  of  iron,  thirty-six  ni 
carbonic  acid,  and  some  nianLjanese,  hme,  and  magnesia. 

The  bog-ores  form  at  the  bottom  of  ])onds  or  in  sandy  loam,  being  depos- 
ited bv  chalybeate  waters.     They  formerly  were  worked  to  a  laru'c 

Bog-ores.  '  .         ,  ,  ,  ,.    ',  ^ 

extent  m  the  coast  States,  but  attract  little  attention  now.  c\(  i)ii 
in  \Visconsin,  where  they  are  found  in  extraordinary  abundance  in  Wood, 
Portage,  and  Juneau  Counties. 

As  for  the  distribution  of  the  iron  ores  of  the  United  States,  it  would  lie  far 
easier  to  tell  where  iron  does  not  exist  than  to  set  forth  where  it  docs.  Tlu- 
Distribution  great  magnetic  iron-range  of  North  Anierica  begins  in  Maine,  and 
of  ores.  courses  thence  southward  through  the  coast  States  in  a  mas>ivc 

rampart  until  it  terminates  in  an  abutment  ui)on  the  (lulf  of  Mexico.  In  this 
range  the  magnetic,  specular,  red  hematite,  and  limonite  (brown  hematite)  ores 
are  found  in  close  proximity  to  each  other,  and  in  masses  which  set  ngurc>  at 
defiance,  and  absolutely  overwhelm  the  imagination.  In  rcnnsyhania  ihc 
magnetic  and  specular  ores  about  entirely  disappear  from  the  range,  though  tlu  y 
are  present  in  it,  and  are  occasionally  worked.  They  re-ai)pear  after  ])a-.sing 
the  border  of  the  State,  however,  and  are  found  in  every  commonwealili  1\  in,:; 
between  Pennsylvania  and  the  (lulf,  including  Kentucky  and  Tennessee.  A-, 
though  Providence  had  designed  that  this  republic  should  present  a  front  of 
iron  to  the  foreigner  in  every  direction  from  which  a  foe  might  invade  our 
soil,  the  immense  metallic  deposits  of  the  Atlantic  States  repeat  themselves  in 
the  Lake-Superior  region  in  the  States  of  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  and  Missouri, 
extending  as  fiir  south  as  into  Arkansas.  The  ores  are  magnetic,  s])ecular.  and 
hematite.  Farther  westward,  in  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  in  Oregon  and 
California,  these  ores  have  been  discovered  in  inexhaustible  beds ;  and  in  the 
Territory  of  Utah  a  dejiosit  has  been  recently  brought  to  light  in  the  southern 
jiart  of  the  Territory,  which  presents  an  iron  scowl  toward  Mexico,  and  whicli 
is,  perhaps,  the  richest  discovery  of  iron  yet  made  on  this  continent.  Twenty- 
eight  moimtains,  the  smallest  the  size  of  the  famous  Iron  Mountain  of  Mis- 
souri, stand  in  a  group,  absolutely  laden  with  the  richest  forms  of  the  ore  ;  and 
China,  Japan,  India,  and  Mexico  could  draw  their  supplies  of  iron  and  steel 
from  that  group  of  peaks  alone  for  ages.  Indiana,  Illinois,  and  Iowa,  lying 
within  the  iron  rampart  which  seems  to  rear  its  head  upon  every  border  of  the 
republic,  contain  no  important  bodies  of  iron  ore.  Indiana  and  Iowa 
contain  carbonates  and  bog-ores  which  are  workable  ;  but  Illinois  has  very 
little  iron  of  any  character,  and  that  little  so  contaminated  with  sulphur  as  to 
be  worthless.  All  exce])t  Iowa  are  great  iron-working  States  ;  but  they  get  their 
ores  from  Michigan  and  Missouri.  Ohio  receives  about  five  hundred  thousand 
tons  from  Michigan.  The  jjosition  of  these  three  States  as  iron-manufixcturing 
regions  is  due  to  their  beds  of  coal,  it  being  found  as  a  rule  that  it  is  cheaper 


OF   THE    UMTED    STATES. 


741 


to  tnnsport  the  ore  to  the  coal,  and  that  consecitiently  the  great  coal  States  are 
nioir  likely  to  he  filled  with  hlast-fiirnaces  and  rollinginills  than  those  which 
have  iron.  l)iit  no  fuel,  and  are  distant  from  the  coal-nieasiires  of  the  conntry. 
The  carbonates  appear  all  to  lie  within  the  basin  surrounded  by  the  lu'ignetic 
iron  range.  They  are  ai)undant  in  ivistern  Kentucky,  in  the  Ilanging-Kock 
region  of  Oiiio,  and  in  Central  I'einisylvania  ;  and  they  exist  in  West  Virginia, 
('(innecticut,  and  Indiana,  'i'hc  fossil  ores  are  found  in  Western  New  York, 
IViuisylvania,  Tennessee,  Kentucky,  Alabama,  and  Wisconsin.  Titaniferous 
mm  is  found  in  large  (juantities  in  Northern  New  York,  and  also  in  North 
(.■:iiolina,  Virginia,  Vermont,  Rhode  Island,  i'ennsylvania,  and  probably  else- 
where ;  while  the  manganiferous  (jres,  so  valuable  for  the  puri)oses  of  Messemer 
sUxl-making,  exist  in  (k-orgia,  Missouri.  Maryland.  New  Jersey,  Arkansas,  and 
M.iine.  J'iKukband  veins  are  found  in  Muhlenburgh  ("(nnuy  and  on  the  east 
fork  of  the  Little  Sandy,  in  Kentucky ,  in  Tuscarawas  County,  O.,  where  the 


IKON-m  MPS. 


largest  supply  in  the  country  is  fotmd  and  worked  ;  and  in  small  rpiantities  in 
Virginia.  Alabama,  and  I'ennsylvania.  The  last  ore  of  any  account,  the  first  one 
worked  in  this  cotmtry  (namely,  that  taken  from  the  bogs),  was  once  worked 
extensively  in  Delaware,  where,  between  1S14  and  \'^\\,  about  three  hundred 
thousand  tons  were  taken  out.  i'lxtensive  deposits  are  found  under  a  black 
mould  near  Cleorgetown  :  but  thev  are  nei,'le(  ted  now,  and  there  is  not  a  blast- 
furnace  in  the  State.  Hog-ores  are  found  in  all  the  northern  coast  States, 
though  they  are  no  longer  worked,  and  also  in  Indiana  and  Wisconsin. 

In  some  of  the  States  of  the  Union  the  deposits  are  of  such  enormous 
extent,  and  so  interesting  in  character,  that  they  deserve  special  mention. 

New-York  State  has  long  been  celebrated  for  its  mines,  especially  for 
those  of  magnetic  and  specular  ores  in  the  wild  region  lying  between  I,ake 
Cliamplain  and  Lake  CJntario.  Not  only  has  New  York  supplied  Lake-cham- 
Iier  own  furnaces  from  these  mines,  but  also  those  of  other  States  ;  p'*'"  "6'°"- 
and  she  has  also  furnished  all  the  rolling-mills  east  of  the  Alleghanies  from 


742 


INDUSTKIAI.    JllSrOHY 


\\\ 


them  with  the  matorial  for  fettling  or  lining  the  plates  of  the  'Middling-furnare. 
So  i:r!|H>rtant  are  these  ores  to  the  iron-makers  of  the  coimliy,  that  iIkv  i  oii- 
tract  for  them  <egi:!:irly  at  the  beginning  of  every  year;  and  the  mine-osviuis 
pay  no  attention  to  orders  received  after  a  certain  date.     TIk-  most  exten>ivr 
deposits  are  in  Essex  and  Clinton  ("ounties,  where  they  occ  iir  in  vast  clilVs  .iinl 
ledges,  in  masses  and  veins,  as  black  oxides,  also  as  a  red  powilcr,  and  in  sti  1 1- 
bright  crystalline  masses.     West   of  Port   Henry  are  beds  of  great  purity,  uuw 
the  property  of  the   I'ort  Henry  Iron  Company,  wliere  the  ore  is  sixty   titt 
thick,  and  is  worked  in  an  excavation  a  himdred  feet  deep,  and  from  a  himdred 
to  three  hundred  feet  wide.     This  ore,  mixed  with  pliosphale  (A  lime,  makes 
an  excellent  fertilizer  ;  and  it  is  a  curicMis  fact,  that  works  were  on(  e  built  at  this 
mine  to  manufacture  fertilizers,  to  the  neglect  of  the  iron,      hnmense  deijo^its 
occur  also  in   Franklin,  Jefferson,  St.  Lawrence,  and  Warren   Counties,  all  in 
that  region ;  but  they  have  been  scarcely  touched  as  yet.     In  Warren  Couuiy 
there  is  a  bed  of  magnetic  ore  at  least  eight  hundred  feet  thick.     Work  ujioii 
it  began  some  time  ago,  but  was  abandoned  for  the  reason  that  titanic  acid  was 
found  present  in  i*   in  considerable  (piantities,  and  the  furnace-men  did  in  it 
know  how  to  treat  the  ore.     The  same  is  true  of  other  de])osits  of  this  region 
Titanic  acid  has  been  a  great  terror  of  the  furnace-men  of  the  United  Slates , 
and  they  have  hitherto  neglected  ores  containing  it,  notwithstanding  the  fat  t 
that  the  pig-iron  made  from  them  is  worth  twice  as  much  in  the  market  as 
other  iron.     The  celebrated  titanic   ores  of  Norway  have   beon  suecesstully 
worked  in  England  ;  and  the  product  brings  a  price  three  times  as  great  a>,  any 
other  iron,  owing  to  the  circumstance,  that,  when  worked  into  armor-plates,  the 
iron  will  sustain  a  terrible  strain,  ecpial  to  a  himdred  thousand  poimds  to  the 
s(iuare  inch.     The  strongest  cast-iron  ever  tested  in  America  stood  no  more 
than  fifty  thousand  pounds'  strain.     It  is  believed  that  the  titanic  ores  of  New 
York  will  now  no  longer  be  neglected.     Sheffield  capital  has,  it   is  said,  been 
attracted  to  the  region  within  the  last  five  years  ;   and  the  ores  will  i)rol)al)Iy  be 
mined  ere  long,  on  a  large  scale,  for  steel-making.     Iron-men  claim  that  the 
working  of  titanic  ores  constitutes  to-day  one  of  the  most  inviting  fields  for 
the  employment  of  capital.     In  Southern  New  York,  near  the  mouth  of  the 
Hudson    River,  magnetic  ores   exist   in    Putnam,   Orange,   and    Westchester 
Counties,  and  red  and  brown  hematites  in  ('ohmibia  and  Dutchess  Counties,  in 
astonishing  abundance.     The  Stirling  mines  of  Orange  County  were  discov- 
ered in  1750  by  Lord  Stirling,  who  owned  them.     The  iron  was  sent  to  Eng- 
land, and  was  noted  for  its  strength  and  i)olish. 

Rhode  Island,  without  a  single  blast-fiirnace,  and  almost  wholly  given  up  to 
cotton  spinning  and  weaving,  contains  more  iron,  in  ])roportion  to  her  popula- 
Rhode  tion,  than  any  State  in  the  Union.     The  principal  deposit  is  at 

Island.  Cumberland  Mountain,  which  is  one  great  bed  of  iron.     The  ores 

of  the  State  are  magnetic  and  red  hematite.     As  early  as  the  French  war  in 
1755,  the  colony  worked  the  Cumberland  mine,  mixing  the  ore  with  hematite 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


743 


from  Cranston,  R.I.,  and  rastinj,'  cunion  therefrom  to  he  used  in  haille  against 
the  French  and  IncHans.  In  iSoo  cannon  were  again  cast  frt)m  these  ores,  at 
till'  \illage  of  Hope,  by  Mr.  John  lirown,  who  had  a  contract  witii  llie  govern- 
iiH'iit.  and  who  cast  his  guns  hollow.  One,  perhaps  more,  of  these  old  gmis,  is 
still  in  existence.  Rhode  Island  entirely  neglects  her  mines,  owing  to  the 
la(  k  of  coal;  but  her  lines  of  coal  steamers  from  Philadelphia  ought  now  to 
siii)i>ly  her  with  the  means  for  wcjrking  these  deposits.  The  industrial  produc- 
tion of  the  State  could  be  easily  doubled  by  the  mining  of  iron. 

IVnnsylvania  contains  more  than  one-third  of  the  blast-furnaces,  and 
proiiuces  fully  one-half  of  the  pig-iron,  of  the  L'nited  States.  Never'  'less, 
without  her  priceless  mines  of  coal,  she  would  scarcely  be  a  great  pen  'iva- 
iron-manufacturing  State.  She  is  surjjassed  in  wealth  of  iron  ore  "'"• 
hy  at  least  fifteen  other  States  in  the  Union,  and  is  obliged  to  import  hunt  reds 
of  thousands  of  tons  of  ore  annually  from  New  York,  Michigan,  and  New 
Jersey,  in  order  to  work  her  own  iron  successfully.  Magnetic  ores  are  rare  in 
Pennsylvania,  and  form  no  great  jxirt  of  tlie  product  of  the  State.  The  prin- 
cipal dependence  of  the  furnaces,  as  far  as  local  ores  are  concerned,  is  >ipon 
the  brown  hematites,  or  limonites,  which  are  found  in  limidcss  (piantities 
throughout  the  eastern,  south-eastern,  and  central  portions  of  the  State. 
Fossil  ores  are  found  in  Central  Pennsylvania  and  the  Hroad-'Iop  region  of 
the  southern  part  of  the  State  in  great  abundance  ;  but  the  ores  are  lean,  and 
the  iron  of  this  great  State  is  principally  made  from  the  brown  hematites  mixed 
with  the  magnetites  of  other  regions.  Discoveries  of  iron  are  being  made 
every  year  by  the  Pennsylvanians.  It  is  an  interesting  fact,  as  showing  the 
former  imperfect  state  of  information  about  iron  in  this  country,  that  the  old 
Cumberland  furnace,  built  in  1790  at  Dickinson  in  Cumberland  County,  had 
great  difificulty  in  its  early  years  to  obtain  ore.  Most  of  what  the  furnace 
consumed  was  taken  from  mines  mile  away,  and  hauled  over  bad  roads  af  a 
great  expense  of  trouble  and  time.  Ri  nt  investigations  have  disclosed  the 
fact  that  the  furnace  was  itself  actually  planted  upon  a  bed  of  ore  of  vast 
extent,  of  the  existence  of  which  no  one  had  had  any  knowledge. 

The  New-Jersey  mines  have  yielded  as  much  as  670,000  tons  of  ore  in  a 
year,  that  being  the  case  in  1S73  ;  but  never  has  there  been  a  production  of 
pig-iron  of  over  150,000  tons  therefrom,  and  the  production  at 
])resent  is  only  about  30,000  tons  a  year.  This  result  is  due  to  the 
exportation  of  the  greater  part  of  the  ores  to  Pennsylvania,  where  they  are 
consumed  by  the  great  furnace-companies  of  the  Lehigh  coal-region  in  admix- 
ture with  the  Lehigh  hematites.  The  f^res  are  almost  entirely  magnetic  oxides, 
with  some  specular  peroxides  and  limonites.  They  lie  in  the  counties  of  Sussex, 
Passaic,  Morris,  and  Warren,  covering  an  area  of  four  hundred  square  miles, 
and  show  no  signs  of  exhaustion,  though  some  of  them  have  been  worked  for 
a  century  and  a  half.  The  Franklinitc  magnetic  ore  of  the  Wallkill  Mountain 
is  remarkably  curious  and  refractory.     It  is  a  black  ore   containing  sixty-six 


New  Jersey. 


'«,« 

M 


''■\ 


744 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


per  ccnl  of  peroxide  of  iron,  sixteen  per  cent  of  zinc,  and  seventeen  per  rent 
of  red  oxide  of  nianj^anese.  It  siii>plies  an  iron  of  wonderful  streiiglh  and 
hardness,  and  is  greatly  used  in  the  construction  of  burglar-proof  safer,. 

The  two  Virginias  are  l)oth  full  of  iron.  They  produce  little  in  the  luanu- 
fiictured  form  yet,  being  fourth-class  States  in  that  respect ;  but  their  future  is 
The  Vir-  a  great  one.  The  colonial  manufacture  was  of  bog  ores  and  brown 
ginias.  hematites  near  the  .sea.     Tiie  great  deposits  of  the  Vi/ginias  wen.- 

not  then  known  :  they  have,  in  fact,  only  been  brought  to  light  of  late  year^. 
I'isery  effort  at  examination  now  reveals  fresh  iron  in  some  part  of  the  State. 
As  far  as  discovery  has  gone  up  to  the  present  time,  it  indicates  the  existim  c 
of  th^  most  valuable  ileposits  of  magnetic  and  red  oxides,  and  rich  bruwu 
hematites,  all  along  the  eastern  slope  of  the  IJlue  Ridge,  especially  along  tin- 
James-River  Valley  near  Lynchburg.  In  this  iron  belt  the  metal  is  foiuid  in 
such  quality,  that  in  1871  it  was  bringing  fifty-five  dollars  a  ton  in  I'hiiadd 
phia ;  while  Lehigh  iron  was  selling  for  thirty-five  and  forty  dollars.  Iliowu 
oxides  and  carbonates  are  also  found  in  the  .Appalachian  coal-fields.  The  oivs 
are  lean,  but  al)undant.  In  West  Virginia  so  much  of  the  country  is  still  nnikr 
timber,  that  its  resources  with  respect  to  iron  are  ill  understoo'l ;  but  rich  red 
and  brown  hematites  certainly  exist  in  Putnam,  (liles,  Craig,  Monroe,  .\lle 
ghany,  Mercer,  and  Tazewell  Counties.  The  State  has  an  al.nmdance  of  timber 
and  coal  for  working  them. 

The  great  magnetic  injn-range  which  we  have  so  far  been  following  goes 

on  through  Tennessee.  Kentucky,  and  North  Carolina,  endowing  each  of  those 

States  with  an  immense  wealth  of  ore,  and  ends  at  the  Cult"  of 

Kentucky, 

Tennessee,  ^fexico  in  the  magnificent  dejiosits  of  the  State  of  Alabama. 
and  North       Alabama  is  still  a  virgin  region  ;  but  so  huge  are  her  stor^js  of  iron 

Carolina.  i  i         <         •  i  i    i-  i- 

and  coal,  so  near  together  do  tlie  iron,  coal,  anil  limestone  lie, 
and  so  near  are  they  all  to  the  sea,  that  it  is  supposed  that  to  this  State  the 
world  may  look  for  its  fiiture  supply  of  cheap  pig-metal.  Iron  can  be  m.ule  in 
Alabama,  and  transported  to  Kngland  and  sold  there,  with  more  jjrofit  than  the 
same  grade  of  metal  can  be  made  for  in  the  kingdom.  Capital  could  l)e  more 
judiciously  invested  in  the  mines  of  this  young  and  aspiring  State  tliau  o!i 
lands  in  any  other  part  of  the  world.  The  ores  are  the  red  hematites  and  the 
fossiliferous.  The  latter  of  these  extends  from  a  point  near  Pratt's  I'Yriy  in 
Pibb  County  to  the  upper  end  of  Wills's  \'alley  in  I)e  Kalb  County:  on  the 
west  it  runs  np  to  Murphree's  Valley.  The  veins  often  "  pinch  "  to  one  foot 
in  thickness;  but  sometimes  they  are  six,  ten,  fifteen,  and  thirty  feet  in  thi(  k- 
ness.  The  hematites  occur  in  enormous  beds  in  the  northern  part  of  the 
State.  In  the  Red-Mountain  region  the  stratum  is  of  solid  ore  thirty  feet 
thick,  yielding  about  fifty  i)ei  cent  of  metallic  iron  of  the  very  finest  descri])- 
ticn.  The  ore  is  the  red  hematite,  soft,  and  remarkably  dry.  A  common 
laborer,  with  a  pick  and  crowbar,  can  get  out  a  ton  of  it  in  a  few  hours.  The 
brown  hematites  yield  about  fifty  or  sixty  per  cent  of  metallic  iron.     It  is 


OF    THE    rXlTF.D    STATES. 


745 


claiiiK'd  that  pig-iron  can  be  produced  in  Alabama  at  twelve  dollars  a  ton,  the 
cost  111  Pennsylvania  being  twenty  dollars  a  ton. 

The   Lake-Superior  iron-mines  were  first  opened  nboiit    1.S46.     'I'hc  first 
.riaU  ot"  their  ores  in  tlie  Mast  were  at  the  old  Sharpsville  (Penn.)  luriuue  in 
1S54.     In   1S56  the  shipments  of  Lake-Superior  ores  by  Laslern    Lake-Supe- 
fiirn.ites    iiad    fairly  begun,  and  amounted  to   7,000  tons:    siiu  e    "or  region, 
then  the  shii)menls  have  grown  tu  over  1,000,000  tons  a  year.     Michigan  and 


LIT   IN    IKON"    Mdl'NTAIN. 


^\'isconsin  produced  u^o.ooo  tons  of  pii^r.jron  in  1S7:;.  but  now  make  only 
about  150,000  tons.  I''i\e->i\tlis  of  the  ore  ])roduced  is  exported  to  ( )liio, 
Pennsylvania,  Indiana,  Illinois,  and  odicr  States.  Only  two  classes  of  ores  have 
been  found  in  the  Lake-Su|)erior  region,  and  they  the  richest  and  best :  they 
are  the  rich  hematites,  containing  about  seventy  per  cent  of  metallic  iron,  and 
the  magnetic  oxides,  yielding,  when  nearly  pure,  seventy-two  per  (  ent.  A 
number  of  varieties  of  these  ores  are  recognized  as  the  si)ecular,  the  slate,  the 
soft  red-and-brown,  and  the  fine-grained  and  steely  ores  :  they  all  occur  in 
enormous  beds,  lying  in  the  ridges  running  along  the  southern  sln)re  of  Lake 


746 


IND I 'S  TKIA  I.    INS  TON  Y 


Superior,  and  off  soiithcrly  into  Wisconsin.  It  is  rfjiortcd  Ity  the  pcolo;,'i>ts 
that  this  iron  was  i)rol)ahly  dissolved  out  of  the  pre-existing  strata  hy  i  hiiim  il 
agency,  and  deported  hy  filtration  in  great  horizontal  heds,  \vhi(  h  were  alti.r- 
wards  i-xposed  to  heat  and  pressure,  and  then  upturned  in  folds  and  displ.u  ( d. 
I{y  sul)se(|uent  erosion  the  tops  of  the  ore-beds  were  removed,  giving  to  the 
folds  the  appearance  of  fissure-veins.  The  largest  hematite  deposits  are  nr:ir 
Negaunee  and  Ishpening  and  at  Cascade.  Near  Negaunee  tlie  de|)osits  m- 
iens-shaped,  and  one  or  two  of  then-  have  been  worked  out.  That  re-inii 
has  sent  1,500,000  tons  of  hard  and  soft  hematite  ore  to  market  since  iNvi. 
'I'he  ore  of  the  Cascade  region  is  a  hard  slate.  In  the  vicinity  of  IIuinJMjMt 
and  of  Smith  Mountain,  eight  miles  therefrom  in  a  southerly  direction,  are  iho 
largest  mines  of  magnetic  and  specular  ore  now  being  worked  in  tiie  Si.Ui . 
At  IIumbf)ldt  a  timnel  has  been  driven  into  the  mountain  to  get  access  to  liie 
magnetic  and  specular  ores  of  the  \\'ashington  mine,  which  lie  in  four  seams 
between  strata  of  talcose,  schist,  and  (piartzite.  The  tunnel  is  450  Urt 
long,  and  cost  Si, 000, 000.  At  Smith  Moimtain  the  richness  and  purity  of  the 
specular  ore  are  unparalleled.  The  deposit  lies  against  the  north  face  of  the 
ridge.  Upon  entering  the  openuigs  of  the  mine  the  visitor  is  confronted  with 
a  face  of  ore  as  glittering  and  si)lendid  as  metallic  silver,  whose  beautv  is 
unblemished  by  seams  of  rock  or  inferior  ores  but  whose  texture  is  as  uniform 
as  refined  metal.  (Jther  rich  mines  are  found  to  th.e  westward  of  Smith  Mduii- 
tain,  in  the  vicinity  of  Lake  Michigamme,  ard  also  near  L'Ance.  They  (ou- 
stitute  what  are  called  the  mines  of  the  Man^uette  District,  —  a  region  wlii(  h 
contains  the  largest  deposits  of  rich  iron  on.'s  in  the  world.  Northern  \\  is- 
consin  contains  deposits  of  the  magnetic  oxides  similar  to  those  in  Northern 
Michigan  :  they  are  foimd  principally  in  the  Pinokee  range.  The  State  lias 
also  brown  hematites,  fossiliferous  ores,  and  bog-ores. 

The  only  other  region  that  need  be  referred  to  in  detail  is  Missouri.  The 
deposits  of  this  State  all  lie  south  of  the  Missouri  River,  with  the  single  unim- 
portant exception  of  the  red  hematite  beds  of  Callaway  County. 
The  celebrated  Iron  Mountain  is  the  largest  single  deposit  of  ore 
in  the  known  world  which  is  being  worketl.  It  may  yet  find  a  rival  in  tlie 
iron-peaks  of  Utah  ;  but  at  present  it  stands  without  a  peer.  Deposits  arc 
frequent  all  through  the  southern  portion  of  Missouri,  extending  also  into 
Arkansas.  Pilot  Knob,  Shepherd  Mountain,  Cedar  Hill,  and  Buford  Mountain. 
are  among  the  great  beds.  The  great  mines  are  all  being  actively  developed. 
The  ore  is  sent  out  of  the  State  almost  entirely  to  be  smelted,  the  export 
amounting  to  400,000  tons  annually.  The  principal  species  of  ore  are  the 
specular,  red  hematite,  and  limonite.  The  oldest  and  richest  deposits  are  in 
the  iron-bearing  porphyries,  —  a  geological  formation  which  is  regarded  as 
being  of  the  same  great  age  as  those  of  Michigan,  New  Jersey,  and  Sweden. 
They  exist  in  all  sorts  of  shapes,  veins,  beds,  and  jackets,  some  very  regular, 
and  others  broken  and  irregular.     At  Iron  Mountain  there  are  bedy  of  specular 


Missouri. 


OF    THE    UX/TED    STATES. 


747 


ore  on  the  surface  from  four  to  twenty  feet  thick,  and,  within  the  mountain, 
masses  of  ore  with  decomposed  porpiiyry  between.  The  ore  is  nearly  a  jiuro 
peroxide,  containing  seventy  per  ( ent  of  metallic  iron.  'I'here  are  2,000.000 
tons  of  it  in  this  deposit.  Magnetic  particles  are  scattered  through  the  moun- 
tain. At  lUiford  Mountain  the  ori'  is  rich  in  manganese.  'I'hi'  I'ilot-Knob, 
Ikiiton-Creek,  and  Simmons-Mountain  mines  are  of  specular  ore,  an<l  contain 
troin  500,000  to  1,500,000  tons  'mc  li.  The  red  hematites  and  limonites  are 
bi.iticred  ihroiiyhout  the  iron  region  in  irregular  depo-^its. 

It  ought  to  be  evident  from  this  hasty  glance  at  the  wonderful  resources 
of  this  republic  in  respect  to  iron,  and  from  the  additional  fat  I  that  the  blast- 
furnace capacity  of  the  country  is  now  more  than  cfpial  to  its  wants,    Rjchneas  of 
that  the  era  of  high-priced  metal  through  which  the  country  has   country  in 

1  111  .1  .  •       A     I      -.1     .1  this  mineral. 

k'Lii  passmg,  and  which  appears  to  have  ternunated  with  the  panic 
01  1B73,  is  really  and  truly  at  an  end,  as  well  as  apparently  so.  With  more 
iron  ore  than  any  other  country  in  the  world,  with  coal  in  unsurpassed  abun- 
dance, and  with  means  for  cheap  transi)ortalion  fully  adequate  to  the  wants 
of  the  age,  and  an  abundance  of  labor,  we  have  all  the  retpiisites  for  the 
working  of  iron  upon  an  enormous  scale,  and  consequently  for  its  i)rodu(  tion 
at  a  price  which  will  bid  defiance  to  foreign  competition.  It  could  only  be 
by  some  extraordinary  demc  alization  of  the  labor  of  the  country,  or  some 
unwonted  demand  for  iron  i  other  i)arts  of  the  world,  that  iron  wouUl  ever 
he  likely  to  rise  again  to  seventy-three  dollars  a  ton,  as  it  did  in  the  year  i<S64. 
The  prol)abilities  are,  that  America  will,  in  the  course  of  the  next  five  years, 
become  one  of  tiie  world's  regular  sources  of  supply  for  pig-iion  in  couqjeti- 
tion  with  England. 


m 


•^1. 


748 


INDUSTRIAL    11  IS  TORY 


CHAFri'R  VIII. 


I  I 

j4# 


ii; 


t  w 


VA'W 


MINOR   METALS. 

AMONG  the  minor  metals  produrcd  in  the  United  States,  zinr  is  the  most 
important.  Its  existence  in  tliis  country,  in  greater  or  less  al)iMi(l.mrc. 
Zinc,  where  was  discovered  at  a  very  early  day.  In  one  form  or  another,  and 
found.  often  in  combination  with  the  ores  of  otlier  metals,  it  was  repcatcdlv 

found  along  the  Appalachian  chain.  It  was  known  in  colonial  days  to  he  stored 
away  in  the  drand  Monadnock  in  New  Hampshire;  hut  only  the  most  insig- 
nificant (juantity  has  ever  been  practically  mineil  in  that  State.  Northern  New 
Jersey  and  Eastern  Tennsylvanla  were  also  known  to  contain  sevenil  <  (im- 
pounds of  zinc  at  an  early  day.  The  red  oxide  is  only  found  near  I'ranklin. 
Sussex  (-"ounty,  of  the  former  State  ;  but  sulphides,  carbf)nates,  silie;ite>;.  and 
other  ores,  are  found  in  that  neighborhood  and  at  the  W'heatley  and  I'erkionien 
mines  in  Pennsylvania,  'i'iie  one  county  abo\e  specified,  and  Northamptnn 
County,  I'enn.,  are  tiie  only  two  in  that  section  that  are  profitably  engagid  i  i 
the  proiluction  of  the  metal.  We  have  already  sjioken  of  the  lead-deposits 
of  Wythe  County,  Va.  :  zinc  is  also  found  there  to  a  limited  extent.  The 
famous  Davidson  mines  of  North  Carolina  abound  in  tiiis  metal,  and  they  are 
credited  with  an  even  greater  product  than  those  of  Pennsylvania  and  New 
Jersey.  Large  deposits  of  zinc  arc  known  to  exist  in  Eastern  Tennessee. 
One  locality  spoken  of  is  at  Mossy  Creek,  a  little  north-east  of  Knoxville  :  ;'nd 
another  is  about  forty  miles  from  that  city,  at  Powell's  River.  Campbell  CA)uiity. 
As  yet,  however,  this  resource  has  not  been  developed.  .\  lead-mining  region 
in  .\rkansas,  including  Lawrence,  Marion,  and  Independence  Counties,  is  said 
to  show  the  same  very  favorable  indications,  but  without  their  having  been 
turned  to  account.  Zinc  is  obtained  in  small  quantities  from  Iowa  and 
Lafayette  Counties,  Wis. ;  and  might  also  be  procured,  probably,  from  the 
Rocky-Mountain  range. 

While  this  uset"ul  metal  is  by  no  means  rare  or  of  recent  discovery  in  tliis 
country,  its  systematic  and  profitable  production  dates  back  only  a  few  years. 
American  zinc,  or  spelter,  is  of  a  better  (piality  for  some  jjurposes,  notably  gal- 
vanic batteries,  than  the  foreign  article ;  and  we  now  produce  some  $800,000 


Oh     TIN-:    rxlTKD    STATES. 


74'; 


vtorth  annually,  which  is  cnrxiKli  f<»r  our  homc-ronsiimptinn  :  \vc  import  only 
1  vcrv  ^niall  quantity  ;  but  the  t  harac:tcr  of  the  ort-s  was  sue  h,  that    , 

■  .  '  lt»  produc- 

ihc  iiutal  could  not  easily  be  extracted.     In  1838  experiments  tion  proftta- 
Mri'  made  with  New-Jersey  ore  at  the  L'nited-J-tates  Assay  Oflice.   '»'«o"iy'" 

1111  I  .  .  recent  timet. 

/inc  was  ol)tanie(l ;  bnt  the  process  cost  more  than  the  product, 
11(1  this  announc  (.incnt  <|uite  dis(OMra},'ed  operations  for  over  ten  years.  In 
iS^()  the  New-Jersi'y  /inc  ("oinpany  (jpeiicd  mines  on  Stirling  Hill,  near 
uiiii  li  the  Passaic  ("()nii»any  afterward  sunk  shafts.  The  New-Jersey  Company 
iinr  taken  out  the  fmest  specimens  of  /inc  ore  the  world  ever  New-jeney 
Mu.  In  1.S51  they  sent  to  the  (Ireut  I'lvhibition  in  London  a  Company. 
Miiylc  mass  wi.ighing  16,400  pounds,  wiiic  h  attracted  great  attention.  The 
Irmklinite  which  a(  ( (Miipanied  this  rich  ore,  however,  proved  a  great  em- 
ii,iriM>sment ;  and,  after  much  exjjenditure,  labor  was  temporarily  abandoned. 
Tlu'  New-Jersey  C'ompany  afterward  worked  mines  in  the  Sau<'on  Valley,  north 
(if  Iriedensville,  I'enn. ;  near  whi(  h  the  Pennsylvania  and  Lehigh  Zinc  Com- 
|i.iin  also  began  operations  simultaneously  in  1853.  For  this  latter  corporation 
.1  Mr.  Hoofstetter  erected  a  smelting-furnace,  and  made  costly  experiments  in 
1S3C)  ;  but  these  also  proved  failures.  Subsetjuently  Josejjh  Wharton  of  iIk; 
iViiiisylvania  and  Lehigh  Company,  and  Samuel  Wetherill  of  Hethlehem, 
where  the  company's  furnaces  are  located,  hit  upon  a  new  idea.  Neither  of 
them  met  with  encouraging  success  at  first ;  but  finally  the  obstacles  were  all 
overcome,  and  work  ])rogressed  finely  thereafter.  The  Saucon  mine  was  the 
first  to  get  under  way  again,  about  1858-59;  and  the  Lehigh  was  put  on  a 
paying  basis  in  i86o.  Success  here  soon  encouraged  it  elsewhere  ;  but  these 
mines,  those  of  New  Jersey,  and  those  of  Davidson  County,  N.C.,  furnish  all 
init  about  one-fortieth  of  the  country's  i)roduct. 

The  manufacture  of  jiaint  from  white  oxide  of  zinc  as  a  substitute  for  lead- 
\m\\\  was  conducted  profitably  by  the  three  corporations  above  named  before 
they  could  realize  any  thing  from  their  efforts  to  produce  metallic 
zinc.  The  New-Jersey  Comi)any  was  organized  in  1849,  and  its 
siKccss  led  to  the  formation  of  the  Pennsylvania  and  Lehigh  Company  in 
i'\S^;  and  the  two,  in  like  manner,  induced  the  organization  of  the  Passaic 
('(imi)any  in  1856.  The  discovery  of  tlie  possibility  of  economically  utilizing 
the  red  oxide  for  this  purpose  was  made  in  Kurope ;  but  the  process  now  in 
extensive  use  was  invented  by  Richard  Jones  of  Philadelphia  in  1850. 

Tin  is  found  in  small  <iuantities  in  several  parts  of  this  country,  but  has 
nr\er  been  mined  on  any  systematic  plan.  The  ores  are  of  too  poor  a  (quality 
ti)  pay  for  working ;  although  specimens  were  found  some  years 
aL,(j  near  Jackson,  N.H.,  containing  from  thirty  to  forty  per  cent  of 
the  metal  in  crystals.  It  has  also  been  discovered  in  ajipreciable  quantities  in 
(  'hfornia,  Idaho,  near  Paris  and  Hebron,  Me.,  and  near  Goshen  and  Chester- 
ficKl,  Mass.  Traces  of  it  have  also  been  detected  in  the  iron  ores  of  the 
Hudson  Valley  and  in  the  zinc  of  New  Jersey. 


Zinc-palnt. 


fc 


Q,   l;i.'r 


m 


750 


/A'ZJ  CS  TRIA  L    Ills  TOR  Y 


Quicksilver,  or  mercury,  is  ?.  metal  which  is  very  rare,  and  for  which  the 

world  is  largely  I  lepcndcnt  upon  this  country.     The  greatest  i)roduccr  known 

is  the  Almaden  mine  in  Spain,  from  which  the  Greeks  imported  the 

Quicksilver.  111 

ore  —  red  cmnabar  —  seven  hundred  years  before  Christ.  Ah  •► 
half  of  the  total  supply  comes  from  that  source.  After  this  mine,  that  at  Idria 
in  Austria  long  ranked  second  ;  but  for  a  time  the  State  of  California  has  hold 
this  position,  though  she  may  not  just  at  present.  This  metal  has  not  \)ww 
discovered  anywhere  in  this  hemisi)hcre,  except  in  the  Rocky  Mountains  ;ui(l 
Andes.  Peru  and  Mexico  yielded  large  ([uantities  before  California's  store 
was  revealed.  The  discovery  in  this  last-named 
quarter  was  particularly  opportune  ;  for,  in  addition 
to  its  use  in  making  mirrors,  certain  forms  of  medi- 
cine, and  otherwise,  it  had  been  found  a  particularly 
valuable  agent  in  the  extraction  of  gold  from  quartz 
by  the  amalgam-process. 

The  existence  of  cinnabar  in  California  was  known 
Cinnabar  in  long  before,  its  value  was  understood. 
California.  jj^g  q^^,  ^^^^  fo'md  in  a  range  of  hills  on 
the  south  side  of  the  Valley  of  San  Jose',  sixty  miles 


t*  (il'ji 


Ql'ICKSlI.VER-WORKS. 

south  of  Sa'n  Francisco,  and  was  used  by  the  Indians  for  a  pigment,  its  ver- 
milion hue  rendering  it  particularly  valuable  in  the  adornment  of  their  persons. 
Indians  came  thither  from  as  distant  a  point  as  the  Columbia  River  to  obtain 
this  desirable  paint.  As  early  as  1824  the  whites  began  to  search  for  the  ore, 
having  learned  of  its  existence  from  the  aborigines,  and  hoping  to  extract  gold 
or  silver  from  it.  Its  real  character  was  not  discovered,  however,  until  1S45  : 
whereupon  operations  were  immediately  begun  by  Andres  Castillero.  Little 
New  Alma-  was  accomplished,  however,  owing  to  the  Mexican  war,  until  1850, 
den  mine.  when  a  Company  of  Englishmen  and  Mexicans  engaged  exten- 
sively in  mining   and   smelting.     The    mine   was   named   "  Xew   Almaden." 


OF    THE    CA'/TKD    STATES. 


75» 


This  whole  region  of  country  had  already  come  into  the  possession  of  the 
United  Stales  ;  hut  the  government  did  not  discover  the  flaw  in  the  miners' 
title,  and  stop  proceedings,  until  1858.  In  these  eight  years  more  than  20,000,- 
000  pounds  of  (piicksilver  were  extracted,  at  a  profit  of  more  than  $8,000,000. 
The  production  during  this  period  was  second  only  to  that  of  Spanish  Alma- 
den.  The  action  of  the  Federal  authorities  led  the  American  discoverers  to 
look  elsewhere  in  the  neigiiborhood,  and  they  found  cinnabar  within  a  mile  of 
the  first  mine.  A  shaft  was  sunk,  called  "  Hnrecjuita,"  and  a  company  formed, 
in  June,  i860,  called  "  T'he  California  Quicksilver  Mining  .Association."  Nearly 
500.000  pounds  were  obtained  the  first  year  from  this  mine  ;  and  soon  after 
the  same  company  openetl  another  mine,  called  "The  Providencia,"  from 
which  they  obtained  some  cinnabar. 

On  the  same  range  of  hills  the  Santa  Clara  Mining  Company  of  Baltimore 
opened  a  mine  which  yielded  200,000  pounds  the  first  year  (i860),   santa  ciara 
I'rospecting  has  since  discovered   cinnabar  up  in   Lake  County,   Mining 
and  mining  and  smelting  are  now  carried  on  there  with  profit.  ompany. 

One  of  the  most  valuable  discoveries  of  cinnabar  has  been  made  at  New 
Idria,  in  Fresno  County,  on  the  Big  Panoche  Creek,  some  hundred  and 
thirty  miles  soudi-east  of  San  Francisco.  The  property  has  been  New-idria 
in  litigation  for  many  years.  One  McGarrahan  laid  claim  to  it  on  Company. 
the  pretence  of  having  a  title  from  the  Panoche  Indians,  (or  was  it  from  the 
Mexican  Government?)  but  the  United-States  Government,  not  regarding  the 
title  valid,  granted  the  land  to  the  New  Idria  Quicksilver  Mining  Company. 
The  courts  have  sustained  the  latter  in  all  contests  ;  but  the  controversy  is  not 
yet  ended.  The  New  Idria  Company  are  now  in  possession,  and  operating 
the  mines. 

It  is  impossible  to  get  accurate  figures  of  the  total  p.  eduction  of  this 
country;  but  the  exports  of  <iuicksilver  for  1877  alone  amounted  to  3,625,713 
pounds,  and  the  total  yield  could  hardly  have  been  less  than  5,000,-  Extent  of 
000.  which  is  only  equalled,  if  at  all,  by  Spain.  If  California  does  production. 
not  now  stand  at  the  head  of  the  producers  of  quicksilver  in  the  world,  she 
doubtless  will  shortly.  T'he  value  of  her  product  can  be  estimated  from  the 
price.  —  nearly  fifty  cents  a  pound. 

Platinum  is  found  in  this  country  only  in  California  and  Oregon,  where  it 
exists  in  pure  scales  mingled  with  scales  of  gold  in  placers.  It  is  collected  in 
too  small  quantities  to  make  any  accurate  statement  of  its  value     .    . 

■•  ■'  Platinum. 

possible.     Its   presence   has  also   been   detected   in    Rutherford 
County,  N.C.,  and  in  the  copper  and  lead  of  Lancaster  County,  Penn.     Most 
of  our  supply  is  imported,  Russia  being  the  chief  producer  of  the  world.     It 
is  valued  principally  because  of  its  power  of  resisting  the  action  of  heat  and 
the  strongest  chemical  agents  ;  but  this  very  quality  makes  it  hard  to  work. 

Nickel  is  a  hard,  white  metal,  which  for  a  long  time  was  used  almost  exclu- 
sively to  make  the  alloy  known  is  "  German  silver,"  the  proportions  of  its 


I 


752 


IND  US  TRIA  L    II IS  TOR  V 


%i^ 


t 


**i.v.A. 


ingredients  being  eight  parts  of  copper  to  three  each  of  zinc  and  nickel.     But 
since  1857  it  has  been  utilized  in  our  coinat^e  to  some  extent,  and 

Nickel* 

still  more  recently  the  hardness  and  lustre  of  the  metal  have  led 
to  the  extensive  plating  of  steel  and  cop])er  ware  with  it.  For  this  jjurposc  it 
is  far  preferable  to  silver.  Says  "  The  Kighty  Years'  Progress,"  "  The  metal 
has  been  mined  at  ('hatham,  Conn.,  and  is  met  with  at  Mine  La  Motte.  Mo., 
and  other  localities  where  cobalt  is  found.  It  occurs  in  the  greatest  al)uri- 
dance  at  an  old  mine  in  Lancaster  County,  Penn.,'  where  it  is  associated  with 
copper  ores.  The  mine  was  originally  worked  for  copper,  it  is  said,  more  than 
a  hundred  and  thirty  years  ago,-'  and  was  re-opened  for  supplying  nickel  for 
the  United-States  mint  on  the  introduction  of  the  new  cent  in  1857.  The 
sulphuret  of  nickel,  containing,  when  pure,  64.9  per  cent  of  nickel  and  35.1 
per  cent  of  sulphur,  is  in  very  large  quantity,  in  two  veins  of  great  size,  one  of 
which  has  been  traced  six  himdred  feet  and  the  other  over  nine  hundred  teet 
in  length.  Li  1859  it  was  producing  at  the  rate  of  two  hundred  tons  of  nickel 
ore,  and  ten  tons  of  copper  ore,  per  month.  A  pyritous  variety  of  nickel  ore, 
called  seigenite,  is  found  at  Mine  La  Motte,  Mo.,  and  in  Carroll  County,  Md. 
In  Caston  and  Lincoln  Counties,  N.C.,  similar  ore  was  foimd  by  l^rotessor 
Wurtz." 

Two  exceedingly  hard  white  metals,  which  are  very  rare,  and  used  for 
Iridium  and  scarcely  any  thing  but  pointing  gold  pens,  are  fountl  with  the  gold 
osmium.  j^j-jjI    platinum   washings    of   the    Pacific-coast    States :     these   are 

iridium  and  osmium,  and  are  generally  alloyed  by  nature  with  one  another. 

Cobalt,  prized  particularly  for  the  rich  blue  color  it  imparts  to  glass,  and  of 
rare  occurrence,  was  obtained  in  this  country  as  early  as  1787  at  Chatham, 
Conn.,  where  it  is  found  in  combination  with  arsenic,  and  associated 
with  nickel,  'i'he  mine  has  been  worked  irregidarly  in  the  present 
century.  Traces  of  it  are  found  also  in  Maryland.  Mine  La  Motte,  in  Mis- 
souri, furnished  for  some  time  an  oxide  combined  with  manganese ;  but  the 
vein  is  now  virtually  exhausted.  A  like  ore  is  found  in  Gaston  and  Lincoln 
Counties,  N.C.  :  it  is  mingled  with  galena,  blende,  tin-bearing  iron,  and  oihtr 
metallic  compounds. 

Chrome,  or  chromium,  occurs  in  combination  with  iron,  the  ore  being 
called  chromate  of  iron.  It  is  used  chiefly  as  a  coloring-matter  in  dyeing  and 
printing  calico.  The  deposits  are  generally  in  the  serpentine 
rocks  of  the  United  States.  The  Base  Hills  near  Baltimore,  the 
Maryland  line  just  south  of  Chester  and  Lancaster  Counties,  Penn.,  Holjoken, 
Staten  Island,  and  Northern  Vermont,  yield  it  in  greater  or  less  quaiitities. 
The  locality  mentioned  along  the  Maryland  and  Pennsylvania  border,  however, 
is  the  scarce  from  which  the  greatest  (juantity  is  obtained.  In  this  region  the 
ore  was  not  only  embedded  in  the  rock  whence  it  was  mined,  but  was  found 

'  This  is  the  only  establishmenl  returned  in  the  census  as  producing  in  1870. 
"  This  was  written  in  i860. 


Cobalt. 


''^^^.v-'J 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


753 


in  loose  fiagments  among  the  serpentine  rocks  upon  the  tracts  called  the  "  Bar- 
rens." This  latter  supply  was  exhausted  about  1854  \  but  mining  still  continues 
at  a  small  profit. 

Manganese  is  a  metal  of  little  value  for  itself;  but  one  of  its  ores,  pyrolu- 
site,  by  giving  up  its  oxygen  readily,  is  of  great  use  for  chemical  purposes.  It 
is  largeh'  employed  in  th^  manufacture  of  chloride  of  lime,  or  .. 

Manganese. 

blcaching-powder.  Its  faintly  reddish  color  makes  it  serviceable, 
also,  in  destroying  the  greenish  tinge  of  glass,  in  the  manufacture  of  which  it 
is  generally  employed.  Pyrolusite  is  found,  according  to  "  Eighty  Years' 
Progress,"  along  the  range  of  hematite  ores  from  Canada  to  Alabama,  and  has 
been  mined  to  a  considerable  extent  at  Chittenden  anil  Bennington,  Vt.,  West 
Stockbridge  and  Sheffield,  Mass.,  on  the  Delaware  River  near  Kutztown, 
Berks  County,  Penn. ;  and  it  abounds,  also,  in  different  parts  of  the  gold 
region,  as  on  Hard-Labor  Creek,  Edgefield  District,  S.C. 


■>Vtm(5«5)nrajBW;i« 


754 


INDUSTRIAL  HISTORY 


,^, 


hi  A 


\  ii 


CHAPTER  IX. 


QUARRYING. 

MINERALOGISTS  are  accustomed  to  discriminate  between  the  deposits 
of  metals  and  stone  by  applying  the  term  "veins"  to  the  former,  ami 
^.    .     .  "beds"   to  the  latter.     Our  rocks,  being  mostly  of  sedimentary 

Distinction  '  o  / 

between  formation,  lie   in  horizontal  strata,  except  where   the  same   have 

mine  and        \)QQXi  upheaved  into  mountains  by  the  gigantic  subterranean  forces 

quarry.  '  j  o  a 

of  nature.  But  metals  are  usually  found  in  cracks  or  fissures  run- 
ning more  or  less  perpendicularly  through  the  stone  formations,  the  deposits 
having  been  made  by  injection  of  molten  matter  from  below,  or  by  infiltration 
and  accretion  brought  about  by  the  circulation  of  metal  freighted  curients  of 
water  at  a  time  when  the  rocks  were  submerged.  This  distinction  between 
veins  and  beds  is  carried  still  further  by  the  application  of  the  word  '*  mine  " 
to  the  excavation  for  metals  and  carboniferous  deposits,  and  of  "  quarry  "  to 
that  made  for  the  removal  of  stone. 

It  needs  no  explanation  to  show  that  quarrying  could  not  have  been 
carried  on  in  this  country  until  stone  was  needed  for  building  and  paving 
Colonists  did  P^^poses,  or  for  such  art  and  minor  mechanical  uses  as  tlie  rarer 
not  engage  stoncs  are  put  to.  But,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  quarries  were  not 
in  quarrying.  Qpgj-jgj  wx)!0\  long  after  the  need  was  felt.  Of  course  the  earl)' 
settler  found  the  log-cabin,  the  corduroy  road,  and  the  wooden  bridge, 
sufficient  for  his  requirements ;  and  loose  stone  enough  for  foundation-walls 
could  easily  be  gathered  on  the  surface  of  the  earth.  Yet,  even  after  the 
desirability  of  more  handsome  and  durable  building-material  for  public  edifices 
in  the  colonial  cities  was  keenly  appreciated,  the  ample  resources  which  nature 
had  afforded  in  this  country  were  slighted,  and  brick  and  stone  were  imported 
by  the  Dutch  and  English  settlers  from  the  Old  World.  Thus  we  find  the 
colonists  of  New  Netherlands,  afterwards  New  York,  putting  yellow  brick  on 
their  list  of  non-dutiable  imports  in  1648;  and  such  buildings  in  Boston  as 
are  described  as  being  "  fairly  set  forth  with  brick,  tile,  slate,  and  stone,"  were 
thus  provided  only  with  foreign  products.  Isolated  instances  of  quarrying  are 
known  to  have  occurred  in  the  last  century ;  but  they  were  rare.     The  edifice 


known  as  " 
as  being  bui 
tree,  Mass. 
(Iranite 
found  in  lei 
ries  that  we 
anil  work  b 
fame  of  the 
markets,  — 
(afterwards 
Custom  He 
structed   of 
the  Atlantic 
whole  bloc 
the  (^uinc) 
was  a   hor 
in  1S27. 

Other 
.\fter  Mair 
its  granite, 
also  been  < 
choicer  spi 
an<l   other 
therefrom, 
elsewhere 
massive  br 
is  Staten  '. 
the  cubic 
five.    The 
is  also  esp 
New  York 
of  Weeha^ 
1  )eposit. 
Near   Ab 
(^uincy. 
as  soft  a 
Rocky  M 
quarried 
Grani 
shape.     ! 
transport 
series  of 
distance 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


755 


known  as  "King's  Chapel,"  Boston,  erected  in  1752,  is  the  first  one  on  record 
as  being  built  from  American  sl^^ne  :  this  was  of  granite,  brought  from  lirain- 
tree,  Mass. 

(Iranite  is  a  rock  particularly  abundant  in   New  F^ngland,  though   also 
found  in  lesser  quantities  elsewhere  in  this  country.     The  first  granite  cjuar- 
ries  that  were  extensively  developed  were  those  at  Quincy,  Mass. ;   Granite 
and  work  began  at  that  point  early  in  the  present  century.     The   where 
fame  of  the  stone  became  wide-spread,  and  it  was  sent  to  distant  '°""^'  *'^- 
markets,  —  even  to  New  Orleans.    The  old  Merchants'  Exchange  in  New  York 
(afterwards  used  as  a  custom-house),  the  Astor  House  in  that  city,  and  the 
Ciistoni  House  in  New  Orleans,  all  nearly  or  cjuite  fifty  years  old,  were  con- 
structed   of  Quincy  granite,  as  were  also  many  other  fine  buildings   along 
the  Atlantic  coast.     In  later  years,  not  only  isolated  public  edifices,  but  also 
wliole  blocks  of  stores,  have  been  constructed  of  this  material.     It  was  from 
the  (Quincy  quarries   that  the  first  railroad  in   this  country  was   built :    this 
was  a   horse-railroad,  three  miles  long,  extending  to  Neponset  River,  built 
in  1827. 

Other  points  in  Massachusetts  have  been  famed  for  their  excellent  granite. 
After  Maine  was  set  off  as  a  distinct  State,  Fox  Island  acquired  repute  for 
its  granite,  and  built  up  an  extensive  traffic  therein.  Westerly,  R.I.,  has 
also  been  engaged  in  (juarrying  this  valuable  rock  for  many  years,  most  of  its 
choicer  specimens  having  been  wrought  for  monumental  purposes.  Statues 
and  other  elaborate  commemorative  designs  are  now  extensively  made 
therefrom.  Smaller  pieces  and  a  coarser  quality  of  the  stone  are  here  and 
elsewhere  along"  the  coast  obtained  in  large  quantities  for  the  construction  of 
massive  breakwaters  to  protect  harbors.  Another  point  famous  for  its  granite 
is  Staten  Island,  N.Y.  This  stone  weighs  a  hundred  and  eighty  pounds  to 
the  cubic  foot,  while  the  Quincy  granite  weighs  but  a  hundred  and  sixty- 
five.  The  Staten-Island  product  is  not  only  used  for  building-purposes,  but 
is  also  especially  esteemed  for  paving  after  both  the  Russ  and  Belgian  patents. 
New  York  and  other  cities  derive  large  supplies  from  this  source.  The  granite 
of  Weehawken,  N.J.,  is  of  the  same  character,  and  greatly  in  demand.  Port 
Deposit,  Md.,  and  Richmond,  Va.,  are  also  centres  of  granite-production. 
Near  Abbeville,  S.C.,  and  in  (leorgia,  granite  is  found  quite  like  that  at 
(^)uincy.  Much  Southern  granite,  however,  decomposes  readily,  and  is  almost 
as  soft  as  clay.  This  variety  of  stone  is  found  in  great  abundance  in  the 
Rocky  Mountains ;  but,  except  to  a  slight  extent  in  California,  it  is  not  yet 
quarried  there. 

Granite,  having  little  grain,  can  be  cut  in  blocks  of  almost  any  size  and 
shape.     Specimens  as  much  as  eighty  feet  long  have  been  taken  out,  and 
transported  great  distances.     The  quarrying  is  done  by  drilling  a   process  of 
scries  of  small  holes,  six  inches  or  inore  deep,  and  about  the  same   q"a"y'nK- 
distance  apart,  inserting  steel  wedges  along  the  whole  line,  and  then  tapping 


1 

m 

imL 

^^■^ 

^ra 

!^9 

Jn 

I^BS 

1 

7S6 


IND US  Th'/A  L    niS  TOR  Y 


1.:* 


m 


'm 


each  gently  with  a  hammer  in  succession,  in  order  that  the  strain  may  \k 
evenly  distributed. 

A  building- material  which  came  into  general  use  earlier  than  granite  is 
brown  freestone,  or  sandstone ;  although  its  first  employment  probably  doLs 
Brown  not  (late  back  farther  than  the  erection  of  King's  Chapel,  lioslun, 

sandstone.  already  refened  to  as  the  earliest  well-known  occasion  wluix- 
granite  was  used  in  building.  Altogether  the  most  famous  of  American  sand- 
stone (juarries  are  those  at  Portland,  opposite  Middletown,  on  the  Connecti- 
cut River.  These  were  worked  before  the  Revolution ;  and  tiicir  prodtw  t 
has  been  shipped  to  many  distant  jjoints  in  the  country.  'I'he  long  rows 
of  "  brown-stone  fronts  "  in  New-York  City  arc  mostly  of  Portland  stoiic  ; 
though  in  many  cases  the  walls  are  chiefly  of  brick  covered  with  thin  laycir, 
of  the  stone.  The  old  red  sandstone  of  the  Connecticut  Valley  is  distin- 
guished in  geology  for  the  discovery  of  gigantic  fossil  footprints  of  birds,  fir-^i 
noticed  in  the  Portland  (juarrics  in  1S02.  Some  of  these  footprints  measured 
ten  by  sixteen  inches,  and  they  were  from  four  to  six  fee.  apart.  Tlie  sand- 
stone of  Pelleville,  N.J.,  has  also  extensive  use  and  reputation.  Trinity 
Church  in  New- York  City  and  the  Boston  Athenteimi  are  built  of  the  produrt 
of  these  ciuarries.  St.  Lawrence  County,  N.Y.,  is  noted  also  for  a  fine  beil 
Potsdam  of  saudstone.  At  Potsdam  it  is  exposed  to  a  depth  of  se\cnty 
sandstone.  fg^j-^  There  are  places,  though,  in  New  iMigland,  New  York, 
and  Eastern  Pennsylvania,  where  a  dejjth  of  three  hundred  feet  has  been 
reached.  The  Potstlam  sandstone  is  often  split  to  the  thinness  of  an  inch. 
It  hardens  by  exposure,  and  is  often  used  for  smelting-furnace  hearthstones. 
Shawangunk  Mountain,  in  Ulster  County,  yields  a  sandstone  of  inferior 
quality,  which  has  been  unsuccessfully  tried  for  paving ;  but  it  wears  very 
unevenly.  From  Ulster,  Greene,  and  Albany  Counties  sandstone  slabs  for 
sidewalks  are  extensively  ciuarried  for  city  use ;  the  principal  outlets  of 
those  sections  being  Kingston,  Saugerties,  Coxsackie,  Bristol,  and  New  l]alti- 
more,  on  the  Hudson.  In  this  region  quantities  amounting  to  millions  of 
square  feet  are  taken  out  in  large  sheets,  which  are  afterwards  sawed  into  the 
sizes  desired.  The  vicinity  of  Medina  in  Western  New  York  yields  a  sand- 
stone extensively  used  in  that  section  for  paving  and  curbing,  and  a  little 
for  building.  A  rather  poor  quality  of  this  stone  has  been  found  along  the 
Potomac,  and  some  of  it  was  used  in  the  interior  of  the  old  Capitol  building 
at  Washington.  Ohio  yields  a  sandstone  that  is  of  a  light  gray  color : 
Berea,  Amherst,  Vermilion,  and  Massillon,  are  the  chief  points  of  production. 
St.  Genevieve,  Mo.,  yields  a  stone  of  fine  grain,  and  of  a  light  straw-color, 
which  is  quite  equal  to  the  famous  Caen  stone  of  France.  The  Lake-Superior 
sandstones  are  dark  and  coarse-grained,  but  strong. 

In  some  parts  of  the  country,  where  neither  granite  nor  sandstone  is  easily 
procured,  blue  and  gray  limestone  are  sometimes  used  for  building,  and,  when 
.  hammer-dressed,  often  look  like  granite.    A  serious  objection  to  their  use,  how 


ever,  is  the  0( 

a  building. 

peka  stone,  11 

rtood  when  1 

I'lie  limeston 

Mad)lehead, 

liowling  Grei 

limestone  is  c 

adapted.     It 

One  of  t 

burning,  into 

Kiually  excel 

(oal.  near  th 

century.     It 

invading  Vir 

Siiiithfield,  \ 

Highlands,  £ 

Ulster  Couni 

aiifl  other  W 

dependent  o 

Marbles, 

abundant  in 

.\s  early  as 

ary.     ICarly 

for  gravesto 

granite  and 

to  a  great  ' 

purposes,  h 

marbles  wei 

,\inong  the 

lege,  Philad 

the  latter  ci 

at  Washingt 

Our  exports 

thousand  d 

Italy.     And 

the  famous 

This  Str 

belt  runs  be 

ary  is  obt? 

less  sound, 

coarser,     l^ 

also  hands 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


757 


Limestone. 


ever,  is  the  occasional  presence  of  iron,  which  rusts  on  exposure,  and  defaces 
,1  building.  In  Western  New  York  they  are  widely  used.  To- 
peka  stone,  Hke  the  coquina  of  Florida  and  Bermuila,  is  soft  like 
wood  when  first  (luarried,  and  easily  wrought ;  but  it  hardens  on  exposure. 
[he  limestones  of  Canton,  Mo.,  Joliet  and  Athens,  111.,  Dayton,  Sandusky, 
Marblchead,  and  other  points  in  Ohio,  I-^llittsville,  Ind.,  and  Louisville  and 
Bowling  Green,  Ky.,  are  great  favorites  West,  In  many  of  these  regions 
limestone  is  extensively  used  for  macadamizing  roads,  for  which  it  is  excellently 
adapted.     It  also  yields  excellent  slabs  or  flags  for  sidewalks. 

(Jne  of  the  principal  uses  of  this  variety  of  stone  is  its  conversion,  liy 
Inirning,  into  lime  for  building-purposes.  All  limestones  are  by  no  means 
Kjiially  excellent  in  this  regard.  Thomaston  lime,  burned  with  Pennsylvania 
(oal,  near  the  Penobscot  River,  has  had  a  wide  reputation  for  nearly  half  a 
iLTitury.  It  has  been  shipped  thence  to  points  all  along  the  Atlantic  coast, 
invading  Virginia  as  far  as  Lynchburg,  and  going  even  to  New  Orleans. 
Siiiithfield,  R.I.,  and  Westchester  County,  N.Y.,  near  the  lower  end  of  the 
Highlands,  also  make  a  particularly  excellent  quality  of  lime.  Kingston,  in 
Ulster  County,  makes  an  inferior  sort  for  agricultural  purposes.  The  Ohio 
and  other  Western  stones  yield  a  poor  lime,  and  that  section  is  almost  entirely 
dependent  on  the  East  for  its  supplies. 

Marbles,  like  limestones,  with  which  they  are  closely  related,  are  very 
abundant  in  this  country,  and  are  also  to  be  found  in  a  great  variety  of  colors. 
As  carlv  as  1804  American  marble  was  used  for  j)uri)oses  of  statu- 

^  ....  Marbles. 

ary.  lOarly  in  the  century  it  also  obtauied  extensive  employment 
for  gravestones.  Its  use  for  building-purposes  has  been  more  recent  than 
granite  and  sandstone  in  this  country,  and  it  is  coming  to  supersede  the  latter 
to  a  great  degree.  For  mantles,  fireplaces,  porch-pillars,  and  like  ornamental 
purposes,  however,  our  variegated,  rich-colored,  and  veined  or  brecciated 
marbles  were  in  use  some  time  before  exterior  walls  were  made  of  them. 
Among  the  earliest  marble  buildings  put  up  in  this  country  were  Girard  Col- 
lege, Philadelphia,  the  old  City  Hall  in  New  York,  and  the  Custom  House  in 
the  latter  city,  afterwards  used  for  a  sub-treasury.  The  new  Capitol  building 
at  Washington  is  among  the  more  recent  structures  composed  of  this  material. 
Our  exports  of  marble  to  Cuba  and  elsewhere  amount  to  over  three  hundred 
thousand  dollars  annually,  although  we  import  nearly  the  same  amount  from 
Italy.  And  yet  an  article  can  be  found  in  the  United  State;:  tully  as  fine  as 
tile  famous  Carrara  marble.     We  refer  to  that  which  comes  from  Rutland,  Vt. 

This  State  yields  the  largest  variety  and  choicest  specimens.     The  marble 
licit  runs  both  ways  from  Rutland  County,  where  the  only  rpiality  fit  for  statu- 
ary is  obtained.      Toward  the  north  it   deteriorates   by  growing  Vermont 
less  sound,  though  finer  in  grain  ;   while  to  the  south  it  becomes  marbles. 
coarser,     A  beautiful  black  marble  is  obtained  at  Shoreham,  Vt.     There  are 
also  handsome  brecciated  marbles  in  the  same  State  ;   and  in  the  extreme 


i^■l■f^     . 


If      « 


-^t-r    i< 


IV         ! 


^ 


-^JDniimmmtmv 


I''l:l 


758 


IND  US  TRIA  /.    ///S  TO  A']' 


I  MM. 


>» 


t^'»j«i....ii'i 


northern  part,  near  Lake  Chaniplain,  they  become  more  variej,'ate(l  and  rn  h 
in  hue.  I'he  peculiar  variety  known  as  "  serpentine  "  is  also  very  plenty  in  'lu' 
(Ireen-Mcuntain  State.  Serpentine  and  verd-anticpie  were  hewn  out  in  slabs 
for  fircj)la(;es  at  Milford,  Conn.,  before  1820,  and  taken  to  New  Haven,  New 
York,  and  elsewhere.  Such  other  marble  as  is  found  in  New  England  is  of  an 
inferior  (juality.  That  (|uarried  near  Thomaston,  Me.,  is  nothing  more  than 
limestone  ;  but  the  gray  and  clouded  tints  have  led  to  its  wide  use  for  mantles. 
(ilenn's  Kails,  N.Y.,  is  also  noted  for  a  limestone  that  passes  for  marble,  biiiii,' 
black,  and  (juite  highly  prized  ;  it  takes  a  good  jwlish.  'I'he  pillars  of  (liran! 
College  came  from  Berkshire,  Mass.,  which  ranks  next  after  Wrniont  in 
reputation. 

The  marble-belt  extends  from  New  Kngland  through  New  York.  IViin 
sylvania,  Maryland,  the  District  of  Columbia,  and  Virginia.  Tennessee,  ami 
Extent  of  the  Carolinas,  to  Ceorgia  and  Alabama.  The  material  of  whi(  li 
marble-bed.  ^Y^^.  United-States  Sub-Treasury  of  New  York  was  built  came  from 
the  P^ast-Chester  (]u.:rries,  and  the  main  jiortion  of  Cirard  College  is  fmm 
Pennsylvania  marble.  (Jhester  County  in  that  State  yields  a  fine  (juality  ot' 
serpentine  also.  Brecciated  or  v'eined  marble  is  found  on  the  Maryland  sidi- 
of  the  Potomac,  at  the  Point  of  Rocks.  This,  and  some  of  the  variegated 
and  high-c:olored  varieties  obtained  near  Knoxville,  Tenn.,  nearly  eijiial  that 
of  Vermont.  The  Potomac  and  Tennessee  marbles  were  used  more  or  K^s 
in  the  new  Capitol  and  other  jjublic  buildings  at  \\'ashington.  Cood  inarMes 
in  the  South  and  West  are  of  exceptional  occurrence.  The  Rocky  Moun- 
tains, though,  contain  a  vast  abundance  and  variety. 

Slate  was  known  to  exist  in  this  coimtry  to  a  slight  extent  in  colonial  day>. 
It  was  then  largely  used  for  gravestones,  and  to  some  extent  for  roofing,  tiie>, 
and  school-purposes,  lint  most  of  otir  supi)lies  came  from  Wales. 
Even  in  the  present  century  it  has  been  cpiite  common  for  ships 
to  go  out  from  the  United  States  with  cargoes  of  cotton,  and  bring  back  slate 
in  return. 

It  is  stated  by  one  authority  that  a  company  was  formed  to  work  a 
slate-cjuarry  in  Northampton  County,  Penn.,  as  early  as  1805  ;  but  anotlier 
says  no  quarry  was  opened  there  until  1826,  when  James  M.  Porter  and 
Samuel  Taylor  engaged  in  the  business,  obtaining  their  supply  from  Kittan- 
ninny  Moimtain.  But  the  former  statement  seems  to  have  been  applied  to 
roofing-slate,  and  the  latter  to  the  manufacture  of  slates  for  schools.  From 
1826  the  business  developed  rai)idly,  the  village  of  Slateford  being  an  out- 
growth of  it,  and  large  rafts  being  employed  to  float  the  products  down  tlic 
Schuylkill  to  Philadelphia.  By  i860  the  industry  had  reached  the  capacity  of 
twenty  thousand  cases  of  slates,  valued  at  ten  dollars  a  case,  annually ;  and  in 
1854  three  hundred  thousand  feet  of  lumber  were  consumed  in  making  slate- 
frames  alone. 

In  1839  quarries  were  opened  on  the  Piscataquis  River,  forty  miles  north 


Slate. 


Grinc 

Michigar 
drafton, 
from  Hi 
and  our 
Silex,  01 
Lanesbo 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


759 


of  Bangor,  Me. ;  but  poor  transportation  facilities  prevented  the  product  reach- 
ing a  market  easily.  V'eimont  began  to  yield  perceptibly  in  1852.  Caslleton 
and  I'oultney  in  Rutland  County,  and  (luilfurd,  Windham  County,  are  the 
chief  points  of  production  in  that  State.  New  York's  (juarries  are  confined 
to  Washington  County,  near  the  Vermont  line.  Maryland  has  a  limited  supply 
from  Harford  County.  The  Huron  Mountains,  north  of  Manpiette,  Mich., 
also  contain  slate  ;  and  fine  beds  are  said  to  exist  in  Pike  County,  (la. ;  but 
thev  have  not  been  developed. 


nURR   MILLSTONE. 


Grindstones,  millstones,  and  whetstones  are  quarried  in  New  York,  Ohio, 
Michigan,  Pennsylvania,  and  other  States.  Mica  is  found  at  Acworth  and 
(Irafton,  N.H.,  and  near  Salt  Lake  :  but  our  chief  supply  comes  Grindstones 
from  Havwood,  Yancey,  Mitchell,  and  Macon  Counties,  N.C. ;  millstones, 
and  our  product  is  so  large,  that  we  can  afford  to  export  it. 
Silex,  or  quartz,  for  the  finer  varieties  of  glass,  is  obtained  chiefly  from 
Lanesborough,  Mass.,  and  Stonington,  Conn. 


760 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


CHAFFER  X. 


SALT. 


SALT  is  the  one  great  mineral  which  enters  into  the  diet  of  mankind,  and 
to  so  wide  an  extent,  that  it  is  called  one  of  t'  c  necessaries  of  life.  It  is 
Use  of  salt  known,  however,  that  the  American  Indians  never  used  it  uiiUl 
by  Indians,  ^f^g^  ^j^gy  learned  the  habit  from  the  whites.'  Their  meat  was 
cured  by  smoke  and  drying,  or  "jerked  ;  "  and  for  seasoning  they  sometimes 
used  the  ash  of  certain  plants.  The  craving  for  salt,  nevertheless,  seems  to 
be  natural  to  many  wild  and  domesticated  animals,  the  deer  of  this  country 
having  been  hunted  more  freciuently  at  the  "  salt  licks,"  about  which  they 
rendezvoused,  than  elsewhere. 

The  first  white  men  who  settled  on  this  continent  derived  their  supplies  of 
salt  from  the  old  country ;  but  the  great  distance  of  this  source,  and  tlie 
Salt  in  the  expense  of  the  commodity,  soon  stimulated  effort  to  make  it  for 
colonies.  themsclves.  As  the  reader  is  well  aware,  the  principal  uses  of  salt 
are  for  the  table,  the  dairy,  preserving  meat,  and  curing  fish.  The  last-named 
was  the  more  prominent  need  of  the  early  colonial  days,  inasmuch  as  our 
fisheries  were  among  the  first  and  foremost  of  our  industries.  Accordingly 
there  was  a  great  demand  for  the  coarser  grades  of  salt,  especially  in  New 
England,  at  the  very  earliest  period  of  our  history. 

How  soon  the  manufacture  of  salt  first  began  here  is  not  positively  known ; 
but  there  are  references  to  salt-worl-.s  on  (^ape  Charles,  Va.,  a^  early  as  1620  in 
the  colonial  records  ;  and  to  such  an  extent  was  the  business  carried  on,  that. 
Ways  of  ^y  '^^'S2>y  this  colouy  was  exporting  salt  to  New  England.  Salt  is 
obtaining  ob'.r.ined  in  three  different  ways,  —  from  solid  beds  of  the  mineral, 
from  springs  or  wells  which  have  their  origin  in  otherwise  inacces- 
sible salt-beds,  and  from  the  ocean,  which  may  have  acquired  its  saline  prop- 


'  The  Peruvians  made  and  ate  salt  when  Pizano  made  his  famous  conquest  of  their  country,  and  Dc  Soto 
found  the  P'lorida  Indians  making  salt  from  springs  near  the  banks  of  the  Arkansas  River.  They  employed 
earthen  pans  in  the  manufacture,  and  moulds,  which  turned  out  small  squ.are  cakes,  which  they  traded  for  furs 
and  mantles.  Long  before  the  manufacture  of  salt  was  begun  by  the  whites,  it  was  brought  by  the  Indians 
of  Westti-n  New  York  to  Quebec  and  Albany,  with  their  furs,  for  trade,  from  the  Onondaga  Springs,  which 
was  their  source  of  supply. 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


761 


ertiu's  by  dissolving  great  deposits  of  tliis  substance,  or  have  retained  it  from 
th».' iLiys  of  the  creation.  Owing  Ijoth  to  tiie  precedents  of  the  manufiuture 
in  the  Old  WoritI,  and  to  the  fact  tiiut  as  yet  neither  salt-springs  nor  rock-salt 
had  been  found  in  this  country,  the  first  attempts  made  uy  the  American 
culoiiists  were  with  sea-water,  which  was  collected  in  ponds  and  vats,  and 
subjected  to  artificial  heat.  Doubtless  these  first  salt-works  of  Virginia  were 
of  this  kind. 

Tiie  first  beginnings  in  New  FCngland  were  made  in  1621.  In  that  year  a 
company  erected  salt-works  on  the  present  site  of  Portsmouth,  N.H. ;  anil  in 
1622  a  salt-maker  was  sent  over  to  Boston  by  the  London  proprie-    „ 

^  '       '  Erection  of 

tors  to  begin  this  important  manufacture.     This  individual  appears  sait-worut 
to  have  made  great  boasts  of  what  he  would  accomplish,  and  yet  "  P°f*«- 

°  1  »  /         mouth. 

to  have  treated  the  art  as  a  peculiar  mystery  for  the  sake  of  blind- 
ing those  who  were  employed  to  assist  him.  Thus  the  colony  was  led  to  incur 
the  expense  of  erecting  a  storehouse  for  salt  before  any  had  been  manufac- 
tured. In  1623  he  was  sent  with  his  pans  to  Cape  .Ann,  so  as  to  be  nearer 
the  seat  of  the  fisiieries ;  but,  before  summer  was  over,  he  burned  the  works, 
thereby  spoiling  most  of  his  pans.  This  and  other  early  enterprises  were 
under  the  control  of  the  government ;  a  fact  whicli  has  many  parallels  in 
history.  The  greatness  of  Venice  was,  in  a  measure,  due  to  her  monopolizing 
the  salt-manufacture  of  her  domain  ;  and  for  a  time  that  of  Rome  was  under 
governmental  regulation.  The  famous  salt-manufacture  of  Syracuse,  N.Y.,  and 
of  that  neighborhood,  is  partly  under  the  State's  auspices,  inasmuch  as  the 
government  reserves  its  right  to  the  springs,  and  sells  the  salt  water  to  the 
manufacturers.  After  the  transfer  of  the  authority  over  Massachusetts  from 
London  to  Boston,  this  indu'-^'-y  appears  to  have  been  put  on  a  plane  with  all 
others,  and  to  have  been  conducted  by  private  enterprise.  This  was  the  case 
with  the  salt-works  founded  at  Salem  in  1636.  The  Colonial  (iovernment 
encouraged  activity  and  ingenuity  in  this  direction  by  granting  especial  privi- 
lei,'es  to  inventors  of  new  methods.  We  find  the  Assembly  of  Connecticut 
doing  the  same  thing.  The  younger  Winthrop  was  authorized  in  1647-48  to 
take  land  for  the  establishment  of  salt-works  at  Pequod  (New  London)  and 
elsewhere,  and  the  State  commissioners  were  authorized  to  buy  two  hundred 
tons  a  year  of  him  at  the  rate  of  three  shillings  a  bushel.  Mow  far  he  availed 
himself  of  these  concessions  does  not  appear. 

French  people  landed  at  the  mouth  of  the  Raritan  River,  N.J.,  in  1631, 
who  began  salt-making  there.  The  Swetlish  Covernment  instructetl  the  gov- 
ernor of  its  colony  on  the  Delaware  to  engage  in  salt-making  in  sait-making 
1642.  In  the  Dutch  colony  on  the  Delaware,  a  New  Castle,  salt  at  mouth 
was  made  to  such  an  extent  in  1657,  that  shipping  stopped  there 
for  supplies.  In  what  is  now  New  York  attempts  to  make  salt  were  begun 
quite  early  by  the  Dutch  ;  but  as  early  as  1649  it  was  charged  against  the  pro- 
prietary West-India  Company's  servants  in  the  New  Netherlands,  that  they  had 


i  I  if  ill 


Isis 


762 


IND US  TRIA  I.    I/IS  TOR  Y 


t^M 


wasted  the  public  money  in  fruitless  attcMupts  to  manufacture  salt  and  ..tlur 
commodities.  By  the  middle  of  the  sevente'  Mth  century  l-'ren*  h  n.ission.irii's 
had  discovered  the  saline  spring's  in  Ononda^M  County,  N.V.,  and  ruiudr-,  u\' 
them  had  reached  the  Dutch  settlements;  but  the  settlers  made  no  atlrmiit 
for  nearly  a  century  and  a  half  to  utilize  this  resource.  We  have  already  im  11 
tioned  the  early  attempts  in  Virj^inia.  That  colony  still  further  encouranci]  tlu 
industry  by  jjrohibiting  tlie  importation  of  foreign  salt  after  16.S3.  'Ilif  New 
sir  Nathan-  Netherlands  had  im|)osed  a  heavy  tariff  on  the  importation  |nn^' 
let  Johnson.  j)i.fore.  Sir  Nathaniel  Johuson,  governor  of  tiu'  Leeward  1^1. imK. 
took  up  his  residence  in  South  Carolina  in  1689,  and,  besides  rice,  wine,  ami 
silk,  gave  some  attention  to  the  production  of  salt.  He  named  the  place  on 
Sewee  May,  where  he  conducted  his  operations,  the  "Salt  I'onds."  Colmiiil 
legislation  encouraged  the  industry  in  1725. 

Without  further  detail,  it  may  be  remarked  that  the  business  of  making  sill 
from  ocean-water  was  carried  on,  with  more  or  less  governmental  em  ouiam.- 
Sait  impor-  ment,  in  all  the  Atlantic  colonies  jirior  to  the  Revolution.  ( )nl\  ,1 
tations.  small  proportion  of  what  was  needed,  however,  was  proiliu  cd  al 

home;  and  a  heavy  importation  was  carried  on,  mostly  as  ballast  in  the  ships 
returning  from  Spain  and  the  wine  islands.  It  was  also  obtained  from  tiu' 
West  Indies,  although  our  salt-trade  with  Turk's  Island  and  the  neighluniiii; 
manufacturing  localities  has  been  nujslly  of  a  later  period.  We  also  importid 
Knglisli  (Liverpool)  salt  somewhat  betbre  the  Revolution.  Foreign  salt  wis 
prized  more  higiily  tiian  that  obtained  from  Tortugas,  as  the  latter  impaired 
the  (piality  of  the  fish  cured  with  it ;  and,  in  order  to  sustain  the  i|ualily  aii'l 
reputation  of  the  fish-exports,  NLissachusetts  declared  in  1670  that  no  M\ 
cured  with  Tortugas  salt  should  be  merchantable.  So  small  was  the  accumu- 
lation, and  so  irregular  the  sui)ply,  of  salt  in  those  days,  that  the  arrival  of  a 
cargo  of  salt  greatly  depressed  the  price.  Thus  (iov.  Winthrop  writes  in 
1646,  "There  arrived  yesterday  a  Dutch  ship  of  three  hundred  tons,  with 
two  hundretl  and  fifty  tons  of  salt,  sent  by  Mr.  Onge  of  Lisbon,  so  as  salt  was 
abated  in  a  few  hours  from  thirty-six  to  sixteen  a  hogshead." 

During  the  Revolution  salt  was  very  scarce  and  costly  in  this  country, 
owing  to  the  check  put  ujwn  conmierce,  to  the  withdrawal  of  men  from  the 
Salt-making  P^^hs  of  productive  industry  to  military  pursuits,  and  to  the  occa- 
duringthe  sional  destruction  of  salt-works,  A  number  of  these  were  de- 
evoiution.  gt^oyed  in  New  Jersey  by  British  troops  during  the  war.  A  special 
guard  of  a  hundred  men  was  applied  for  to  protect  salt-works  in  Cape-May 
County  in  1777;  and  Congress  urged  upon  the  colonics,  that  they  eadi 
encourage  salt-manufacturing.  Salt  ran  as  high  as  six  dollars  a  bushel  during 
most  of  the  Revolution,  and  even  as  high  as  eight,  and  was  always  in  demand  : 
indeed,  at  times,  it  formed  a  sort  of  currency. 

The  following  anecdote  is  related  of  those  dark  days.     During  the  encamp- 
ment at  Morristown,  N.J.,  in  1 780,  provisions  were  exceedingly  scarce ;  and 


I 


,  .niinontal  mo| 

;iy  a  lni>'*^^"' 
rnM\^\\  even  fl 
,,,.icssary  to  pf 
■  oursc,  atthei| 

Mr."  said  -Mrs 
(icn.  Washin; 
Mtiuns ;  tor  11 
,,,•  the  gentleiJ 
,,li'.    Korwhj 
the  order. 
Wasliington  i| 
rhoinpson.  ti 
^v,iy,  when  tin 
already  for  tl» 
Muh  as  to    ii 
Always  darke 
mc  for  bartei' 
She  had  soh 
c\ehange  for 
With  a  fc 
close  of  the 
heat.     As  ea 
( husells  of  n 
ai;e(l  the  for 
method,  was 
,ea-water  to 
thi>  device, 
nearly  ten 
reiiuired  frt 
to  make  a 
along  the  b 
Harwich,  C 
ful  in  1774 
was  formed 
salt-works  - 
a  vat  one  1 
stnuted  n 
afterwards, 
war "  Som 
met  with 
was  succe 
on  Cape 


OF    THE    UNITED    SIATES. 


763 


(ontinontal  monoy  so  (Icjjrcciated,  that  four  inontlis'  pay  of  a  private  would  not 
iiiiy  ii  bushel  of  wheat  for  his  family.  The  ordinary  army  rations  were  poor 
cnDiiKh  L'ven  for  the  rank  and  file  ;  but,  as  is  always  customary,  it  was  th()U(,'ht 
iiatssary  to  provide  the  offi(  ers  with  something  more  (leli(  ate,  pun  based,  of 
uiiirsc,  at  their  private  expense.  "  We  have  nothing  but  the  rations  to  cook, 
Mr,"  said  Mrs.  I'hompson,  a  very  worthy  Irish-woman  and  housekeeper,  to 
(iiii.  Washington  one  day.  "Well,  .Mrs.  Thompson,  you  must  then  cook  the 
ritidiis ;  for  I  have  not  a  farthing  to  j.,ive  you."  —  "  If  you  please,  sir,  let  one 
ul'  the  gentlemen  give  me  an  order  for  six  bushels  of  salt."  —  "Six  bushels  of 
sail :  l''orwhat?"  —  "'I'o  preserve  the  fresh  beef,  sir."  One  of  the  aides  gave 
i!ii'  nrder.  The  next  day  his  I';x;:ellen<:y's  table  was  remarkably  well  pn/vioed. 
Washington  misunderstood  the  source  of  this  bounty,  and,  sending  for  Mrs. 
ThDinpson,  told  her  that  she  should  not  have  expended  her  own  money  in  this 
way.  when  there  was  nf)  chance  of  her  being  repaid.  '•  I  owe  you  too  much 
already  for  the  debt  to  be  increased  ;  and  our  situation  is  not,  at  this  moujent, 
.siidi  as  to  induce  very  strong  hopes."  —  "Dear  sir,"  said  the  lady,  "it  is 
ahv:i\s  darkest  just  before  daylight;  and  I  hope  \jur  J'.xcellency  will  forgive 
nil'  tor  bartering  the  salt  for  other  necessaries  which  are  now  on  the  table." 
i^\\^  had  sold  the  salt  to  the  country-peoi)le,  at  eight  dollars  a  bushel,  in 
exchange  for  |)rovisions. 

With  a  few  slight  exceptions,  all  the  salt  made  in  this  country  until  near  the 
close  of  the  last  century  was  obtained  by  boiling,  or  evaporation  by  arlifH  ial 
heat.  .\s  early  as  167 1,  however,  there  had  been  talk  in  Massa-  How  «ait 
(lubctls  of  making  salt  "  by  the  sun  ;  "  an<l  the  governmer.t  encour-  was  formerly 
a^cd  the  formation  of  a  company  to  try  this  process.  The  solar  *""  '^' 
iiiithuil. was  employed  to  some  extent  on  l-ong  Island,  too,  by  exposing  the 
sea-water  to  the  smi  and  wind  in  shallow  vats.  New  Jersey  also  resorted  to 
thi>  device,  the  salt  water  being  condensed  by  natural  evaporation  in  ponds  to 
nearly  ten  times  its  natural  strength,  and  then  being  boiled  in  kettles.  It 
feiiuired  from  two  hundred  and  fifty  to  three  hundred  gallons  of  sea-water 
to  make  a  l)iishel  of  salt.  The  discovery  of  particles  of  salt  on  clam-shells 
along  the  beach  suggested  the  idea  of  solar  eva])oration  to  the  salt-boilers  at 
Harwich,  Cape  Cod,  and  led  to  experiments  which  were  l)iit  jiartially  success- 
ful 111  1774  and  the  few  years  immediately  thereafter.  At  length  a  i)artnership 
was  formed,  in  which  John  Sears,  a  sailor,  was  the  leader,  and  which  erected 
salt-works  on  this  principle  at  Dennis,  P>arnstable  County.  They  constructed 
a  vat  one  hundred  feet  by  ten  in  size,  with  a  level  floor  and  a  curiously  con- 
structed roof.  At  first  the  sea-water  was  conveyed  thereto  by  buckets ;  but 
afterwards,  in  1790,  a  pump  was  obtained  from  the  stranded  British  ship-of- 
war  "  Somerset,"  and  a  windmill  erected  tc  work  tb*^  pump.  The  establishment 
met  with  great  ridicule,  and  was  long  known  as  "John  Sears's  Folly;"  but  it 
was  successful,  and  led  to  the  establishment  of  a  large  number  of  similar  works 
on  Cape  Cod,  Cape  Ann,  near  New  Bedford,  and  elsewhere.     This  industry 


764 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


Im  v\  * 


was  carried  on  extensively  during  the  first  (luarter  or  third  of  this  century,  lii;t 
since  1830  has  decUned.  A  few  years  ago.  however,  there  were  to  he  seen  sume 
of  tliese  old  windmills  still*  stantling.  The  discovery  of  richer  salines  than 
ocean-water  very  naturally  destroyed  the  more  costly  and  laborious  ciiur- 
prises. 

A  great  revolution  in  salt-manufacture  was  wrought  l)y  the  utilization  of  tiir 
valuable  salt-springs  of  Onondaga  Countv,  NA'.,  to  which  we  hiuc 

Utilizing  »         u  <^ 

salt-springs  already  referred,  'j'hese  were  known  very  early  to  tiie  In(li,ui>. 
in  Onondaga    Pathcr    Lalleiiiant    is  the   first  white  who  is    recorded    as  lia\  in' 

County.  ....  r       ,  ,  T         ■  1  •  "" 

Visited  them.  Le  Moyne,  >  Jesuit,  mentions  tiiem  in  165^5.  in 
1770  Onondaga  salt  was  well  known  in  (Quebec  and  .Albany,  whither  tlic 
Indians  brought  it.  The  whites  first  made  salt  there  in  1787;  in  which  vcar. 
or  the  following  one,  the  Oneida  Indians  cetled  tiie  lands  to  the  State. 
Leases  were  then  granted  to  manufacturers,  who  sunk  wells,  anil  went  to  puniii 
ing  from  the  rich  salines  beneath.  But  the  State  reserved  the  control  ol  this 
mineral  production  to  itself,  and  soon  took  charge  of  the  pumping.  It  still 
maintains  the  management  of  this  work,  and  supplies  the  water  to  consumers, 
who  pay  the  State  a  tax  on  the  salt  produced.  At  one  time  the  duty  was 
twelve  cents  on  a  bushel  of  fifty-six  pounds  ;  then  it  was  reduced  to  six  cents, 
and  then  to  one  :  but  to  such  an  extent  has  the  business  developed,  tliat  tli;- 
State  has  thus  obtained  an  enormous  revenue.  At  first  the  system  of  sdlar 
evaporation  adopted  on  Cape  Cod  was  employed  ;  l)ut  now  seven-eighths  n\ 
the  salt  produ(~ed  at  Syracaise,  Salina.  and  the  adjacent  centres  of  nianufactuie, 
are  obtained  by  boiling.  Here,  as  with  the  sea-water,  expedients  have  been 
devised  for  separating  the  other  mineral  substances,  such  as  I'4)som  and 
(ilauber  salts,  from  the  article  manufltctured  for  the  market. 

In  17S9  the  product  from  the  Onondaga  springs  was  about  five  hundred  or 
six  hundred  buslicls,  and  the  price,  anywhere  within  sixty  miles,  was  rethu  ed 
Extent  of  to  half  a  dollar  a  bushel,  —  a  remarkal)le  reduction.  In  1.S59.  the 
production,  culminating  date  of  production  in  this  region,  the  annual  produt  t 
was  7,5  2i._^^55  bushels,  which  cost  the  manufacturers  to  make  about  six  cents  a 
bushel.  To  such  dimensions  has  the  business  grown,  that  whole  '/illages  of 
vats  anil  brick  "blocks"  for  containing  the  kettles  have  sprung  u])  around 
Syracuse  The  commerce  in  salt,  and  sup]ilies  for  the  salt-makers,  has  done 
much  to  ])ay  the  cxj^ense  of  constructing  the  I'a'ie  C'anal  and  the  railroads 
of  that  section. 

An  interesting  story  is  told  in  connection  with  the  early  develoiiment 
of  the  Onondaga  salines.  Towards  the  close  of  the  last  century  the  I'Y'deral 
(iovernment  let  contracts  for  the  supply  of  the  United-States  troo,  s  with 
provisions  at  Oswego.  At  this  time  (Jen.  James  O'Hara,  an  enterprising  and 
weM-informed  citizen  of  Pittsburgh,  Penn.,  undertook  a  contract,  believing 
that  he  could  execute  it  at  less  cost  from  that  basis  of  supply,  in  consideration 
of  certain  advantages  which  he  at  first  concealed,  than  any  one  could  from  the 


'.').v 


OF    THE    CM  TED    STATES. 


1(^S 


Mohawk  River,  whose  head-waters  were  not  far  I'rom  Oswego.  A(■(:or(lill^ly, 
lie  e^tablislied  a  hue  of  coniiniinn  alion  hv  raits  ii|)  the  Alleghany  and  french 
(reek  from  I'ittsburgh,  a  wagon-portage  across  to  f.rie  on  the  lake  of  that 
iiaiiu',  a  hoaldine  to  illack  Rock  near  iUiffalo,  ano'her  boat  to  carry  still  nearer 
Niagara,  a  wagon-portage  around  the  falls,  and  a  third  boat-line  theiu  e  throiigii 
Lake  ( )ntario  to  ( )swego.  Vessels  were  built  on  Lakes  V.\\v  and  (  )ntario 
expressly  for  this  business.  It  was  a  part  of  ()'Ilara's  contract  that  he  shouM 
retain  his  barrels  when  their  contents  were  con.unned.  'I'hese  barrels  he  then 
filled  with  salt,  which  he  caused  to  be  brought  from  Syracuse  in  wagons,  and 
re-shipped   them   over  the  same   route  by  which  they  came  from  I'ittsburgh. 


At  this  time  Pittsbm-gh  had  obtainetl  her  salt  from  Philadelphia  by  i)a(  k-horses, 
which  came  in  trains  across  the  monntanis.  The  business  of  sui^plyiug  all 
these  settlements  west  of  the  Alleghanies,  and  down  the  Ohio  River,  centred 
at  this  ])oinl  ;  and  salt  brought  eight  dollars  a  bushel.  Hut  O'llarawas  now 
able  to  deliver  it  at  Pittsburgh  for  half  tha  price,  and  make  a  handsome  prolit  ; 
and.  as  he  had  a  monopoly  of  the  Onondaga  supply,  he  could  destroy  all  com- 
petition. Capital  was  soon  invested  in  trade  with  Syracuse,  however  ;  and  in  a 
few  vears  the  price  was  brought  down  to  twelve  dollars  a  barrel  of  five  bushels. 
A  k'w  years  later,  the  development  of  the  \'irginia  and  Western  I'ennsylvania 
salines  still  further  reiluced  the  pri<  e. 


-  tv 


766 


IND  US  TKIA  L    HIS  TOR  Y 


M 


There  are  numerous  other  valuable  salt-deposits  in  this  country,  the  princ  i 
pal  ones  being  in  West  Virginia,  Ohio,  Pennsylvania,  and  Michigan.  West 
Other  salt-  Virginia,  while  yet  the  new  State  of  that  name  was  includetl  witlni) 
deposits.  the  original  limits  of  the  old  one,  was  famous  for  salt-wells  aloii- 
the  line  of  the  Great  Kanawha  River.  Attention  was  drawn  to  the  springs  1)\ 
seeing  the  deer  visit  them.  The  early  wells  were  bored  only  thirty  feet  dtfi) ; 
but  subse(iuently  a  depth  of  seven  hundred  or  eight  hundred  feet  hccanie 
common,  while  even  fifteen  hundred  has  been  attained,  (las  was  obtaiiad 
from  these  wells,  which  was  burned  to  heat  the  kettles ;  but  this  practice  has 
since  been  discontinued.  In  1829  this  region  produced  at  the  rate  of  1,000,- 
000  bushels  annually;  and  by  the  outbreak  of  the  war  the  product  had 
reached  nearly  3,000,000,  and  formed  the  principal  part  of  the  salt  manufac- 
tured in  Virginia.     The  amount  has  since  been  increased  to  nearly 

Virginia.  ,    ^  .  . 

5,000,000;  and  from  its  separation,  until  recently,  West  Virginia 
ranked  next  after  New  York  as  a  salt-producing  State.  The  other  salt-deposits 
of  that  vicinity  are  in  the  south-western  part  of  old  Virginia,  in  Smyth  and 
Washington  Counties,  along  the  north  fork  of  the  Holston.  Here  there  are 
beds  of  rock-salt ;  but  no  wells  that  are  available  are  f(  iiid  outside  a  very 
limited  locality.  This  one  product,  and  the  plaster-banks,  give  almost  ex- 
clusive business  to  the  branch  railroad  of  the  Virginia  and  Tennessee  line 
penetrating  that  section.  Prior  to  the  war  it  had  developed  its  product  to 
something  like  300,000  bushels  a  year ;  but  since  that  period  its  yield  has  lieen 
inconsiderable,  the  census  of  1870  returning  but  2,063  bushels. 

Pennsylvania  has  a  considerable  salt  district  along  the  Alleghany,  Kiskiniinc- 
tas,  and  Beaver  Rivers.  Wells  were  first  sunk  here  in  181 2  to  the  depth  of 
Pennsyi-  two  hundred  feet;  and  in  1829  salt  was  produced  there  at  the  rate 
vania.  Qf  twenty  or  twenty-five  cents  a  bushel,  while  farther  west  it  (d^t 

at  least  fifty.  In  1850  the  annual  production  was  over  900,000  bushels,  ami 
at  that  time  Pennsylvania  ranked  third  as  a  salt-producing  State.  Since  then 
Ohio  and  Michigan  have  stepped  in  ahead  of  her. 

Ohio's  salt-springs  are  mostly  in  the  southern  and  south-eastern  parts  of 
that  State,  along  the  Muskingum,  Hocking,  and  Scioto  Rivers,  and  on  the  Ohio 

River  at  Pomeroy,  opposite  the  mouth   of  the  Great   Kanawha. 

The  first  attempts  in  that  State  to  make  salt  were  in  1 798.  at  the 
"  Old  Scioto  Salt-U'orks  "  in  Jackson  County.  The  wells  were  only  thirty  feet 
deep ;  and  six  or  eight  hundred  gallons  of  the  brine  were  needed  to  make  a 
bushel  of  the  salt,  which  was  dark  and  poor.  But  even  this  article  bro'iL^ht 
three  or  four  dollars  a  bushel  as  late  as  1808.  Until  after  1850,  when  the  total 
product  was  about  500,000  bushels,  the  development  of  the  business  was 
slow ;  but  the  wells,  which  were  then  but  four  hundred  or  five  hundred  feet 
deep,  were  sunk  to  a  depth  of  twelve  hundred,  where  much  stronger  brine  was 
obtained,  and  the  business  so  improved,  that  by  1857  the  estimated  product 
of  the  State  was  nearly  three  times   that  of  1850.     In   1870  it  had  reached 


Ohio. 


I' 
I 

i 


I 


almost  3,000, 

-rom  these  we 

,,ilt  was  boilec 

iL't'ii  the  basi^ 

Illinois,  whicl 

ilso  ahounde 

reputation  fo 

-cvcral  other 

( )iie  of  th 

oi  Saginaw  C 

first  settlers, 

aianufacturin 

oifering  a  boi 

gave  a  slight 

sivty-nine  fee 

23,000  bushe 

had  been  in: 

ami  Michigai 

lias  outstripp 

of  1S60,  whi( 

York's  produ 

the  success  c 

the  salt-boilii 

lumber-distri 

the  furnaces 

surplus  steal 

fuel  is  entire 

duced  more 

The  anni 

20,000,000  I 

New  York  ai 

000 ;  and  t 

is  hut  abou 

over  18,000 

which  went 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


767 


almost  3,000,000  bushels.  The  heavy  carburetted  hydrogen  gas  which  comes 
from  these  wells  has  been  extensively  used  for  heating  the  kettles  in  which  the 
salt  was  boiled.  The  Wabash  salines,  well  known  in  early  colonial  days,  have 
been  the  basis  of  (juite  a  little  salt-making  industry  in  Indiana  and  other 
Illinois,  which  has  now  declined.  Kentucky  and  Tennessee  have  states. 
also  abounded  in  salt-licks  and  working-wells.  Kentucky  has  had  (juite  a 
reputation  for  her  salt  in  times  past.  Missouri,  Minnesota,  Arkansas,  and 
several  other  States,  have  also  salt-springs  of  slight  value. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  developments  in  this  industry  has  been  that 
d  Saginaw  County,  Mich.  The  salt-licks  of  the  dter  were  well  known  to  the 
first  settlers,  and  in  1838  unsuccessful  attempts  were  made  at  saginaw 
manufacturing  salt  there.  The  legislature  passed  a  law  in  1859  region. 
offering  a  bounty  of  ten  cents  a  bushel  on  the  salt  produced  in  the  State.  This 
pnx'  a  slight  impetus  to  the  manufacture.  A  well  was  sunk  six  hundred  and 
3i\ty-ninc  feet  in  East  Saginaw,  and  in  the  last  six  months  of  i860  a  yield  of 
.'3,000  bushels  of  excellent  salt  was  obtained.  Prior  to  this  time  the  product 
JKul  been  insignificant;  but  in  1870  it  amounted  to  nearly  4,000,000  bushels, 
ami  Michigan  then  ranked  next  after  New  York  and  Virginia.  Since  then  she 
iias  outstripped  both  ;  and  though  she  has  not  yet  reached  New  York's  figures 
uf  1S60,  which  were  upwards  of  7,000,000,  the  competition  has  cut  down  New 
York's  product  to  less  than  5,000,000  bushels  annually.  The  great  secret  of 
the  success  of  the  Michigan  salt-makers  is  the  economy  secured  by  combining 
the  salt-boiling  business  with  lumbering.  The  salt-wells  abound  in  the  great 
lumber-districts  around  Saginaw  Bay.  The  saw-mills  are  run  by  steam,  and 
the  furnaces  fed  by  saw-dust.  The  wells  are  pumped  by  engines,  and  the 
surplus  steam  is  used  to  carry  on  the  evaporating  process.  Thus  the  item  of 
fuel  is  entirely  saved  in  the  expenses  of  production,  and  salt  can  thus  be  pro- 
duced more  cheaply  than  anywhere  else  in  the  country. 

The  annual  product  of  salt  in  the  United  States  at  the  present  time  is  about 
20,000,000  bushels  ;  of  which  Michigan  produces  about  6,000,000  ; 

'  '  ,  ,  .  Annual  prod- 

New  York  and  West  Virgmia,  each,  4,500,000  ;  Ohio,  nearly  3,000,-    uct  in  the 

000 ;  and  the  other  States,  something  over  2,000,000.     Yet  this 

is  but  about  half  of  our  consumption;   for  we  imported  in  1877 

over  18,000,000  bushels.     A  mere  trifle,  less  than  75,000  bushels, —  most  of 

which  went  to  Canada,  —  was  exported. 


United 
States. 


II 


I'    ^ 


% 


It       >l 


IK' 


It    ii 


f.  i 


768 


/at;  c/s  tria  l  his  tor  y 


CHAPTER  XL 


li i  a 


I  .    '*i 


'!»; 


Ill     ): 


PETROLEUM. 

ALTHOUGH  petroleum  is  one  of  tlic  oldest  mineral  products  of  which 
mankind  is  known  to  have  made  use.  the  business  which  it  has  niwii 
to  the  peoi)le  of  the  Initeil  States  is  the  most  recent  of  all  our 

Youth  and  .  .      ,  •  t      •      1  i  ■  1 

eminence  promuicnt  uidustries.  It  IS  less  than  twenty  years  since  the  pro- 
of "^=  duction  of  petroleum  in  large  enough  quantities  for  it  to  s,ip|ilant 
us  ry.  ^^^^  candles,  spirit-hmps,  i-perm-oil,  and  rosin  and  coal  gas,  as  the 
popular  means  of  illumination  :  and  yet  our  coal  and  iron  are  the  only  two 
mineral  products  which  this  country  now  yields  in  larger  measure  of  value ; 
and,  except  cotton  and  cereals,  it  is  our  most  valuable  article  of  export. 

Bitumen  and  naphtha,  two  forms  of  this  same  hydro-carbon  deposit,  were 
found  in  other  parts  of  the  world  in  the  earliest  historic  period.  IJiluuKii, 
or  asphaltum,  was  used  as  a  cement  in  building  ancient  Babylon. 
The  cerements  of  Egyptian  mummies  were  smeared  with  it.  that 
the  corpses  might  be  the  better  preserved ;  and  it  is  the  presence 
of  that  substance,  dried  to  a  rosin,  which  makes  the  mummy  such 
excellent  fuel  in  the  Orient.  The  Scriptures  make  frequent  refer- 
ence to  the  rock  giving  out  fountains  and  rivers  of  oil ;  and  inasmuch  as 
Jacob  is  said  to  have  been  embalmed,  and  as  embalming  undoubtedly  meant 
being  wrapped  after  the  manner  of  the  Egyptian  dead,  there  is  excellent 
reason  to  believe  that  rock-oil  ^vas  known  not  only  in  the  days  of  Job  and 
Moses,  but  even  before  the  time  when  Israel  served  the  Pharaohs,  thirty- 
six  centuries  ago.  Indeed,  we  may  trace  its  appearance  still  farther  ba(  k. 
.     .   ,^  The  Tower  of  Babel  was  erected  over  four  thousand  years  atH), 

Asphaltum  y  o 

used  in  the      and  its  buildcrs  used  "  slime  for  mortar."     In  the  ruins  of  Chal- 
Tower  of         dean  edifices  near  Bagdad,  known  to  have  been  contemporaneous 

Babel.  01  i 

with  the  Tower  of  Babel,  there  have  been  found  pieces  of  reed 
cemented  with  asphalt.  However,  when  one  remembers  that  geology  proves 
the  carboniferous  age  of  the  world's  formation  to  be  millions  of  years  before 
our  day ;  that  the  era  which  saw  the  production  of  the  bitumen  of  Egypt,  the 
asphalt  of  Mesopotamia,  and  the  coal  and  oil  of  Pennsylvania,  was  all  one.  — 


Antiquity  of 
the  discov- 
ery and  use 
of  hydro- 
carbons. 


OF    THE    LNITED    STATES. 


769 


the  interval  between  its  discovery  and  use  by  tliose  who  lived  about  the  Lower 
Nik'  and  the  people  of  the  United  States  is  but  as  a  day. 

The  bitumen  used  by  tlic  Assyrians  came  from  slime-pits  near  the   River 
I^,  a  tributary  of  the  I'luplirates      It  was  also  found  in  very  ancient   vvidedis- 
tiiius  near  the  Caspian  Sea,  and  the  product  of  Hakoo  still  con-   tribution  of 
111HRS  to  supply  all   Persia  with  the  means  of  illumination.     The   '^e  deposits. 
oil   there   is   liglit-colored   and   very  choice.     Asphaltum,   only  another  form 
of  the  same  substance,  has  been  foimd  about  the  shores  of  the  Dead  Sea. 
whith   is  supposed   to   cover  the   ancient    cities  of  Sodom   and   (Jomorrah. 
In   India  and    Hurniah   petroleum   has  been  in  use  as  a   medicine,  and   for 
illiiiiiinating-purposes,  no  one  knows  how  long ;   the  excavation  of  wells  and 
jiits  in  the   Rangoon  District  for  procuring  the  oil,  its  collection,  transjjorta- 
tioii,  and   sale,  amounting  to  (|uitc  an    industry.     Hurmah   and   the    liakoo 
District  rank  next  to  America  as  producers.     In  China  the  people  have  found 
this  same  treasure  in  the  form  of  gas  rather  than  oil,  and  have   .j.^^  ^^^_ 
borod  artesian  wells  without  number,  simply  to  get  this  product   weiis  in 
as  a  means  of  light  and  heai.     Some  of  these  wells  have  been 
bored  fifteen   hundred   and  two  thousand  feet  deep,  and   the   machinery  by 
which  the  work  is  performed   is  very  curious  and  crude.     When   the  cavity 
where  the  gas  is  confined  is  finally  reached,  an  explosion  of  terrific  violence 
oftLMi  occurs,  and  the  orifice  of  the  well  is  with  the  utmost  difficulty  secured, 
esi)ccially  if  the  escaping  gas  takes  fire.     Mgr.  Imbert,  a  Catholic  missionary 
in  China,  thus  describes  one  of  these  catastrophes  :  — 

"  The  flame,  which  was  about  twenty  feet  high,  flitted  about  without  burn- 
ing any  thing.     P'oui  men  volunteered   to  risk  their  lives  in  endeavoring  tO' 
arrest  it.     They  cast  a  large  stone  on  the  mouth  of  the  well ;  but   Description 
it  was  instantly  hurled  for  into  the  air.     Three  of  the  men  were   of  burning- 
burned,  and  the  fourth  escaped  only  by  a  miracle.     Neither  water  ^'  ' 
nor  earth  would  extinguish  the  flames ;    until   at  length,  after  two  weeks  o( 
incessant  toil,  a  sufficient  quantity  of  water  was  conveyed  to  the  adjacent 
heights,  where  it  was  collected  in  a  little  lake,  and  suddenly  let  loose  on  the 
well  in  one  volume  with  success." 

This  gas  is  conveyed  long  distances   by  bamboo  pipes,  and  is  used   for 
lighting  salt-mines  and  to  heat  furnaces,  the  extremities  of  the  pipes  being 
tipped  with  metal  to  prevent  their  being  burned  ;  although  the  gas-   Economiz- 
flame  does  not  usually  adhere  to  the  tip,  as  in  the  case  of  our  >"Keas. 
artificial  illuminating-gas,  but  hovers  about  it  at  a  short  distance.     In  Java 
antl  Japan  the  oil  which  yields  this  gas  is  found  in  small  quantities. 

There  is  little  record  of  any  form  of  coal,  petroleum,  or  natural  gas,  being 
found  in  Africa,  elsewhere  than  in  F^gypt ;   but  they  have  been   Distribution 
found  plentifully  in  Europe,  —  though  not  together,  it  may  be  re-   of  oil  in 
marked.     Wales,  the  great  coal-producing  region  of  Great  Brit-      "■'•'p^' 
ain,  does  not  yield  petroleum,  although  the  burning-well  at  Wigan,  Lancashire, 


"^tuiiimMgmBgq 


I ',  ;i 


!  j'l  *' 


I  ■  i 


1 1 


770 


IND I  \S  I  A' /A  1.    inSTOR  ) ' 


American 
aborigines 


is  in  ;i  coal-region.  I-'rancc,  l!clj,Miini,  NortliLTn  Italy,  ami  IIiinL;;uy  liavt- 
yieldctl  either  oil  or  gas,  or  both,  in  comparatively  insignifK'anl  iiuainiiits, 
for  over  two  centuries  ;  but  little  el'lorl  has  been  niaile  to  secure  the  pu^^ihlt- 
deposits  below  by  any  thing  like  nioilern  appliances.  Very  recently  sonielhing 
has  been  done  in  S(,Hith  (lernian_\-,  and  near  the  Volga  in  Russia,  to  utili/c 
the  oil-deposits  that  have  been  discovered  there  ;  but  as  yel  no  elTecl  upon 
the  world's  supply  or  the  world's  market  has  been  wrought. 

Just  at  the  close  of  the  last  century,  petroleum  was  (liscovere<l  in  small 
(|uantities  in  the  West  Indies;  but  production  has  never  practically  amuuiiuii 
to  any  thing  there. 

'I'he  first  white  settlers  who  came  to  the  United  States  found  that  liic 
natives  were  familiar  with  and  made  use  of  rock-oil,  which  they  skimmed  uom 
p       J  the  surface  of  springs  and  pools.     It  was  sui)posed  to  possess  rare 

known tothe  medicinal  virtues;  although  it  has  little  recognized  \:i{{cvv  nowa- 
days, except  as  a  cathartic,  sudorific,  anti-spasmotlic,  and  bane 
to  the  tape-worm.  It  was  also  found  an  excellent  balm  lor 
wounds,  and  a  good  medium  in  mixing  the  Indians'  war-i)aint.  llul  it  is 
well  known  to  all  students  of  American-Indian  history  that  there  was  a  rac  e  of 
aborigines,  closely  allied  to  the  Toltecs  and  Aztecs  of  Mexico,  who  occupied 
much  of  the  territory  of  the  United  States  before  the  red  men  came  wliom 
Raleigh  and  the  Pilgrims  found  here.  That  earlier  and  more  highly  civili/rd 
people  have  left  many  tokens  of  their  former  residence  here  ;  and  among 
them  are  placed  by  some  savans  the  devices  found  near  'I'itusvir.e,  IVnn., 
for  the  collection  of  rock-oil.  In  the  valley  of  Oil  (Jreek  are  found  a  nuinliLr 
of  pits,  fifteen  or  twenty  feet  deep,  either  circular,  oval,  or  scpiare,  anti  care- 
fully cribbed  and  walled  with  timber.  The  oil  has  [^reserved  the  wood  from 
decay,  no  one  knows  how  long;  but  their  location,  character,  and  resem- 
blance to  the  oil-pits  of  Eurmah,  indicate  plainly  enough  that  they  were 
constructed  to  obtain  petroleum ;  and  as  trees  have  been  growing  from 
the  bottom  of  these  i)its  for  two  and  three  centuries,  if  not  longer,  the  period 
of  their  disuse  is  carried  back  to  a  time  precedent  to  the  first  white  settlemeius 
in  the  United  States. 

In  various  parts  of  the  American  continent  the  early  settlers  have  found 
what  they  have  called  tar-springs,  or  streams  and  pools  of  water  mingled 
with  strongly  odorous  rock-oil.  This  substance  was  dis(()\cri"d 
by  explorers  near  the  mouth  of  the  Athabasca  River,  in  r.riti.^h 
North  America,  nearly  a  century  ago.  It  has  been  tbund  near  Lake  Huron, 
and  in  other  parts  of  Canada;  but  nowhere  in  that  country  has  its  ])rodu(  tion 
become  a  business  of  any  consetnience,  exce])t  at  Ijmiskillen,  in  the  western 
[jeninsula  of  the  Province  of  Ontario.  Since  i860  the  oil-industry  has  grown 
up  to  quite  respectable  proportions,  though  insignificant  as  conii)ared  with  llie 
business  of  the  United  States. 

The  fact  is,  that  the  production  of  petroleum  for  the  world's  use  is  almost 


Tar-springs. 


01'    THE   rxriED  siates. 


11\ 


exrlusivcly  a  monopoly  of  this  coimtry,  and  is  cliirlly  confined  to  the  rcj^qon  of 
\\'cMi.rii  I'cnn.svlvania  and  W  est  VirLMiiia.     T 


K-  same  series  o 


f  oil 


Petroleum  a 


bcariuL,'  rocks  extend  to  Kentucky.     Says  the  animal  rejjort  of  the    monopoly 
New-N'ork  I'roduce  Mxchanije  tor  1875-76, — 

■•The  oil-belt  in  West  \'ir;,Mnia  is  now  being  surveyed,  and  the 


sur\ 
to  l)e  continued  to  the  Dig  Sandy  Ri\er,  on  the  boundarydine  of  Kentucky 


IS 


lor 


the    purpose    of    the    future    development    of    (jil-i>roduction.    Extent  of 


Colnr 


less  petroleum  has  been  found  in  Nevada,  near  a  place  called   oi'-ri^ei 


llku  k  Rock,  where  there  are  two  springs,  from  which  llcjws  colorless  oil, 
a,i:,L;regating  from  eighty  to  ninety  gallons  daily.  In  Colorado,  six  miles  north 
of  Canon  City,  there  are  oil-bearing  rocks,  from  which  an  excellent  ([ualily  of 
pitrolcum  is  obtained  at  a  depth  of  from  two  hundred  to  four  hundred  feet. 
Ill  tiie  Tulare  Valley  in  California,  fifteen  miles  west  of  Tulare  Lake,  there  are 
liLln)leum-si)rings  which  were  first  discovered  by  a  government  surveying- 
party  in  1.S54.  The  oil  from  these  springs  is  of  the  heavy  lubricating  variety, 
ami  is  much  more  valuable  than  the  burning-oil  produced  in  Western  I'enn- 
syhania,  and  is  similar  to  that  of  West  Virginia.  In  Los  Angeles  County, 
Cal..  in  the  township  of  San  Fernando,  a  refinery  for  petroleum  was  cstab- 
li>hed  about  four  years  ago  l)y  a  stock  company.  At  this  ])lace  there  are  five 
inodiicing-wells,  each  about  a  hundred  and  forty  feet  deep,  giving  an  aggre- 
L'aic  daily  product  of  crude  oil  of  from  forty  to  fifty  barrels.  There  are  also 
wells  at  V  :ntura,  and  a  refinery,  turning  out  twenty  barrels  of  refined  oil  daily. 
At  Wheeler's  Canon,  sixty-se\en  miles  from  Ventura,  there  are  oil-wells  ;  and 
a  pipe-line  is  being  laid  from  the  former  to  the  latter  place.  In  the  Cumber- 
land Valley,  in  Kentucky,  there  is  an  extensive  region  of  country  underlaid 
with  coal-bearing  rocks.  In  boring  for  salt  in  1829  on  Little  Renox  Creek, 
anout  half  a  mile  from  I'ig  Renox  Creek,  in  Cumberland  County,  oil  was 
struck ;  and  the  well  called  the  '  Creat  American  '  well  continued  to  flow  daily 
fur  a  considerable  period,  producing  a  thousand  barrels  of  crude  i)etro]eum. 
Recent  borings  in  Cumberlanil  County  have  resulted  in  obtaining  oil  in  large 
quantities.  The  oil-bearing  rocks  are  said  by  Professor  Owen  to  extend  into 
'I'eunessee."  To  this  it  may  be  added,  that  oil  has  also  been  struck  in  Ohio, 
and  in  1866  there  were  some  six  or  seven  hundred  wells  in  'I'rumbuU  County. 
At  I'omeroy,  Meigs  County,  still  later,  highly  productive  wells  have  been  bored. 
I'hcre  has  been  some  boring  in  Alleghany  County,  N.Y.,  l)ut  with  little  result. 
Indeed,  at  points  innumerable  throughout  the  countr\',  attempts  have  been 
in  ide  to  strike  oil ;  l)ut,  except  at  those  here  s[)ecined,  these  enterprises  have 
b  ■en  mostly  failures. 

The  report  we  have  above  qtioted  continues  :  '•  In  Western  Pennsylvania 
the  oil-district  commences  at  Ldinburg,  about  twelve  miles  north  of  St. 
INtL'rsburg,  in  Clarion  County,  and  extends  to  a  ])()iiit  about  two  miles  south 
of  St.  Jo.  in  P>utler  County,  being  nearly  forty  miles  long,  and  \-arying  from 
twcntv  to  several  hundred  rods  in  width.     The  southiTii  extremitv  of  this  belt 


ni  ■  I ;;     i. 


! 


'""^mmmmm 


:<  ii 


'1      '4 


772 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


has  proved  to  be  the  most  prolific  portion  of  the  present  oil-pro(hicing  terri- 
tory, including  a  distance  of  about  seven  miles  on  the  line  of  the  belt.  At 
Parker's  Landing,  about  fifteen  miles  from  St.  Jo,  the  oil-belt  crosses  beiicaih 
the  bed  of  the  Alleghany  River. 

"  A  new  oil-region  has  been  somewhat  developed  in  McKean  and  Bradford 
Counties,  in  North-western  Pennsylvania,  in  the  territory  between  the  Phila- 
delphia and  Erie  Railway  and  the  Atlantic  and  (keat-Western.  The  wuiu  of 
facilities  for  transporting  oil  has  checkeil  production." 

Until  between  1850  and  i860  the  finding  of  oil  in  this  country  was  scandy 
ever  viewed  otherwise  than  with  indifference  or  annoyance.  Its  appearance  in 
insi  nifi  ^^^  salt-springs  of  Ohio  and  elsewhere  proved  very  detriiueiual 
cance  of  the  to  the  interests  of  the  salt-boilers,  and  on  that  account  the  sight 
oil-industry     ^^^^  smell  of  it  wcre  detested.     Yet  so  early  as  the  comuienco- 

until  1859.  -' 

ment  of  this  century  it  was  collected  for  market  in  ^Vestern  Penn- 
sylvania. Wherever  the  oil  would  manifest  itself  by  bubbling  up  with  water 
through  the  soil,  pits  were  dug,  and  the  two  liquids  allowed  to  accumulate ; 
and  then  blankets  were  thrown  upon  the  surface  of  the  oil  (which  floated  on 
the  water),  soaked  with  the  greasy  mineral,  and  then  wrung  out  into  tubs.  A 
Mr.  Gary,  one  of  the  more  enterprising  of  the  early  settlers  along  Oil  Creek, 
is  reported  to  have  collected  or  purchased  cargoes  of  this  oil  from  his  neigh- 
bors, put  it  into  five-gallon  kegs,  slung  one  on  each  side  of  a  horse,  and  thus 
conveyed  it  to  Pittsburgh,  a  distance  of  seventy  or  eighty  miles ;  and  it  is 
related,  that,  at  a  later  period,  "  Gen.  Hayes,  who  settled  in  Franklin  (Venango 
County)  in  the  year  1803,  .  .  .  purchased  at  one  time  the  entire  product  of 
the  region,  amounting  to  sixteen  barrels,  which  he  sold  in  Pittsburgh  for  about 
a  dollar  per  gallon."  These  two  incidents  serve  admirably  to  illustrate  the 
diminutive  proportions  of  the  petroleum-industry  of  America  during  the  first 
half  of  the  present  century. 

The  true  beginning  of  the  great  era  of  petroleum-development  in  this 
country,  and  indeed  of  the  world,  was  Aug.  28,  1859  ;  when  an  artesian  well. 

sunk  on  the  lands  of  the  Pennsylvania  Rock  Oil  Company,  near 
Drake  well,  Titusvillc,  struck  a  vein  of  hydrogen  gas  mingled  with  oil.  We 
and  its  gj^j^jj  |-,^yg  more  to  say  presently  of  this  organization,  its  previous 

experiments,  and  its  employment  of  Col.  E.  L.  Drake  to  under- 
take this  enterprise.  This  well  was  sunk  to  a  depth  of  sixty-nine  feet  and  a 
half,  where  a  cavity  was  struck,  and  the  d  il  immediately  sunk  more  than  a 
foot.  Previously  the  natural  oil  was  obtained  by  pumping  from  salt-wells,  or 
from  pits,  as  above  described ;  the  processes  being  slow  and  laborious,  and 
the  product  small.  But  here  was  a  vein  of  oil  struck  in  such  quantity,  that  it 
rose  in  the  well  to  within  five  inches  of  the  earth's  surface,  and  yielded  four 
hundred  gallons  of  oil  a  day,  unmingled  with  water. 

This  unparalleled  and  splendid  success  opened  up  to  people's  imagina- 
tions the  most  tremendous  possibilities.     Excitement  ran  high.     Attention  was 


direct 

prod  I 

l';\er> 

nuns 

raiiii 

incroi 

soon 

cxtrai 

was 


A 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


773 


luring  terri- 
lit-'  belt.  At 
is<-'S  beneath 

nd  Hradfoid 
1  tlif  I'hila- 
'he  want  of 

was  Sfai(  ely 
)l)earaii(e  in 
detriniental 
nt  tile  sight 
commenee- 
stern  I'enn- 
)  with  water 
icciimulate ; 
1  floated  on 

0  tubs.     A 
Oil  Creek, 

1  his  neigh- 
e,  and  thus 
;  and  it  is 
1  (Venango 
product  of 
h  for  about 
ustrate  the 
ig  the  first 

?nt  in  this 
esian  well, 
pany,  near 
oil.     We 
s  previous 
to  under- 
eet  and  a 
re  than  a 
t-wells,  or 
rious,  and 
ty,  that  it 
■Ided  four 

imagina- 
ition  was 


n 


M 


directed  to  the  locality,  and  to  the  new  mode  of  i)rocuring  this  abundant 
nroiluct.     Knterprise   was    stimulated    to    a   remarkable    degree.   _    . 

'  *  "  Excitement 

i;\eryl)ody  wanted  to  buy  land,  and  to  bore.     I'ropjrty  rose  im-   pro.iuced 
inensely  in  value  for  miles  around  :   the  field  of  operations  was   ^^  ^^'^ 

discovery. 

rapidly  extended  down  Oil  Creek  and  Alleghany  River,  and  nu- 
merous wells  were  sunk.     Few  of  them  paid,  however ;   and  a  slight  re-action 
soon  set  in.     It  should  be  remarked,  that  as  yet  pumps  were  necessary  to 
extract  the  oil;  and  hence  the  year  of  1859,  with  its  great  accomplishments, 
was  rather  a  period  of  promise  than  of  realization. 

The  great  element  of  success  in  the  oil-industry  was  the  use  of  the  artesian 
well ;  but  a  better  application  of  the  principle  was  necessary.  In  i860  some 
one  conceived  the  idea  of  sinking  wells  to  a  greater  depth  than  Deeper  weii» 
formerly,  believing  that  the  more  jn-oductive  veins  were  deeper  reach  richer 
down.  Accordingly  wells  were  bored  to  the  third  stratum  of  sand-  ^"pp''^^- 
rock,  alternately  piercing  shales  and  other  deposits,  and  going  to  the  depth  of 
sc\eral  hundred  feet.  The  result  of  this  experiment  was  startling.  An  accumu- 
lation of  oil  and  gas  was  struck,  which  was  under  such  heavy  internid  pressure 
that  the  boring-apparatus  was  hurled  from  the  whole  length  of  the  bore,  and 
the  contents  of  the  vein  gushed  forth  in  a  torrent  of  great  impetuosity.  These 
wells  were  tubed  and  secured  with  great  difficulty,  and  the  science  of  managing 
thcin  necessarily  attained  great  development  in  a  short  time.  The  quantity  of 
oil  now  obtained  was  vastly  increased,  some  wells  flowing  as  much  as  three 
thousand  or  four  thousand  barrels  a  day  for  a  long  time.  This  yield  was  not 
steadily  maintained,  however,  the  quantity  and  force  of  the  discharge  lessening 
gradually,  —  sometimes  suddenly  and  unaccountably  when  oil  was  struck  near 
by.  —  until  pumping  became  necessary  in  the  course  of  a  few  weeks  or 
months ;  and,  finally,  wells  that  had  made  their  owners  a  huge  fortune  would 
become  unproductive.  Old  wells  were  known,  though,  sometimes  to  recover 
some  of  their  former  productiveness. 

From  the  year  i860  the  development  of  the  petroleum-industry  was  so  rapid 
and  vast  as  to  be  without  a  parallel  in  American  history,  all  things  considered. 
Though  the  oil-lands  proper  were  contained  within  a  small  geo-   ^^^  sudden 
graphical  area,  the  influence  of  the  excitement  and  greed  of  gain   and  vast  de- 
thereby  aroused  extended  all  over  the  country,  and  even  to  foreign   veioprnentof 

•'  J '  o       lYte  industry. 

lauds.  Companies  were  formed  to  bore  for  oil  in  thousands  of 
places  where  traces  of  petroleum  had  been  noticed  for  years  previous.  Land 
that  was  theretofore,  and  even  then,  worthless,  brought  fabulous  prices.  In  the 
oil-region  itself  it  was  next  to  impossible  to  buy  land.  The  business  of  getting 
out  and  refining  oil  grew  like  Jonah's  gourd.  Derricks,  tall,  strange,  but  useful, 
sprang  up  by  the  thousand.  Cities,  even,  came  into  being  almost  in  a  day. 
Huge  fortunes  were  made  in  weeks.  There  was  a  new  class  of  shoddy  aris- 
tocracy created  by  the  wealth  produced  by  petroleum.  The  ignorant  but 
\ucky,  the  low  but  shrewd,  suddenly  became  immensely  rich.     New  branches 


774 


IND US  rU/A  I.    Ills  I  OK  V 


!l 


W ' 


iHifj 


of  industry  essential  to  tht-  operations  of  the  oil-iiUcrcst  —  iinproNcd  mmji^ 
apparatus  and  processes,  railroad  extensions,  new  kind->  of  (  ars,  pipel.iu,, 
oiM)oals,  tanks,  refineries,  l)arrel-fa(tt)ries,  lamp-factories,  ship-lmildini;,  (n  .|,. 
erati\e  or^^nii/ations  of  producers,  transporters,  refniers.  and  exporters  —  unc 
re(|uire(l  to  meet  the  exorbitant  and  pressing  demands  of  the  petroleum-tniHu. 
Ilankin,:;,  insurance,  and  other  interests,  were  re(|uued  to  enlarge  their  fa<  ilitu>. 
'I'he  arteries  of  domestic  trade  and  transportation  were  maile  to  iiul-^atc  ui;ii 
imnatural  life  and  \  igor,  and  (;ur  whole  businei:^-^)  >lein  was  iiuickeiied  iiiio 
abnormal  activity.  Our  foreign  comujerce  was  rapidly  extended,  pelroKiim 
leaping  to  the  third  rank  among  our  exports  inside  of  fitteen  years. 

But  the  lowering  of  prices  in  conse(iuence  of  increased  proilu(  lion  ruiiud 
many  owners  of  small  wells.  Speculators  l)OUght  land  at  high  i)ri(  e-,  wIikIi 
proved  good  for  nothing.  Money  was  lavished  on  derricks  and  l)oring-iin|iK' 
nients  and  labor,  which  never  returned  the  adventurers  one  single  cent  ;  ami, 
as  the  money  was  often  borrowed,  the  chain  of  in(Uvidual  disaster  sonntiiius 
had  several  links.  The  world  hears  mostly  of  men's  successes,  and  little  nf 
their  failures ;  but  along  the  pathway  of  the  petroleum-interest '^  progress  are 
strewn  a  host  of  wrecks  of  fortime. 

It  is  necessary  that  one  know  something  aboiit  tlic  experiments  which  had 

.fbeen  made  to  produce  artificial  illuminating-oil  before  he  can  fully  understand 

Early exper-    '^"^^^  ^  "'•  1^™'^'-'  taiiie  to  bore  for  natural  oil,  and  also  hcnv  the  way 

iments  in         was  opened  for  promptly  utilizing  these  newly-discovered  ])i()du(t^. 

refining  oil.       x'-        i       .i  .      •  i  i-  i     ■        i-       i        i 

iN''arly  tiiree  centuries  ago  coal  gas  was  discovered  in  rai^land. 
though  it  was  not  used  until  about  1792.  The  exjieriments  connected  with  il-- 
manuflicture  yielded  also  \arious  natural  oils,  and  Swiss  and  French  chemists 
set  themselves  to  utilizing  these.  Mr.  James  Voung  of  Ikuhgate,  Scotland, 
took  out  a  patent  for  distilling  oil  from  coal  in  1S50,  and  later  got  one  out  in 
the  United  States,  nhich  ex[)ired  in  1S71,  The  product  of  the  first  distillatini) 
was  a  dark,  crude  oil,  which  it  was  necessary  to  refine  before  using.  <  )ur 
word  "petroleum"  means  rock-oil,  and  a[)plies  more  particularly  to  the  nalnial 
product  distilled  from  carboniferous  shales  in  Nature's  laboratory  by  the  inner 
heat  of  the  earth.  The  artificial  product  from  distilling  coal  is  krn>\\;i  ■'.^ 
"kerosene."  The  crude  oil  in  each  case,  however,  is  very  much  the  same  in 
composition,  as  are  also  the  refined  oils  from  the  two  sources. 

The  Kerosene  Oil  Company  founded  the  first  ilistillery  and  refinery  in  thi-. 
country,  on  Young's  system,  at  Newtown  Creek,  L.I.,  in  1854.  They  utili/ed 
First  refine-  biluminous  coal.  The  business  rapidly  extendetl,  esi)ecially  m 
ryin  United  Ohio,  where  soft  coals  abound;  and  in  i860  there  were  no  le>s 
tates.  ^]^,^^^  twenty-five  refineries  in  that  State  alone,  six  in  Kentucky,  one 

in  St.  Louis,  eight  or  ten  in  Virginia,  ten  in  Pennsylvania.  ^\\<i  in  the  immediate 
vicinity  of  New- York  City,  and  seven  in  Xew  Mngland. 

Coincident  with  the  distillation  of  an  illuminating-oil  from  coal  were  cx])eri- 
ments  to  perfect  a  lamp  that  would  burn  it.     Used  as  our  old  spcrni-oil  01 


()/••    THE    i  XI  11:1)    tilAlES. 


^'■''I  111:11,11" 

I'll"-  l.iu,, 

I'lii;.  «■" ..,,. 

kTS  — „,,,.^. 

•-■iiin-tr.iiii,  . 

ii'  tii(  iliiic,, 

'iiN;ilr  ui;li 

kclK'il  Hi;,, 

I'^'trol.iiii, 

ii'>n  niiiir,! 

i<<-'^    \Wl!(  h 

■iii,:,'-iiii).k. 

■(-■HI  ;  ;iii,I, 

•'^onu'iiiins 

1   littK-  u\ 

i',t.;''t.'>s  ;irr 

vliifli   li;i,! 

n<lLTst,in,! 

\V  tlu'  U;iv 

I'rodii,  ts. 

'■-'i,::l;ii)(|. 

<l  with   iis 

t'lic'iiiists 

Sc:otl;in(l, 

ic   out    ill 

istillatidi) 

lt(.     Our 

e  natural 

1k'  iiimr 

riin\;i     s 

same  ill 

■  ill  ill!.-. 

iitili/i'd 

ially   in 

no  k'» 

'<-)'.  one 

K'diate 

t;x])cri- 

-oil  or 

/^   /vi     .^:  ;  ^i|-^,'«; 


It 


( t  . 


}.'Al!iiail1iWBW 


776 


liWD  VS  TKIA  I.    ins  TON  Y 


w 


rt  1 


spirit-gas  was,  kiTosone  had  a  (ii'0|)  n-d  flaino,  and  ^-w^  olT  smoke  nrnl  m 
Keroiene-  offensive  odor.  Tlie  in\i'ntion  of  tlie  modern  i)iiriier  and  cluiinuv 
lamp.  j„  make  the  cunstimption  ( omitkti',  ( larify  tiie  ll.mu',  and  avoul  ^he 

smoke  and  stench,  was  largely  the  work  of  Americans,  thoii^'h  the  AiMii.iiis 
assisted  greatly.     'I'lie  kerosenedamp  was  |»ractically  perfected  l)efore  iSOo. 

'I'hus  it  will  he  seen,  that,  while  kerosene  was  not  produced  in  large  eiiiiui.'h 
quantities  to  bring  it  into  very  common  use.  it  was  widely  known,  ami  ^ill  the 
Eveieth  4  facilities  for  its  use  were  devised.  It  only  remained  to  fmd  ilic 
Bi»«eir»  natural  oil  in  large  (|uantities,  therefore,  to  make  it  rheaj).  and  its 

experiment!.  ^^^^  universal.  I'or  this  latter  consummation  the  world  is  iniK  htid 
to  Oeorge  II  I5issell,  fcjrmerly  of  the  firm  of  Mveleth  iS:  Hissell.  In  the  miih- 
mer  of  1S53,  while  visiting  friends  at  Dartmouth  College,  wlu're  he  had  gnulu 
ated,  and  whither  he  had  now  come  from  New  Ork-ans  in  pursuit  of  hcaltli, 
he  was  shown  a  bottle  of  crude  petnjleum  taken  from  the  neighborhood  df 
Titusville,  Penn.  About  this  time  he  met  a  former  New-Orleans  friend.  Mr, 
Eveieth,  and  broached  this  subject  to  him.  They  went  next  year  to  Veiiaii-o 
County,  and  leased  the  jjrincipal  oil-region  for  ninety-nine  years,  free  of  royalty, 
paying  only  five  thousand  dollars  outright.  The  lands  were  trenched,  and  the 
accumulating  surface-water  and  oil  were  pumped  into  vats  by  one  hired  man 
and  the  a])paratus  of  a  saw-mill.  'I'iiree  barrels  of  oil  were  taken  thenc  e  in 
New  Haven  in  1855  to  be  analyzed  by  Professor  Benjamin  Silliman,  jun.,  the 
expense  being  borne  entirely  by  Kveleth  I't  Bissell. 

F.laborate  and  thorough  tests  were  made,  whicli  showed  that  the  petroleum 
on  distillation  would  yield  a  nmnber  of  distinct  products;  among  them 
Products dis-  'I'M''^^'^'^'  <^'"  ^'''^'  lightest  and  most  colorless  of  iliiuninaling-oils.  a 
covered  from  fine  liibric;ating-oil,  dark  and  heavy,  benzine,  and  paraffine.  '\\w 
ana  ys  s.  ^jj^  were  found  to  possess  certain  adva.  *■' "es  over  other  oils,  such 
as  less  tendency  to  thicken  from  cold.  The  gas  minufactured  from  the  petro- 
leum could  not  be  used  with  an  ordinary  burner,  but  gave  a  good  flame  with 
an  argand. 

This  repor:   excited   great    interest  in   New  Haven,  and  capitalists  there 
wanted  to  buy  a  share  in  Kveleth  &  Hisscll's  interest.     They  obtained  a  tliinl 
thereof,  the  original  proprietors  retaining  two-thirds  ;  and  then  thi.  y 
over  all  united  in  foriuing  a  corj^oration  known  as  "The   I'eiuisylvani;', 

Rock-Oil  (Company,"  whose  aim  should  be  the  collection  and  sale 
of  oil  from  their  lands.  The  work  of  trenching  was  continued  ; 
but  in  1857  it  was  proposed  to  sink  an  a.-tes!an  well.  This  was  not  done, 
however,  until  1859,  as  stated  heretofore.  The  work  was  done  under  tlic 
direction  of  one  of  the  stockholders,  Col.  K.  L.  Drake,  formerly  a  condudur 
on  the  New-York  and  New-Haven  Railroad.  The  result  of  his  experiments 
we  have  already  stated. 

The  transportation  of  oil  is  one  of  the  most  important  of  its  dependent 
interests.     Next  after  knowing  how  to  utilize  a  natural  product,  and  how  to 


SiUiman's 
report. 


^i*k*ili*^ 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


in 


!«.•  and   in 

"'    ''llllllDty 

\iiMri.injj 
I-'  l.Sf.o, 
'A*-'  I'lioii^-I, 
ikI   ;iII   i|„. 
'    'ili'l    the 
!'•  ;in(|   lis 
iii'l(|,lc.| 
'111'  Mini. 
I' I  Kr.nlu- 
'>!"  ln'.iltli, 
i)rl)()(i(|  ,|f 

fiirnil.  Mr. 
J  Vfii;in-i) 
ofniviiltv, 
'i.  and  the 
'lii'i'il  man 

tllCIKl'     til 

1.  jun.,  tile 

iK'tioliimi 
f'lif,'    thcni 

'"K-Oils.    ;i 

inc.  'Ilu' 
oils,  siK'h 
'ic  pctro- 
lanu'  with 

ists    tllCR- 

i  a  111  in  I 
tlu'ii  thoy 
ii.sylvani;\ 
and  sail' 
ntinued  ; 
Jt  done, 
ider  the 
inductor 
.'Hnicnts 

iondent 
how  to 


dt-rivi'  it,  the  work  of  carryiiij,'^  it  from  thi*  point  of  prodnction  to  the  |)l;irL's  of 
(Diwiinptioii,  or  at  least  to  the  f,'reat  centres  of  distribution,  is  tlie  most  essen- 
tial tcMture  of  the  interest  ;  and  tliis  is  pecuharly  true  of  petrolenm.  I'iif  two 
modes  of  conveyance  utilized  at  first  in  the  oil-region  of  I'ennsylvania  were 
horse -power  and  barges. 

A  i)arrel  of  oil  weighs  about  three  lumdred  and  sixty  pounds,  and  seven  or 
cij,'ht  of  these  made  a  loa<l  for  a  team.  Su<  li  was  the  immense  amount  of 
teaming  to  be  done,  and  so  remunerative  were  the  rates  at  first,  Transport- 
ihat  small  fortunes  were  made  by  the  proprietors  of  single  estab-  '"«  °"' 
h^hments.  \  thousand  teams  would  often  go  over  the  roads  from  the  wells  to 
some  large  town  the  same  dav ;  antl  the  mud  formed  by  the  rain,  the  leakage 
of  oil,  and  the  travel,  was  sometiiing  fearful.  Wagons  and  teams  would  often 
he  mined  in  a  few  days  by  this  severe  usage;  but  the  profits  would  enable  a 
man  to  buy  anew  very  fre(|uently  without  loss.  I5ut  teams  were  not  relied 
upon,  where,  as  was  often  the  case,  water-transportation  coulil  be  had. 

The  oil-region  lies  along  the  valleys  of  Oil  Creek  and  the  Alleghany  River; 
and  the  wells  were  never  very  many  miles  away  from  these  two  streams,  and  often 
(lo-^e  to  them.  At  first  barges  were  used  to  carry  l)arrels  :  after-  Use  of 
waids  the  oil  would  be  discharged  right  into  barges  made  especially  ''arges. 
for  the  purpose.  At  first  these  recept?.cles,  holding  anywhere  from  twenty-five 
Itarrels  to  twelve  hundred,  would  be  without  decks  or  partitions,  and  thus  were 
easily  upset  and  emptied  :  afterwanls  bulkheads  were  put  in  to  keep  the  oil 
from  being  shaken  about,  and  to  prevent  the  craft's  balance  being  easily  dis- 
turbed. A  vast  amount  of  timber  was  used  in  making  them,  and  the  yards 
where  they  were  built  and  kept  woukl  show  many  S(iuare  acres  of  closely- 
arranged  boats. 

The  "  pond-freshet,"  a  deluge  of  stored  water  in  Oil  Creek,  had  for  many 
years  been  resorted  to  by  the  lumbermen  of  that  region  in  order  to  carry  their 
numerous  and  immense  rafts  down  the  shallow  stream  to  the  «•  pond- 
Allcghany.  These  rafts,  of  course,  were  swe|)t  down  simultane-  '"•eshet." 
ously ;  and  the  great  perils  antl  catastrophes  n>ade  the  occasions  highly  excit- 
iiiLj  and  dangerous.  The  adoption  of  this  expedient  to  carry  down  the  oil- 
barges,  in  fleets  of  about  two  hundred  at  a  time,  led  to  even  gr*cater  casualties 
and  adventure  than  ever.  The  i)rice  which  the  shippers  paid  the  owners  of  the 
<l:un  for  a  pond-freshet  varied  from  a  hundred  dollars  to  two  hundred  and  fifty, 
aUhough  as  high  as  four  hundred  dollars  has  been  paid.  This  was  raised  by 
assessment,  the  cost  being  but  a  few  cents  a  barrel,  the  oil  brought  down  by 
one  freshet  often  amounting  to  fifteen  thousand  or  twenty  thousand  barrels; 
but  there  is  record  of  forty  thousand  barrels  coming  down  at  one  time.  Pitts- 
burgh, at  the  junction  of  the  Alleghany  and  Monongahcla  Rivers,  was  long  the 
i^reat  centre  where  the  oil-shipments  accumulated  and  were  (listril)uted ;  and  a 
fleet  of  a  thousand  barges  and  tow-boats  was  used  on  the  Alleghany  and  Ohio 
Rivers. 


"T^"" 


If' 


HjI 


U.*^'' 


i.\: 


778 


/yVZ>  ^'^  TVe/^  /.    ///S  TO  A'  Y 


But  the  railroad  companies  were  soon  alive  to  the  imperfection  of  lioise 
and  boat  trans;H)rtation.     All  the  existing  lines  in  Western  Pennsylvania  rap- 
idly made  extensicjns,  and  numerous  local  roads  were  buill  li\  a.'w 

Railroads.  ^         1  1     1         -i  • 

corporations.     By   1867  the  wliole  oii-region  was  covefed  ^.iih  .i 
network  of  railroads;  and  from  this  circumscribed  area  many  threads  of  (om- 
munication  reached  out  toward  Ohio,  Lake  Erie,  Buffixlo,  Olean,  PhilaiK  Ipiii:!. 
Baltimore,  and  Pittsburgh.     The  many  new  towns  and  villages  built  up  bv  tin 
oil-interest  had  the  most  perfect  railroad-connection  with  the  outside  wdru!. 
The  oil,  whether  pumped  or  spouting,  was  (Hscharged  into  elevated  shcLt  imi! 
tanks  of  enormous  capacity ;  from  these  were  extended  pipes  of  greaki-  m 
less  length  to  the  branch  railroad-tracks ;  and  platform-cars  bearing  tanks  cjt 
from  forty  to  fifty  barrels'  capacity  were  thus  very  easily  freighted.     The  \\\m- 
ing-interest  was  then  developed  rapidly  at  great  distances  from  the  produi  ini; 
region  ;  but  it  was  confined  principally  to  a  few  cities  either  on  the  Atlantic 
seaboard  or  on  Lake  I^rie. 

A  still  greater  step  in  oil-transportation  was  taken  when  the  constrm  tion 
of  long  pipe-lines  from  the  oil-region  to  large  cities  was  undertaken,     lion 

pipes  of  two  inches  diameter,  closely  jointed,  are  laid  in  shallow 

Pipcs> 

trenches,  generally  along  the  railroad-lines.  As  tne  cold  cannot 
affect  them,  they  work  as  well  in  winter  as  in  summer.  Gravitation  nsuall\- 
causes  the  oil  to  flow  through  them  with  sufficient  rapidity,  although  pumping- 
engines  are  sometimes  employed.  The  pipe  companies  receipt  for  the  araount 
taken  into  their  pipes  from  the  tanks,  as  shown  by  the  gauges,  and  agree  to 
deliver  the  registered  quantity  at  the  terminus  of  their  line,  often  hundreds  of 
miles  away.  This  being  the  cheapest  method  of  transportation,  producers  arc 
forced  to  utilize  it,  or  lose  money.  As  the  pipe-lines  have  been  bought  \\\) 
and  concentrated  by  a  few  persons,  the  transportation  of  crude  petrokuni 
from  the  place  where  it  is  produced  to  the  place  where  it  is  refined  and 
marketed  is  in  the  hands  of  a  monopoly,  who  are  thus  able  to  control  the 
markets  of  the  world ;  and,  as  the  refining  and  exporting  have  likewise  been 
centralized  and  allied  with  the  pipe-line  interest,  the  production  and  price  of 
oil  are  completely  controlled  by  the  "  ring." 

Before  proceeding  briefly  to  state  the  development  the  oil-interest  has 
attained,  and  to  consider  the  probable  future  of  the  production,  it  nia\-  be 
Loss  of  oil  by  ^marked,  that  few  industries  of  the  country  have  been  and  are 
fire  and  affected  by  catastrophe  so  easily  and  suddenly  as  the  petroleum. 

Fire  and  flood  have  done  damage  at  one  time  or  another  to 
petroleum  in  large  (piantities.  and  not  only  wrought  the  ruin  of  jM-oprietors  and 
speculators,,  but  have  decidedly  affected  die  general  market.  A  cruih  of  oil- 
boats  in  an  ice-gorge  in  December,  1862,  at  Oil  City,  robbed  the  owners  of  over 
^ifty  thousand  barrels  of  oil,  and  involved  a  loss,  real  and  contingent,  of  five 
hundred  thousand  dollars.  ISefore  the  event,  the  ice-blockade  in  the  river  and 
the  scarcity  of  oil  at  Pittsburgh  put  the  price  up  to  thirty-one  and  thirty-two 


"■f  if 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


779 


onstniriion 
l<L'n.     Iron 
in  sluillou' 
^l<i  cannot 
^n  usn;ill\- 
I  puiiijii:i;4- 
liL'  anioiint 
-•  'li^i-cc  to 
ndrcds  of 
liicers  arc 
JO  1 1,1^  In  n). 
petrolciiiii 
Inicd  and 
"itrol   the 
\'isc  I, ecu 
inicQ  of 

'rest    lias 

may  l)e 

and  are 
trolenni. 
3tlier   to 
tors  and 
I  of  oil- 

of  o\  er 

of  five 
\cr  and 
rt)--tuo 


Production. 


cents  a  gallon  :  a  few  days  after  the  disaster,  when  the  channel  was  open,  the 
price  was  only  nine  cents,  and  it  kept  receding  the  rest  of  tiie  winter.  The 
next  year  forty  large  oil-boats  were  burned  on  the  creek ;  and  one  of  them 
burned  up  a  fine  suspension-bridge  at  Franklin,  the  total  loss  amounting  to  a 
hundred  and  fifty  thousand  dollars.  The  drifting  masses  of  rose-colored  flame 
afforded  at  night  a  magnificent  scene.  The  breakage  of  bulk  in  imnvmse 
quantities,  and  the  catching  fire  of  oil  on  the  water,  have  also  wrov.ght 
devastation  to  wharves  and  shipping  for  miles.  Spouting-wells  have  taken  fire 
from  adjacent  engines,  and  bursting  tanks  that  held  thousands  of  barrels — • 
first  flooding  a  wido  area,  including  buildings,  wells,  and  machinery,  and  then 
becoming  ignited  —  have  also  figured  prominently  in  the  many  disasters  that 
are  recorded  in  petroleum's  history. 

There  are  no  statistics  to  show  the  amount  of  oil  produced  in  1859  ;  but 
the  owners  of  the  Drake  well  at  first  controlled  the  supply,  and  kept  the  price 
at  twenty  doflars  per  barrel  the  last  four  months  of  the  year. 
During  i860  the  price  ranged  from  two  dollars  to  twenty  dollars, 
the  average  being  nine  dollars  and  sixty  cents.  The  production  rapidly 
increased  the  latter  part  of  that  year  and  through  i36i.  While  the  home-trade 
was  hardly  developed,  still  less  was  the  export  trade.  The  overstocking  of 
the  market  without  sufficient  outlet  ran  the  price  down  to  ten  cents  a  barrel 
during  a  good  part  of  1861,  the  average  for  the  year  being  forty-nine  cents. 
In  i(S62  our  foreign  trade  had  become  immensely  developed,  amounting  to 
10,387,701  gallons,  or  250,000  barrels.  In  1863  we  nearly  trebled  this,  and  in 
1S64  had  quite  done  so.  Our  total  product  in  1864  was  over  1,000,000  l)ar- 
rels,  of  which  we  exported  three-quarters.  Ten  years  later,  our  export  was 
nearly  6,000,000  barrels,  —  an  i'-":rease  of  eightfold;  and,  as  the  exports  bore 
about  the  same  relation  to  our  home-consumption,  the  total  production  b.ad 
risen  to  between  7,000,000  and  8,000,000  barrels.  This  increase  was  not  at 
an  even  rate ;  yet  it  was  steady.  In  1864  the  price  advanced  to  an  average 
of  seven  dollars  and  sixty-two  cents  a  barrel,  a  slight  check  in  the  production 
having  been  experienced,  and  the  outlet  having  been  enlarged.  During  the 
next  six  years  it  fluctuated  between  nine  dollars  and  a  half  and  three  dollars. 
From  1S72  to  1876  the  average  export  was  over  5,000,000  barrels.  In  the 
last-named  year  the  exact  export  was  6,594,237  barrels  out  of  a  total  product 
of  10,191,452.  The  value  of  the  export  of  1876  was  a  trifle  under  5^50,000.000, 
an  1  of  the  total  product  about  $75,000,000.  In  10,7  our  product  was  in- 
creased about  one-third  ;  but  the  price  fell  off  nearly  one-fifth  on  an  a\erage 
for  the  year,  and  for  all  grades  of  oil  and  residuum.  The  yield  might  be 
said  to  have  beer  worth  nearly  $90,000,000. 

This  is  neaily  ecjual  to  the   amount  invested   in   oil-lands,  tankage,  and 
machinery  for  pumping  crude  petroleum.     The  railroads  and  pipe-   Capital  in- 
liiKs  built  especially  for  the   petroleum   interest   represent   $25,-   vested. 
000,000  or  $30,000,000  of  capital,  and  the  refineries  something  less.     Petro- 


■■■■- ,1  iiiiwmiiiijj  i,r 


780 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY   OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


leum,  therefore,  pays  over  sixty  per  cent  upon  the  capital  invested  annually ; 
which  shows  the  advantages  of  a  monopoly  controlling  an  interest. 

It  is  a  very  interesting  question,  how  long  our  petroleum-supply  will  hold 
out.  Thus  far,  while  individual  wells  have  always  proved  short-lived,  our  \  icld 
Future  sup-  has  Steadily  increased  through  a  period  of  eighteen  years.  \Ve 
P'y-  have  no  rival  in  the  world  to  fear  at  present,  and  our  increase 

keeps  pace  with  the  increasing  demands  of  the  world.  The  enlargement  of 
our  yield  might  be  more  rapid,  were  that  of  the  demand  likewise ;  and  if  oil 
shall  be  found  in  other  quarters  of  the  globe  in  large  quantities,  and  our  ])ro- 
duction  is  necessarily  reduced  in  order  to  avoid  overstocking  the  market,  we 
shall  be  more  economical  in  the  exhaustion  of  our  treasure.  But  the  best 
judges  seem  to  think  that  the  supply  is  practically  unlimited,  as  is  that  of 
our  coal.  Though  it  may  have  iiltered  hundreds  of  miles  laterally  from 
the  point  of  its  formation,  owing  to  the  porous  character  of  some  of  the  adja- 
cent strata  of  rocks,  the  fractured  condition  of  others,  and  the  upheaval  of  vast 
ranges  of  mountains  from  the  origina'  level  of  their  composite  strata,  there 
is  little  question  that  the  oil  has  been  distilled  from  coal  and  from  carbonifer- 
ous shales  that  could  not  be  used  for  fuel.  As  our  enormous  consumption 
of  oil  does  not  equal  the  oil-producing  possibilities  of  the  coal  we  consume, 
as  the  shales  have  yielded  oil  beside  that  derived  from  the  coal,  and  as  we  have 
drawn  on  our  coal-account  with  Mother  Earth  much  more  largely  than  on  our 
oil-account,  it  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that  she  will  continue  to  honor  our 
drafts  unlimitedly  for  many  generations  to  come. 


v;i;. 


BOOK    V. 


BANKING,  INSURANCE,  AND   COMMERCE. 


i<  it 


"^^inwmmi^w 


11.  f»l 


N 


O  cc 

Sta 


nations  o 
various  k 
profcssior 
regulatioi 
cany  on 
lar  currer 
Amcricar 
govcrnnK 
lack  of  i: 
husiness- 
nopolisti 
As  e 
attcnti  Di- 
me rchan 
the  seci 
wliich  o 
by  the  1 
which  s' 
council 
tare,     i 
to  that 
issuanci 
was  acl( 
early  cl 
Inasmi' 
mcntio 


CHAPTER  I. 


BANKING. 

EARLY    COLONIAL    PERIOD. 

NO  country  has  ever  tried  so  many  experiments  in  banking  as  the  United 
States.     This  is  due  to  several  causes.     In  the  first  place,  while  the 
nations  of  the  earth  had  from  a  very  early  day  used  money  of  Yg^ig^  ^^ 
various  kinds,  and  individual  money-lenders  had  practised  their  periments  in 
])rofcssion  for  centuries  under  more  or  less   rigid   governmental   ^""^^'^^^ 

'  °         °  banking. 

regulation  and  protection,  the  idea  of  joint-stock  corporations  to 
cirry  on  the  business,  whose  notes,  properly  secured,  should  form  a  popu- 
lar currency,  came  into  notice  in  the  world  only  after  tlie  foundation  of  the 
American  colonies.  Furthermore,  the  peculiar  forms  of  colonial  and  national 
government  in  this  country,  and  the  spirit  of  the  people,  to  say  nothing  of  the 
lack  of  individual  capitalists  in  early  times,  stimulated  and  gave  free  play  to 
business-enterprise  to  a  much  greater  extent  than  was  possible  under  the  mo- 
nopolistic and  monarchical  institutions  of  Europe. 

As  early  as  17 15,  when  the  mystery  of  banking  was  first  attracting  the 
attention  of  European  financiers,  John  Colman  of  Massachusetts,  and  other 
merchants,  proposed  to  establish  a  bank  which  should  issue  notes.  First  Ameri. 
the  security  therefor  being  land.  A  party  inuiiediately  sprang  up  '^*"  project. 
which  opposed  this  scheme,  and  which  advocated,  instead,  a  system  of  loaning 
by  the  Provincial  (jovernment  to  the  inhabitant,  on  interest  i)a)able  annually, 
which  should  be  applied  toward  the  public  expenses.  The  governor  and  his 
council  refused  to  sanction  Colman's  project,  and  referred  him  to  the  legisla- 
ture. Nothing  daunted,  he  effected  an  association  which  presented  the  matter 
to  that  body.  The  opposition  there  met  them  with  a  counter-proposal  for  the 
issuance  of  a  pijvincial  loan  to  the  extent  of  fifty  thousand  pounds ;  and  this 
was  adopted.  Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  the  government  of  the  I  Say  S'lte  in  its 
early  days  was,  as  was  eminently  proper  then,  paternal  in  its  helpfulness. 
Inasmucli  as  the  mercantile  portion  of  the  community  regarded  the  above- 
mentioned  loan  insufficient  for  their  needs,  and  clamored  for  more,  the  Col- 

783 


"^^flR^^^T^" 


■I  51" 


784 


/jV£>  l's  tria  l  his  tor  y 


*;  i* 


W'":' 


man  party  were  encouraged  to  continue  their  contest  for  the  establishment  of 
private  banks  of  issue,  but  without  success. 

The  system  of  money-lending  adopted  by  Massachusetts  soon  foiuid  favot 
in  other  colonies,  nearly  all  of  which  had  tried  the  experiment  l)i.(oi\-  iho 
Extension  breaking-out  of  the  Revolution.  Benjamin  Franklin  heartily  aj)- 
of  the  proved  the  plan  ;    which,  by  the  way,  proved  decidedly  prolUahlo 

system.  ^^  ^j^^  colonies  which  embarked  in  it.     So  long  as  the  sec mitv 

taken  was  ample,  of  course  the  taxpayers  incurred  no  risk  ;  yet  there  was  con- 
stant danger  of  loans  being  based  upon  insufficient  security.  This  syslcin.  a,» 
also  that  devised  by  Colman,  was  tried  with  occasional  variation ;  but  all  ol" 
these  experiments  proved  somewhat  inefficient  and  short-lived. 

The  first  institution  worthy  of  the  name  of  a  bank,  organized  in  this  coun^ 
try,  was  founded,  not  with  any  purpose  of  enriching  those  connected  therewith 
Bank  of  "°''  ^^  facilitating  ordinary  trade,  but  of  patriotically  assisting  tha 

North  infant  republic  of  the  United  States  to  achieve  its  national  indc- 

America.  pendence.  At  a  meeting  of  citizens  held  in  Philadc'phia  June  17, 
1 780,  it  was  resolved  to  open  a  "  security  subscrii)tion  to  the  amount  of 
three  hundred  thousand  pounds,  Pennsylvania  currency,  real  money,"  the 
same  to  be  used  in  purchasing  necessary  supplies  for  \\'ashington's  army.  At 
this  time  the  soldiers  were  in  extreme  need,  and  on  the  verge  of  mutiny ;  and 
the  Federal  Government  was  unable  to  make  the  requisite  provision  for  the 
emergency,  although  it  was  expected  to  re-imburse  the  subscribers  ultimately. 
Thomas  Paine,  the  distinguished  free-thinker,  and  at  that  time  clerk  of  the 
Pennsylvania  Assembly,  was  active  in  promoting  the  scheme,  and  enclosed 
five  hundred  dollars  toward  making  up  the  fund  to  Blair  McClenaghan,  who, 
as  also  Robert  Morris,  subscribed  two  hundred  pounds  in  hard  money. 

F'our  days  later  the  matter  was  brought  up  in  the  Continental  Congress, 
which  then  met  in  Philadelphia,  and  a  committee  was  appointed  to 
confer  with  the  inspectors  and  directors  of  the  proposed  institution. 
Subsequently  the  committee  reported  a  series  of  resolutions,  which 
were  unanimously  adopted,  appreciatively  recognizing  the  inten- 
tion of  the  associators,  accepting  their  patriotic  offer,  and  pledging 
repayment. 

The  eminent  financier  and  patriot,  Robert  Morris,  then  superintendent  of 
finance,  devised,  in  the  spring  of  1781,  the  system  on  which  the  bank  should 
operate ;  and,  on  the  26th  of  May,  Congress  approved  it.  In 
ris's  connec-  December  the  institution  was  by  that  body  formally  chartered  as 
tion  there-  t^e  Bank  of  North  .America,  with  a  capital  limited  to  10,000,000 
Spanish  silver-milled  dollars.  The  amount  of  capital  paid  in  by 
-he  individual  stockholders  did  not,  however,  exceed  $85,000.  The  superin- 
tendent of  finance,  to  encourage  the  undertaking,  subscnued  $250,000  to  the 
stock  on  behalf  of  the  government ;  but  the  national  finances  were  so  far 
exhausted,  that  the  bank  was  subsecjuently  obliged  to  release  $200,000  of  che 


Congres- 
sional pro- 
ceedings 
relative 
thereto. 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


7«5 


lishmcni  of 


bef(j 


(^iv  the 
'  prolltahie 

"-'     !'t."<llM'tV 

re  was  con. 
■''y-'^tein,  a:» 
^ut  all  of 


^'iis  coun. 
tlicreuith, 
ssisting  tha 
ional  indc- 
ia  June  17, 
iniount  of 
oncy,"  the 
army.     .\t 
ut'iiy;  and 
ion  for  the 
ultimately, 
erk  of  the 
1  enclosed 
?han,  who, 

■y- 

Congress, 
pointed  to 
nstitiition. 
•ns,  which 
he  inten- 
pledging 

ident  of 
k  should 
!  it.  h-x 
■tered  as 
,000,000 
d  in  by 
superin- 
'  to  the 

so  far 

of  che 


subscription,  and  its  remaining  stock  paid  in  was  sold  to  jicrsons  in  Holland. 
['he  liank  was  opened  for  business  on  Jan.  7,  1782,  Uefore  the  month  of 
[uly  following  it  had  loaned  to  the  g()\eriimcnt  ;$40o.ooo,  anil  to  the  State  of 
rcnnsylvania  $80,000. 


HOnF.HT   MORRIS. 


The  legislature  of  Pennsylvania  granted  the  company  an  act  of  incorpora- 
tion of  perpetual  duration  on  April  i,  1782,  which  was  repealed  in  1785  ;  but 
the  bank  continued  its  business  under  the  act  of  Congress.     A 

°  Further  his- 

change  of  parties  in  1787  brought  with  it  a  renewal  of  the  charter   tory  and 
by  the  State  of  Pennsylvania,  limited,  however,  to  the  term  of  four-    success  of 

■  1  •     1       /•    «  T  TT        -1  t^ic  bank. 

teen  years.  With  a  capital  of  $2,000,000.  in  1790  Hamilton,  \\\ 
his  report,  refers  to  the  *•  ambiguous  situation  in  which  the  ]»ank  of  North 
America  has  placed  itself  by  the  acceptance  of  its  last  State  charter,"  ami 
concludes,  that  as  this  has  rendered  it  a  bank  of  an  individual  State,  with  a 
capital  of  but  $2,000,000,  liable  to  dissolution  at  the  expiration  of  its  charter 
in  fourteen  years,  it  would  not  be  expedient  to  accept  it  as  an  equivalent  for 
a  bank  of  the  United  States.  The  State  charter  of  the  bank  was  renewed 
from  time  to  time  until  Dec.  3,  1864,  when  it  became  a  national  bank,  retain- 
ing its  original  name,  with  a  capital  of  $1,000,000,  and  a  surplus  of  nearly 
the  same  amount.     Allhough  such  was  not  originally  intended  to  be  the  case, 


I'   V 


786 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


the  institution  has  proved  profitable  to  the  stockholders ;  for  the  annua\ 
dividends  n-om  1792  to  1875,  a  period  of  eighty-four  years,  averaged  only  a 
small  fraction  less  than  eleven  per  cent. 


\:i% 


r.i^ii 


'■'■Ift 


Alexander 
Hamilton 
moves  for 
B  national 
bank. 


FIRST    BANK    OF   THE    UNITED    STATES. 

The  experiment  of  the  Bank  of  North  America  had  demonstrated  tlic 
value  of  an  institution  which  should  make  loans  to  the  government  as  well 
as  to  private  individuals ;  which  should  take  and  place  govern 
mcnt  bonds  as  our  "syndicates"  do  now;  and  which  shonlil 
furnish  the  people  a  secure  paper  currency  to  supplement  tin- 
limited  amount  of  coin  in  circulation.  But  Alexander  Hamilton, 
the  great  Federalist,  who  had  been  so  influ  mtial  in  securing  tin- 
adoption  of  the  new  Constitution  in  1787,  and  who  was  Washington's  t'irsi 
secretary  of  the  treasury,  held  that  the  Bank  of  North  America  had  tiien 
become  a  State  institution,  and  that  a  National  bank  should  be  organized. 
England  had  such  a  one,  and  France  also.  With  a  foresight  which  has 
been  singularly  justified  by  the  experience  of  the  country  with  grecnl)a(ks 
at  a  later  day,  he  objected  to  the  issue  of  paper  money  directly  by  the- 
government,  as  of  "  a  nature  so  liable  to  abuse,  and,  it  may  even  be  affirmed, 
so  certain  of  being  abused,  that  the  wisdom  of  the  government  will  be 
shown  in  never  trusting  itself  with  the  use  of  so  seducing  and  dangerous 
ail  expedient."  Accordingly,  in  an  elaborate  report  made  Dec.  13,  1790, 
covering  the  above  points,  he  recommended  the  incorporation  of  the 
Bank  of  the  United  States ;  and  his  plan,  substantially  unchanged,  was 
adopted  by  Congress,  and  appro\'ed  \)y  the  President,  the  25th  of  the  follow- 
ing February. 

The  capital  of  the  bank  was  fixed  at  $10,000,000.  One-fourth  of  all  the 
private  and  corporate  subscriptions  was  to  be  paid  in  gold  and  silver,  and  three- 
its  basis  fourths  wcrc  to  be  paid  in  United-States  stock  bearing  six  per  cent 
and  govern-  interest.  Two  millions  were  to  be  subscribed  by  the  United  States, 
'"^"''  and  paid  in  ten  equal  annual  instalments  by  loans  from  the  Ijank, 

or,  as  Mr.  Hamilton  describes  the  operation,  by  "  borrowing  with  one  hand 
what  is  lent  with  the  other."  The  board  of  directors  of  the  bank  was 
to  consist  of  twenty-five  persons,  not  more  than  three-fourths  of  them 
to  be  eligible  for  re-election  in  the  next  succeeding  year.  The  bank  liad 
authority  to  loan  on  real-estate  security,  but  could  only  hold  such  real 
estate  as  was  requisite  for  the  erection  of  suitable  banking-houses,  or  should 
be  conveyed  to  it  in  satisfaction  of  mortgages  or  judgments.  No  stoek- 
holder,  unless  a  citizen  of  the  United  States,  could  be  a  director ;  and  the 
directors  were  to  give  their  services  without  compensation.  The  bills  and 
notes  of  the  b;  nk  were  .  ade  receival.)le  in  payment  of  all  debts  to  the 
United  States. 


OF    THE    (JN/TF.D    STATES. 


787 


From  the  day  it  was  first  proposed,  the  liauk  of  the  United  States  was 
a  bone  of  political  contention  ;  the  Nortii  favoring  it,  and  the  South  disap- 
proving. The  line  which  (hvidcd  its  friends  and  foes  was  not  only  sectional, 
but  partisan  :  the  Federalists,  and  suhsecpiently  the  Whigs,  con-  y'o\\\:\c^\ 
stitiiting  the  former;  and  tlie  Republicans,  or,  as  they  were  also  sentiment 
called,  the  Democrats,  composing  the  latter.  The  original  act  of  "^'"'^  '"*  *" 
incorporation   was    opposed    in    the    House    of    Representatives    by   James 


AI.KXANnr.R    HAMIl.TOV. 


Madison  (afterwards  President)  and  eighteen  others,  all  but  one  of  whom 
were  from  Virginia,  Maryland,  and  the  Carolinas.  Thomas  Jefferson  (then 
secretary  of  state)  and  Edmund  Randolph  (attorney-general),  in  opinions 
requested  by  Washington,  also  disai^proved.  'I'he  groimds  taken  by  the 
opponents  of  the  charter  were  a  denial  of  the  general  utility  of  banking 
systems,  and  opposition  to  tlie  special  provisions  of  the  bill  ;    but  the  main 


?1- 


7S8 


IND  US  TK I A  I.     ins  TOR  Y 


I 


force  of  their  objections  was  directed  against  the  constitutional  authority  ^^i 
C'ongress  to  pass  an  act  for  the  incor[)oration  of  a  national  i)ank.  The 
sui)|)orters  of  the  bill  in  the  House  of  Representatives  numbered  iliiit\- 
nine, — a  majority  of  twenty; — all  of  them,  except  four,  being  representaiiM  •, 
of  Northern  States,  among  whom  were  Fisher  Ames,  I'',ll)ridge  (Jerry,  miil 
Theodore  Sedgwick,  of  Massachusetts,  Roger  Sherman  and  Jonathan  'rnim 
bull  of  Connecticut,  Elias  Uoudinot  of  New  Jersey,  and  Peter  Muhlenlniu 
of  I'ennsylvania.  Hamilton  (secretary  of  the  treasury)  and  Knox  (secret, ii\ 
of  war),  iir  offuual  ojjinions  rendered  to  the  President,  maintained  the  ion 
stitutionality  and  the  policy  of  the  act. 

The  average  dividends  of  the  bank  from  its  organization  to  March,  iSoy. 
were  at  the  rate  of  eight  and  a  half  per  centum  per  annum.  The  5,000 
Success  of  shares  of  $400  each  owned  by  the  United  .States  were  disposed 
the  bank.  ^^f  j,^  jj^^  years  1796  to  i8o2  at  a  considerable  ])r()fit ;  j.jjo* 
shares  having  been  sold  in  the  last-mentioned  year  at  a  ])remium  of  forty  fnc 
per  cent.  According  to  the  treasury-records,  the  government  subscription. 
with  the  addition  of  the  interest  which  was  paid  by  the  United  States  on  the 
stock  issued  for  it,  amounted  to  $2,636,427.71  ;  while  there  was  received 
by  die  treasury  in  dividends,  and  from  the  sale  of  the  bank-stock  at  variou-, 
times,  $3,773,580,  the  i)rofit  realized  by  the  government  being  $1,137, 152. jy, 
or  nearly  fifty-seven  per  cent  on  the  original  investment. 

The  twenty-years'  limit  of  the  bank's  charter  expired  March  4,  iSii  ; 
and  application  was  mnde  for  its  renewal  in  April,  1808.  Again  the  ([ueslio;! 
became  political,  although  party  lines  were  not  drawn  stri(  tly. 
^.r^ren'rwing  <^ongress  investigated  the  matter  in  1810.  Mr.  Gallatin,  then 
the  charter  secretary  of  the  treasury,  favored  the  renewal,  and  said  of  the 
unsuccess-      ^^^^^  bank,  that  its  affairs,  "  considered  as  a  moneyed  institution, 

ful.  '  •' 

have  been  wisely  and  skilfully  administered."  The  vote  in  the 
Senate,  F'eb.  20,  181 1,  resulted  in  a  tie;  and  the  Vice-President,  George 
Clinton,  threw  his  casting  vote  against  the  measure.  Henry  Clay  opjjosed  it  ; 
while  Mr.  Crawford  and  Mr.  Pickering  favored  it,  the  latter  acting  contrary 
to  the  instructions  of  the  Massachusetts  legislature.  The  legislatures  of  Penn- 
sylvania and  Virginia  instructed  their  representatives  to  oppose  it  on  the 
ground  of  unconstitutionality.  In  the  House  the  bill  was  defeated  by  a 
minority  of  one. 

Financial  evils  of  a  serious  character  now  ensued,  and  greatly  distressed 
the  country ;   the  trouble  being  greatly  augmented   by  the   paralyzing  effect 

upon  industry  of  the  embargo  of  1807  and  the  war  of  181 2-14. 
financial  In  the  first  place,  the  State  banks,  and  even  unchartered  institu- 
cviis  result-     tjons,  inflated  the  paper  currency  until  it  sadly  depreciated.      In 

181 1  the  outstanding  State-bank  notes  amounted  to  $28,000,000; 
in  1813,  between  $62,000,000  and  $70,000,000;  in  181 5,  between  $99,000,- 
000  and  $  1 10,000,000  :  and  in  18 19,  between  $45,000,000  and  $53,000,000. 


Floods  oC 
Mut  1a  <>!'  t 
Again  :  in 
c(l  specie 
L'niled  St: 
some  $9,o( 
a  hundred 
in   some 
([lie  nee. 
776,  whicl 
sold  at  fi 
loan  of  $i 
.at  par;  a 
(ciit,  yiel( 
should  be 
the  gover 
less  than 
important 
first  and  ^ 
1.S17. 

(Jn  Oi 
on  the  14 
Means  Ct 
all  the  e\ 
and  stron 
This  and 
and  in  Ja 
United  S 
years,  an< 
the  bill. 


On  t 

which  Wi 
(lovernn 
upon  th( 
incorpor 
by  him. 
Ihe  cap 
by  the  { 
interest 
'I'he  ren 
one-fou: 


^ 


0/     Tlf!:     UNITED    STATES. 


789 


I'lodils  of  this  currency  wrrc  in  fractions  of  a  dollar,  from  six  cents  upward. 
Much  of  this  being  irredeemable,  it  passed  for  a  great  deal  less  than  its  fa(  e. 
Ajjain  :  in  September,  1814,  all  of  the  banks  south  of  New  Knglarid  suspend- 
ed s[)ecie  payments.  This  also  depreciated  their  notes.  Furthermore,  the 
I'niled  States,  which  had  not  yet  established  treasure- vaults  of  its  own,  had 
M)ine  i?l9,ooo,ooo  on  deposit  with  the  sus[jended  banks,  whit  h  nijmbered  about 
a  iiiuidred,  and  from  which  it  could  not  recover  its  money  for  many  years  ; 
111  some  cases,  never.  The  government's  own  credit  suffered  in  conse- 
(|iiLiice.  During  1813  and  1814  it  issued  stocks  to  the  amount  of  $42,269,- 
776,  which  were  to  run  twelve  years  at  six  per  cent,  but  which  had  to  be 
sold  at  fifteen  per  cent  discount.  On  Feb.  24,  1815,  the  war  being  over,  a 
loan  of  588,856,960,  running  for  nine  years  at  seven  per  cent,  was  negotiated 
,,it  par;  and  yet  another  loan  of  59,745,745  for  only  nine  months,  at  six  per 
(cnt,  yieldctl  the  following  year  only  ninety -five  per  cent  of  its  face.  It 
should  be  borne  in  mind,  too,  that,  even  while  selling  these  bonds  below  i)ar, 
the  government  was  obliged  to  receive  paper  money,  which  was  worth  much 
less  than  its  own  flice  ;  so  that  its  loss  was  double.  These  were  the  most 
important  results  of  the  State-bank  system  during  the  interval  between  the 
first  and  second  banks  of  the  United  States, — from  March  4,  181 1,  to  Jan.  7, 
iSi  7. 

On  Oct.  6,  1 8 14,  Mr.  Dallas  was  appointed  secretary  of  the  treasury  ;  and 
on  the  14th  of  the  same  month,  in  response  to  an  inquiry  from  the  Ways  and 
Means  Committee  of  the  House  of  Representatives,  he  reviewed  Another  vain 
all  the  evils  just  recounted  in  an  elaborate  and  earnest  argument,  attempt  at 
and  strongly  recommended  the  organization  of  a  national  bank.  ''^^'^"  • 
This  and  the  experience  of  the  country  revolutionized  sentiment  in  Congress ; 
and  in  January,  1815,  that  body  granted  a  new  charter  to  the  old  liank  of  the 
United  States.  But  Mr.  Madison,  who  had  then  been  President  nearly  six 
years,  and  who  had  opposed  the  establishment  of  the  original  bank,  vetoed 
the  bill. 


SECOND    I5ANK    OI'    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


On  the  loth  of  April,  1816,  a  bill  was  .  [)[)roved  by  President  Madison, 
which  was  the  second  and  last  charter  of  the  bank  granted  by  the  (leneral 
(iovernment.  The  plan  proposed  by  Mr.  Dallas  was  modelled  Re-estab- 
upon  the  charter  of  the  first  United-States  Bank,  and  the  act  of  lishment. 
incorporation  as  finally  passed  did  not  dii  t  materially  from  the  i)lan  proposed 
by  him.  The  charter  was  limited  to  twenty  years,  expiring  on  March  3,  1836. 
I'he  capital  was  fixed  at  $35,000,000,  $7,000,000  of  which  was  to  be  subscribed 
by  the  government,  payable  in  coin,  or  in  stock  of  the  United  States  bearing 
interest  at  five  per  cent,  an"  redeemable  at  the  pleasure  of  the  government. 
The  remaining  stock  was  to  be  subscribed  for  by  individuals  and  corporations, 
one-fourth  being  i)ayable  in  coin,  and  three-fourths  in  coin  or  in  the  funded 


790 


IND  CS  TKIA  I.    HIS  rOH  Y 


debt  of  the  United  States.  I''ive  of  the  directors  were  to  l)e  appoinletl  by  the 
President ;  and  all  of  them  were  re(|uired  to  be  resident-citi/ens  of  the  t'nitid 
States,  and  to  serve  without   compensation.      Th 


e   anviunt    of   indebted 


iicss 


exclusive  of  deposits,  was  not  to  exceed  the  capital  of  the  bank.  Tlu' 
directors  were  empowered  to  establish  branches  ;  and  the  notes  of  the  l)ank 
payable  on  demand,  were  receivable  in  all  payments  to  the  United  Stales. 
The  penalty  for  refusing  to  pay  its  notes  or  deposits  in  coin,  on  demand,  w.w 
twelve  per  cent  i)er  aiuuim  until  fully  paid.  I'lie  bank  was  reiniired  to  give 
the  necessary  facilities,  without  charge,  for  transferring  the  fimds  of  the  go\ 
eriunent  to  tlifferent  portions  of  the  Union,  and  for  negotiating  piililic  loans. 
The  moneys  of  the  government  were  to  be  deposited  in  the  bank  and  its 
branches,  unless  the  secretary  of  the  treasury  should  otherwise  direct.  Nd 
notes  were  to  be  issued  of  a  less  denomination  than  five  dt>llars,  and  all  notes 
smaller  than  a  hundred  dollars  were  to  be  made  payable  on  demand,  riu- 
bank  was  not,  directly  nor  indirectly,  to  deal  in  any  thing  exce])l  bills  ot 
exchange,  gold  or  silver  bullion,  goods  pledged  for  money  lent,  or  in  the  sale 
of  goods  really  and  truly  pledged  for  loans,  or  of  the  proceeds  of  its  lands. 
No  other  bank  was  to  be  established  by  authority  of  C'ongress  during  tlie 
continuance  of  the  corporation,  except  such  as  might  be  organized  in  the 
District  of  Colimibia  with  an  aggregate  cajiital  not  exceeding  56,000,000; 
and,  in  consideration  of  all  the  grants  of  the  charter,  the  bank  was  to  i)ay  to 
the  Uniled  States  a  bonus  of  $1,500,000  in  three  annual  instalments.  The 
bank  went  into  operation  Jan.  7,  iSi  7. 

This  i)eriod  was  particularly  critical.     Property  had  depreciated  ;  the  con- 
traction of  State-bank  circulation  was  rapidly  going  on,  and  bank-failures  wcmv 
Grave  diffi-      frec]uent  and  numerous.      Individual  and  corporate  business-enter 
cutties  sur-      prises  Were  still  languishing  in  consequence  of  the  war  and  cur- 
mounted.        j.^.j^^y  ^,^j|^      .|.|^j^  j^^,^^j^.   up-hill  work  for  the  new  United-States 

Bank.  Its  managers  were  still  further  embarrasseil  by  an  attack  on  them  in 
Congress.  In  November,  1818,  a  conunittee  was  appointed  to  investigate  its 
affairs,  which,  in  December,  reported  that  it  hatl  violated  its  charter  in  four 
instances,  and  in  February,  itSig,  recommended  a  repeal  of  the  same.  This 
assault  failed,  however,  as  the  resolution  did  not  pass.  In  the  last-named 
year,  the  bank,  feeling  the  responsibility  of  its  influence  upon  the  business  of 
the  country,  made  an  herculean  effort.  It  imported  seven  millions  of  specie 
from  ICurope  in  order  to  restore  soundness  to  the  currency.  This  enterprise 
cost  it  half  a  million  ;  and,  owing  to  the  mismanagement  of  the  IJallimorc 
branch,  over  three  millions  were  lost  outright.  Yet  the  bank  and  the  business 
of  the  country  eventually  recovered.  Popular  industry  and  governmental 
finance  prospered  from  1820  to  1835.  In  tliis  interval  the  national  debt  was 
paid,  and  the  stock  of  the  bank  rose  in  the  market  until  it  commanded  a 
premium  of  twenty  per  cent.  "  Long  before  the  election  of  (ien.  Jackson," 
says  Mr.  Tarton,  "  the  l)ank  ai)peared  to  have  lived  down  all  opposition.     In 


I't 


the  prcsidci 
It  mcntionc 
jupcrs,  can 
not  die  nioH 
In  1831 
twenty-five 
profit  realii 
following  si 


^'k^...J^ 


'I  jj  1,(111 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


791 


IK' 


the  presidential  campaign  of  1824  it  was  not  so  much  as  mentioned,  nor  was 
It  mcnlioned  in  tliat  of  i.SjK.  In  all  the  political  pan)i)hlc'ts,  voliuncs,  news- 
papers, campaign- papers,  burlescpies,  and  caricatures  of  those  years,  there  is 
not  the  most  distant  allusion  to  the  bank  as  a  political  issue." 

Ill  1837,  when  the  Federal  charter  expired,  the  hank's  stock  stood  at 
tttcnty-five  per  cent  premium,  and  the  institution  was  making  money.  The 
profit  realized  by  the  government  in  the  mean  time  will  be  seen  from  the 
following  statement :  — 

Uomis  |);ii(l  l)y  the  l)iiiik  to  tlic  United  States  ....  $1,500,000  00 

DiviticiuU  paid  by  the  l)aiik  to  tlic  United  States    .        .        ,  7,118,416  29 
I'rocceds  of  stocks  sold  and  other  moneys  paid  l)y  the  bank 

to  the  United  States y,4J.j,75o  78 


Total 


I''ive-pcr-cent  stock  issued  i)y  the  United  States  for 

its  subscription  to  the  stock  of  tlu  bank       .         $7,000,000 
Interest  paid  on  tlic  same  from  issue  to  redemption,    4,950,000 


'>« 


Profit 


$18,043,167  C7 


11,950,000  00 


$6,093,167  07 


Andrew  Jackson  came  to  the  presidency  March  4,  1829,  and  soon  began 
a  crusade  against  the  bank.  In  his  message  to  Congress  the  following  winter 
he  advised  a  consideration  of  the  constitutional  objections  to  re-    .    . 

•'  Andrew 

chartering  the  institution.     Agitation,  mild  at  first,  gradually  in-   jacUson 
creased.       In    July,    18^2,    CoiiLrress   granted   a   renewal   of   the   "i^'^s'' war 

•'      •"  ^  '^  ^  on  the  bank. 

charter,  and  President  Jackson  vetoed  the  bill.  A  few  months 
later  an  intention  was  manifested  of  removing  from  the  bank  all  the  govern- 
ment deposits.  In  .he  winter  of  1832-33  the  House  passed  a  resolution 
declaring  that  these  moneys  were  safe  where  they  were.  But  the  election  of 
the  previous  fall  had  insured  a  Democratic  House  to  succeed  this  one.  After 
his  second  inauguration  in  1S33,  therefore,  the  President  ordered  his  new 
secretary  of  the  treasury,  Mr.  Duane,  to  remove  the  deposits,  and  distribute 
them  among  certain  State  banks.  That  gentleman  declined  to  do  so,  and 
was  therefore  displaced  by  the  President,  who  appointed  Attorney-den. 
Taney  his  successor.  Mr.  Taney  executed  the  mandate  of  his  sujierior,  and 
gave  his  reasons  therefor  to  the  new  Congress  on  its  meeting  in  December. 
The  Senate,  by  a  vote  of  twenty-six  to  twenty,  censured  the  President  for  what 
it  termed  a  usurpation  of  authority,  and  voted,  tweuiy-eight  to  eighteen,  that 
the  moneys  had  been  safe  where  they  were.  The  House,  on  the  other  hand, 
approved  the  President's  course,  declared  that  tlie  Bank  of  the  United  States 
ought  not  to  be  rechartered,  resolved  that  the  State  banks  be  continued  as 
depositories,  and  authorized  the  investigation  of  the  bank  and  its  branches. 

Mr.  Taney  announced,  that,  while  the  new  deposits  would  go  to  the  State 
banks  selected  as  depositories,  those  already  in  the  United-States  Bank  would 


.  ni 


'>  :li 


79  J 


fiWDUSTRIAL    H (STORY 


cnly  be  removed  gradually.  Its  managers,  however,  although  it  had  s[)(.(;ic 
Results  of  enough  in  its  vaults  to  meet  a  demand  from  the  govemnxnt  in 
removing  the  full,  made  a  pretence  of  fear  of  a  sudden  attack  from  thu  tuas- 
deposits.  ^jj.y  ^lepartment,  and  created  an  artificial  stringency  in  the  (oju 
market.  Meanwhile  the  State  banks  rapidly  increased  their  issues  of  ])aper.  thr 
increas';  being  from  $61,000,000  in  1830  to  $149,000,000  in  1837.  Wlicrcas 
in  1830  a  committee  of  die  Senate  had  reported  that  "  r.^e  country  is  in  tlu' 
enjoMiient  of  a  uniform  national  currency  (notes  of  the  Bank  of  the  rnitcil 
States),  not  only  sound  and  uniform  in  itself,  but  perfectly  adrjpted  to  all  ihr 
pui  poses  of  the  government  and  the  community,  and  more  sound  and  uni- 
form than  that  possessed  of  any  other  country,"  yet,  but  seven  years  after 
this  (on  the  loth  of  May,  1837),  all  the  banks  then  in  operation,  with  tliu 
mammoth  United-States  Bank  of  Pennsylvania  among  them,  went  into  suspen- 
sion as  if  by  common  consent,  or,  as  Col.  Benton  has  it,  "  with  a  coik  crt 
and  punctuality  of  action  which  announced  arrangement  and  determination 
'.uch  as  attend  revolts  and  insurrections  in  other  c  iiitries ;"  and  he  Jcclaios 
that  "  the  prime  mover  and  master  manager  of  the  suspension  was  the  Hank 
af.the  United  States,  then  rotten  to  the  core,  and  tottering  to  its  fall,  jut 
strong  enough  to  carry  others  with  it,  and  seeking  to  hide  its  own  downfall  in 
the  crash  of  a  general  catastrophe."  This  allegation  derives  soniv^  su|)i)ort 
froni  the  report  of  the  committee  of  the  stockholders,  made  in  January,  1841, 
after  the  lailure  of  the  bank.  They  say,  "The  origin  of  the  course  of  poluy 
which  has  conducted  to  the  present  situation  of  the  affairs  of  the  institution 
dates  beyond  the  period  of  the  recharter  by  the  State."  Favored  by  the 
importation  of  $2C.ooo,ooo  of  specie,  the  New-England  and  New-York  banks 
resumed  in  1838  ;  but  the  Philadelphia  banks  made  three  unsuccessful  attempts 
before  they  finally  accomplished  resumption  in  February,  1841.  llut  betwoLMi 
1837  and  1843  they  had  contracted  their  circulation  from  $149,000,000  to 
^58,000,000. 

The  managers  of  the  United-States  Bank  did  not  wind  up  its  aflairs  when 
the  expiration  of  its  charter  drew  near,  but  secured  a  new  charter  from  the 

State  of  Pennsylvania,  which  was  issued  Feb.  18,  1836,  only  thir- 
of  the' Unit-  ^^'-"'^  *-^'^y^  bcforc  the  old  one  expired.  Under  this  title  it  j^ro- 
ed-states        cecdcd  to  tlo  busiucss  as  before.     The  new  charter,  however  was 

obtained  on  contlition  of  assisting  in  State  improvements,  canals, 
railroads,  navigation  companies,  and  turnpike-roads,  to  the  extent  of  about 
$5,000,000.  Col.  Benton  regards  this  pledge  as  a  form  of  bribery,  in  addition 
to  which  he  attributes  the  grant  of  the  charter  to  personal  corruption  of  the 
legislature  by  the  managers  of  the  bank.  The  State  never  received  its  bonus. 
however.  The  bank,  as  \\zs.  been  seen,  suspended  specie  payments  as  often  as 
other  State  institutions,  and  finally  succumbed  to  trials  which  other  banks. 
more  prudently  managed,  survived.  It  made  an  assignment  of  certain  securi- 
ties, on  May  i.  1841,  to  secure  5,000,000  of  post-notes  which  other  banks  had 


4 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


793 


taken  in  exchange  for  its  demand-  notes.  The  second  assignmei'it  was  made 
June  7,  1 84 1,  to  secure  its  notes  and  deposits,  "among  which  were  notes 
and  deposits  of  the  late  Bank  of  the  United  States,  incorporated  by  Congress  ; " 
so  that  it  appears  to  have  been,  up  to  1 841,  using  its  old  issues.  The  third 
and  final  assignment,  made  on  Sept.  4,  1841,  covered  all  its  remaining  property, 
—  "to  provide  for  the  payment  of  sundry  persons  and  bodies  coi  )orate  which 
the  bank  is  at  present  unable  to  pay." 

Nicholas  liiddle  had  been  the  president  of  the  bank  from  January,  1823, 
to  March,  1839,  when  he  resigned,  leaving  the  institution,  as  he  said,  "  pros- 
perous." The  shares,  however,  were  sold  at  that  tim^  at  iii,  instead  of  125 
as  in  1837,  and  were  quoted  in  April,  1843,  after  its  failure,  at  \\. 

'I'he  liquidation  of  the  bank  is  briefly  stated  in  a  letter  to  the  national 
comptroller  by  Thomas  Robins,  I'^scp,  j)rcsiilent  of  the  Philadelphia  National 
Bank,  who  is  believed  to  be  the  only  survivor  of  its  numerous  assignees.  He 
says,  "  All  the  circulating-notes  of  the  Bank  of  the  United  States,  together 
with  the  deposits,  were  paid  in  full,  principal  and  interest ;  and  the  accounts  of 
tiie  assignees  wore  finally  settled  in  1856.  There  were  no  funds,  and  no  divi- 
dend was  paid  to  the  stockholders  of  the  bank  :  the  whole  $28,000,000  was 
a  total  loss  to  them.  The  7,000,000  of  stock  held  by  the  United  States  previ- 
ous to  the  institution  becoming  a  State  bank  was  paid  in  full  to  the  government ; 
so  that  the  United  States  lost  nothing  by  the  bank."  With  this  experience 
in  hanking  the  government  was  long  content. 

The  exigency  of  a  civil  war  twenty  years  later  reijuired  a  fiscal  agency 
between  the  United-States  Government  and  the  people  of  the  country  and  of 
the  world,  by  which  the  former's  loans  could  be  rapidly  negotiated.  ^^^  present 
hi  the  earlier  days,  the  Bank  of  the  United  States  had  performed  nationai- 
ihis  work  :  later,  the  syndicate  of  New- York  bankers  have  acconi- 
phslied  it.  But  in  1861  the  old  expedient  was  too  unpopuhr,  and  the  new  one 
\vas  not  yet  devised,  if,  indeed,  it  were  practicable.  Accorti.  igly,  Mr.  Salmon 
I\  Chase,  then  secretary  of  the  treasury,  proposed  to  enact  a  \.  eneral  law  pro- 
viding for  the  conversion  of  State  banks  all  over  the  country  i  ito  "  National  " 
banks;  the  transformation  being  flicilitatcd  by  taxing  the  old  1  anks,  and  grant- 
ing;- special  immunities  and  privileges  to  the  new  ones.  The  j[)ject  of  the  law 
was  to  effect  the  sale  of  government  bonds  extensively.  This  was  lirought 
about  by  requiring  the  banks  to  invest  their  capital  in  these  bonds,  and  deposit 
tlum  at  Washington  as  security  for  their  circulation,  w'.iich  nas  allowed  to 
cMiual  only  ninety  per  cent  of  the  bonds  so  deposited.  This  gave  the  goverii- 
nicnt  ready  money,  and  at  the  same  time  secured  a  uniform  paper  currency, 
which  was  everywhere  receivable,  and  equal  to  government  notes  or  "  green- 
backs." The  proposition  did  not  meet  with  favor  at  first,  however.  A  bill 
was  prepared,  in  accordance  with  the  secretary's  wishes,  by  the  Ways  and 
Means  Committee,  in  December,  1861  ;  but  such  was  tiie  objection  to  it,  that 
it  was  laid  aside  for  a  time  :  indeed,  it  was  not  resuscitated  until   February, 


bank  system. 


I 


794 


IND  US  TRIA  L    ///S  TOR  Y 


i 


1863,  when  the  Finance  Committee  of  the  Senate  reported  it  to  that  hmlv 
Ten  clays  later  it  passed  by  a  vote  of  twe;  .y-three  to  twenty-one ;  and  ci'^lu 
days  afterward  the  House  concurred,  seventy-eight  to  sixty-four.  Within  ;t 
week  the  President  had  approved  the  measure,  and  it  went  into  immediate; 
operation.  This  system  has  continued  ever  since,  with  no  material  moclifua- 
tion,  and  is  as  nearly  perfect  as  a  banking-system  can  be.     The  security  of  ilie 


SALMON   F.   CHASE. 


notes  already  referred  to,  their  uniformity  throughout  the  whole  country,  and 
the  rigid  system  of  (luarterly  statements,  of  reserves  to  meet  a  demand,  and  of 
governmental  inspection,  account  for  the  popularity  with  which  the  national 


banks  have  been  regarded. 


STATF.    liAXKS. MASSACHUSETTS. 

We  turn   now  to  survey  briefly  banking  under  State  auspices.     Without 
examining  in  detail  tiie  Iiistory  of  each  particular  State,  it  will  suffK  c 

The  second  "^  j  i  j 

local  bank  in    to  notc  the  coui'se  of  events  in  some  of  the  representative  sections 
the  United      ^f  jj^^  countrv.     We  have  already  noted  the  failure  of  Colnian's 

StEites.  '  ■' 

efforts  early  in  the  eighteenth  century.     But  Massachusetts  kept 
the  subject  in  mind,  and  was,  therefore,  peculiarly  susceptible  to  the  intln 


I 


m 


^«u.u4..,W>^ 


ountry,  and 
md,  aiul  of 
he  national 


.  Without 
will  sufUvc 
ve  sections 
f  Coliiian's 
isetts  kept 
the   inlln- 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


795 


ente  of  Pennsylvania's  example.  Already  mention  has  been  made  of  the  Hank 
of  North  America,  which  w"s  opened  in  Philadelphia  in  March,  1782.  The 
success  of  this  institution  led,  two  years  later,  to  the  organization  of  the  Massa- 
chusetts Bank,  which  received  its  charter  from  the  legislature  on  Feb.  7,  1784. 
This  was  the  first  local  bank  established  in  that  State,  and  the  second  in  the 
L'nited  States.  Its  capital  was  limited  to  $300,000,  of  which  $253,500  had 
been  paid  in  when  it  commenced  business  on  July  5  of  that  year. 

During  the  ninety-two  years  which  have  elapsed  since  this  bank  was  estab- 
lished, it  has  passed  but  two  dividends  ;  the  first  instance  occurring  at  the  close 
of  the  war  of  181 2,  and  the  second  during  the  financial  crisis  of  successor 
1836.     But,  when  the  bank  was  converted  into  a  national  associa-   theexperi- 
lion,  it  compensated  for  these  omissions  by  declaring  an  extra  divi-    """"'' 
(lend  of  ten  per  cent.     Up  to  June  i,  1874,  a  period  of  ninety  years,  the  ratio 
of  its  losses  to  the  total  amount  loaned  was  but  four-hundredths  of  uiic  per 
cent.     In  the  eighty  years  of  its  existence  as  a  State  bank,  from  1784  to  1864, 
the  whole  amount  of  circulating  notes  issued  by  it  was  $4,674,177,  of  which 
the  amount  lost,  or  not  presented  for  redemption,  was  $22,111,  or  not  (juite 
half  of  one  per  cent. 

No  further  bank-charter  was  granted  by  this  State  until  1792,  in  which  year 
the  Union  Bank  was  organized,  with  a  specie  capital  of  $1,200,000,  of  which 
,<4oo,ooo  was  subscribed  by  the  State.     During  this  interval  the 
currency  was  in  bad   condition.      Small  bills  had  nearly  driven   tjon^'"^" 
specie  out  of  circulation,  when,  in  1792,  the  legislature  prohibited   ordered, and 
anv  further  issue  of  notes  of  a  less  denomination  than  five  dollars,   ^f"^'' ^^'^'^ 

prohibited. 

Pi()\ision  was  made  for  legislative  examinations  of  the  Union 
Bank,  and  it  was  made  the  depository  of  the  funds  of  the  commonwealth.  It 
was  also  required  to  loan  not  exceeding  $100,000  to  th(!  State  at  five-per-cent 
interest,  and  provisions  of  a  similar  nature  appeared  in  most  of  the  charters 
subsequently  granted.  In  1795  Massachusetts  incorporated  her  third  l)ank, 
the  Nantucket,  with  a  capital  of  $40,000  ;  and  in  the  same  year  the  Merrimack, 
at  Xewburyport,  was  established.  The  prohibition  against  the  issue  ot  small 
bills  was  waived  in  tlie  case  of  tliese  banks,  each  of  them  being  allowed  to 
issue  notes  as  small  as  two  dollaiS. 

It  should  be  borne  in  mint',  that  the  science  of  banking  was,  at  this  period 
<if  our  history,  in  its  infr'n':}  ;  not  only  infancy  of  proportion,  but  of  idea.  It 
was  not  yet  understood  exactlv  what  the  true  province  of  a  bank   r^     1 

•'  -  •  Develop- 

uas.  nor  yet  what  was  the  best  way  to  make  such  an  institution   mem  of 
secure.     Then,  too,  as  an  inheritance  from  the  mother-country  and   scientific 

'  '  •'  bank. 

liast  ages,  the  grant  of  the  privilege  of  banking  was  a  special,  not  a 
general  one  ;  and,  in  return  therefor,  the  grantees  were  expected  to  niake  some 
l)articulcr  return  to  the  government.      We  have  noticed  this  in  the  bonuses 
exacted  for  the  United-States  bank-charters  both  by  the  Federal  (lovcrnment 
and  that  of  Pennsylvania.     W'c  notice,  in  the  case  of  Massachusetts,  that  she 


-^.^.ji\Mmmm 


r^ 


\y 


796 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


u  % 


exacted  a  loan  from  the  Union  Bank,  the  second  she  ever  chartered.  ( )n  ih,. 
other  hand,  the  government  took  the  institution  under  its  special  protect  i(jn 
and  insured  success  by  subscribing  a  third  or  so  of  the  capital  of  the  proposed 

bank.  In  luaily 
all  the  (liaiters 
granted  subse- 
quent to  the  year 
1 793  provision  w.is 
made  for  a  Slate 
subscription,  usu- 
ally about  one- 
third  of  the  (api- 
tal.     Under  these 

CONTINENTAL   PEWTEK   MONEY.  P      ^  V  1  S  1  O  U  S     t  H  e 

,  State    became 

largely  interested  in  the  banking-business,  holding  in  1812  about  $1,000,000 
of  bank-stock,  the  total  bank  capital  in  the  State  being  then  about  $iS,ooo,ooo. 

Cohnan's  idea  was  to  secure  a  bank's  notes  by  mortgages  on  land.  The 
Colonies  and  States  seem  to  have  trusted  largely  to  the  character  of  the  bankers 
Govern-  ^'^*"  'lo^csty  and  good  management  to  whom  charters  were  given. 

mental  But,  by  degrees,  the  necessity  for  some  sort  of  surveillance  he^'an 

inspection.  ^^  |^^  j-^j^.^  Provision  had  been  made  in  1792  for  a  legislative 
examination,  which,  no  doubt,  was  a  pretty  thorough  and  methodical  thiuL,^ 
in  those  days ;  but  this  inspection  was  probably  ordered,  in  a  great  measure, 
on  account  of  the  Union  Bank  being  a  depository  of  State  funds,  and  less 
out  of  regard  for  the  business-community.  In  1799  a  law  was  passed 
prohibiting  the  issuing  of  notes  by  unauthorized  associations ;  so  that  govern- 
mental inspection  had  a  greater  value.  This  enactment  was  modelled  after 
one  of  the  British  Parliament  in  1741 
almost  produced  a  rebellion 
tive  function ;  and  the  banks  were  required  to  make  out  returns,  like  the 
railroads  and  insurance  companies  in  certain  States  now  :  these  returns  were 
to  be  semi-annual,  and  to  be  sent  to  the  governor  and  council.  In  1805 
another  enactment  required  that  they  be  sworn  to. 

But  all  this  legislation  was  insufficient  to  make  the  bank-notes  sound 
money.  The  law  prohibiting  the  issue  of  bills  in  smaller  denominations  than 
Evils  arising  ''^'^  dollars  was  violated,  and  notes  as  small  as  twenty-five  cents 
became  very  plenty.  This  drove  specie  out  of  circulation.  The 
banks  issued  larger  notes,  too,  beyond  reason  ;  and  in  i<So9,  wlieii 
the  embargo  had  paraly/.ed  commerce  and  trade,  and  business  was  depressed. 
bank-notes  were  often  at  fifty-per-cent  discount.  The  crisis  was  so  great,  that 
several  banks  failed  altogether.  In  1810  the  legislature  passed  a  law  fixing  a 
penalty  of  two  per  cent  a  month  for  failure  to  redeem  notes  on  presentation  ; 
which  somewhat  helped  matters. 


but  its  enforcement  in  New  luigland 
In  1803  the  examination  was  made  an  execu- 


notwith- 
standing. 


'1i*,l„j...i*#-' 


ed.  Oil  tii^. 
protect  i,„i, 
he  pr()],i)S(.(i 
In  iiraiiv 
'^^'     <liartLTs 

t(*  tlu'  \(.'nr 
)i"ovi,si()ii\v,is 

foi-  ;i  Stak- 
■I'l'tion.  usii- 
alioiit  one- 
of  the  capi- 
Under  these 
isions  the 
e    became 

Sl,000,00(J 

$S, 000,000. 
land.     'I'ln- 
the  bankers 
were  y;Wa]. 
lance  be;;an 
a  legislative 
odical  thill- 
■at  measure, 
ds,  and  less 
was   ])asseil 
hat  govern- 
delled  after 
-\v  I'lngland 
an  e.xecii- 
is,   like  the 
eturns  were 
.     In  1805 

otes  sound 
itions  than 
■-five  cents 
tion.  The 
S09,  when 
dej)resse(l. 
great,  tliat 
w  fixing  a 
sentation  ; 


OJ-'    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


797 


In  1799  Massachusetts  had  five  State  banks.     The  returns  made  in  1S05 
showed  sixteen  in  oi)cration,  with  a  capital  of  $5,760,000,  of  which  $5,460,000 
iiad  been  paid  in.     Only  one  more  was  chartered  before  1811;   for   „. 
the  interval  was  a  very  trying  one  for  banks.     In  that  year  two  more   the  first 
were  chartered,  and  nearly  all  the  old  ones  were  re-chartered,  the   i"^'"'^'"  °f 

'  ■;  '  this  century. 

new  grants  reducing  the  circulation  trom  twice  the  capital  to  only 

fifty  per  cent  in  e  access.     In  1812  the  State  began  taxing  the  banks  one-half  of 

one  per  cent  on  their  capital. 

The  Massachusetts  banks  did  not  suspend  in  18 14,  as  did  so  many  others 
all  over  the  country  ;  which  was  attributable,  in  a  great  measure,  to  the  fact  that 
the  h''.vs  of  the  State  imposed  a  heavy  ijcnalty  for  nun-payment  of  their  notes. 
The  whole  number  of  banks  chartered  previous  to  Jan.  i,  1825,  was  forty-nine, 
with  an  authorized  capital  of  $20,800,000.  Of  this  number,  however,  nine 
had  either  faile<l,  discontinued,  or  had  nevei  gone  into  operation.  Reductions 
in  ( apital  of  many#f  llie  remaining  banks  had  also  taken  place,  leaving  at 
the  (late  named  forty  l)anks  in  operation,  with  $14,305,000  of  authorized  capi- 
tal, of  which  $13,300,000  had  been  paid  in  ;  so  that,  at  the  close  of  the  first 
forty-one  years  of  banking  in  Massachusetts,  not  less  than  eighty-two  per  cent 
of  the  whole  number  rnartered,  together  with  seventy  per  cent  of  the  capital 
authorized,  still  remained  in  existence.  In  this  year  th'^  limit  of  circulation 
was  still  further  reduced  to  the  amount  of  the  cajjital  i)aid  in. 

Two  measures  combined  to  raise  the  value  of  bank-notes :  one  was 
forcing  the  banks  to  redeem  on  presentation  at  their  own  counter,  and  the 
other  was  the  initiation  of  a  .system  by  which  other  banks  co-  ^j^^  suffoik- 
ojierated  to  secure  such  redemjition.  In  the  present  day,  when  Bank 
government-notes  and  national-bank  notes  are  current  everywhere  ^y^*^""' 
at  par,  it  is  hard  to  realize  how  cjuickly  a  note  depreciated  at  any  distance 
from  the  bank  which  issued  it.  This  was  especially  the  case  wit'.,  notes  from 
the  banks  of  other  States.  There  were  no  facilities  for  the  holder  visiting  the 
bank  to  demand  payment,  and  there  was  a  doubt  whether  he  would  get 
the  money  if  he  did  so  visit  it.  In  18 13  a  moveiiient  toward  a  reform  in  the 
bank-currency  began.  Bills  of  banks  in  other  States  were  then  at  a  discount 
in  JJoston  from  three  to  five  per  cent,  and  the  notes  of  Boston  banks  had 
nearly  disappeared.  The  New-England  Bank,  organized  in  that  year  with  a 
(apital  of  $1,000,000,  instituted  the  system  of  sending  foreign  bills  for  redemp- 
tion to  the  banks  which  issued  them,  and  charging  the  bill-holders  only  the 
actual  expense  of  transmitting  the  note  and  returning  the  proceeds.  This 
was  the  beginning  of  the  system  of  redemption  afterward  known  as  the  Suffolk- 
Hank  system.  This  system  was  more  fully  developed  at  a  later  period  (1825), 
when  five  of  the  Boston  banks  —  the  Suffolk,  liagle,  Manufacturers'  and  Me- 
chanics' (now  the  Tremont),  the  Globe,  and  State  —  undertook  its  manage- 
ment. For  a  long  time  the  system  was  bitterly  opposed  by  those  banks 
interested  in  preventing  a  return  of  their  circulation  ;    but  it  was  eventually 


V    ..  *!.. 


!' 


'" ' '  *'i»iim!iiimPifeitf 


798 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


»:j1i. 


r  *i3 


\>ii 


,  T**^»w.*LitabiP^-' 


successful.  Its  exclusive  management  was  finally  assumed  by  the  Snfkilk 
Bank ;  which  bank  compelled  the  redemption  at  par  in  Boston  of  the  ikjIls 
of  the  New-England  banks  by  a  system  of  assorting  and  returning  the  notes 
to  the  place  of  issue,  and  its  operations  were  continued  down  to  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  national-bank  system.  The  amount  of  New-England  l)ank- 
notes  redeemed  at  the  Suffolk  Bank  from  1841  to  1857  was  as  follows  in 
millions  of  dollars  :  — 

DATE.  MILLIONS. 

184I 109 

•842 105 

1844 126 

I04S  '    •   •   '    •   •    •   '   •   •    •   •    'M? 
1846  .    .   .   .   .   .    .   .   .   .    .   ,    .141 

1847 165 

I040  ••••■•••••   ^^  •   •  (78 

1^49  .............  igr) 

1850  .f..    I.    ..•...,  220 

1851 243 

'^52 245 

1S53 .  288 

1^54 231 

'S55 341 

•856 397 

'857 37''' 

The  first  really  comprehensive  banking  law  of  Massachusetts  was  passed  in 
1829,  under  which  new  banks  were  required  to  have  fifty  per  cent  of  their 
Newiegisia-  Capital  boua  fidc  paid  in  specie  before  commencing  business.  It 
tion  for  also  prohibited  loans  to  shareholders  until  their  subscriptions  were 

security.  entirely  paid  in,  and  limited  the  amount  of  loans  on  pledges  of 
its  own  stock  to  fifty  per  cent  of  the  capital.  The  limit  of  circulating-notes 
was  increased  to  twenty-five  per  cent  in  excess  of  the  paid-in  capital  ;  and 
debts  due  to  or  from  any  bank,  exclusive  of  deposits,  were  restricted  to  twice 
the  amount  of  such  capital,  the  directors  being  held  personally  liable  for  any 
excess.  On  Jan.  i,  1837,  there  had  been  organized  in  all  a  hundred  and 
thirty-eight  banks,  with  an  authorized  capital  of  $40,830,000.  Of  this  num- 
ber, four  had  never  gone  into  operation  ;  while,  of  the  remaining  hundred  and 
thirty-four,  no  less  than  thirty-two  had  either  failed,  or  had  forfeited  or  sur- 
rendered their  charters,  in  consequence  of  the  financial  panic  of  that  year. 
The  nominal  capital  of  the  banks  that  failed  was  $5,500,000  :  their  liabilities 
were  $11,283,960,  of  which  $3,133,129  was  for  circi'.lation,  and  $1,577,738  for 
deposits.  The  loss  to  their  shareholders  was  estimated  at  $2,500,000,  and  to 
the  public  at  $750,000  more;  making  a  total  loss  of  about  $3,250,000,  or 
nearly  thirty  per  cent  of  their  entire  indebtedness.  During  the  fifty-two  years 
from  1784  to  1836  ten  banks  only  had  failed  o;  discontinued,  the  total  losses  to 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


799 


141 

'65 
17S 
199 
220 
243 

245 

288 

231 
341 

397 

37(S 

IS  passed  in 
ent  of  Uieir 
•usiness.  It 
iptioiis  wore 
l)le(lgcs  of 
ilating- notes 
apital  ;  ami 
cd  to  twice 
able  for  any 
iindred  and 
f  this  iinni- 
undrcd  and 
ted  or  sur- 
f  that  year. 
:ir  liabilities 

5  77,73^^  ("*"■ 
ooo,  and  to 

'50,000.  or 

y-t\vo  years 

:al  losses  to 


their  shareholders  and  the  public  probably  not  exceeding  a  third  of  a  million  of 
dollars.  One  of  the  results  of  this  crisis  was  the  adoption  by  Massachusetts 
of  a  system  of  official  examinations  of  the  banks  through  the  agency  of  a  board 
of  bank-commissioners,  who  were  required  to  make  annual  examinations  of 
every  bank,  and  special  ones  whenever  reciuested  by  the  governor  of  the 
State. 

A  free  banking  law  was  passed  -a   185 1,  very  similar  in  its  provisions  to 
that  of  the  State  of  New  York   (to  which  we  shall  jjresently  refer)  ;  but  not 
more  than  seven  banks  were  ever  organized  under  it,  the  system  of  chartered 
banks,  which  had  so  long  prevailed,  mainly  occupying  the  field  down  to  the 
time  of  the  national  banking  system.     Upon  the  establishment  of  p^^^  ^^^y_ 
the  latter  system,  the  State  did  much  to  facilitate  the  conversion   >ng  law  of 
of  State  into  National  banks ;  and  the  first  institution  to  avail  itself  *^^*' 
i)f  this  privilege  was  the  Safety  Fund  Bank  of  Boston  in  1863,  under  the  title  of 
"The  First  National  Bank  of  Boston."    The  conversions  progressed  so  rapidly, 
that  in  October,   1865,  but  a  single  bank  remained  doing  business  under  a 
State   charter.     At   the   latter  date,  of  the    hundred   and   eighty-three    State 
banks  which  existed  in  1863,  four  had  been  discontinued,  and  a  hundred  and 
seventy-eight  had  become  national  banks. 

A  writer  in  "Hunt's  Merchants'  Magazine"  for  1840  has  comi)iled  the 
statistics  of  the  dividends  paid  by  the  Massachusetts  banks  in  the  last  half  of 
each  of  the  thirty-two  years  from  1808  to  1839  inclusive.  As  the  profits  of 
State  in  1813  imposed  an  annual  tax  of  one  percent  on  bank  Massachu- 
< apital,  the  writer  mentioned  separates  the  whole  time  into  two  ^^"^  *"  ^' 
pcriocls,  and  finds,  that,,  for  the  five  years  ending  with  1812,  the  average  semi- 
annual dividends  paid  by  all  the  banks  was  three  dollars  and  seventy-two  cents 
upon  each  hundred  dollars  of  capital ;  while,  for  the  twenty-seven  years  which 
followed  the  imposition  of  the  bank-tax,  the  average  semi-annual  rate  was  two 
dollars  and  ninety-six  cents  per  hundred.  Taking  the  whole  period  of  thirty- 
two  years  together,  the  semi-annual  average  was  about  three  and  one-tenth 
per  cent.  Assuming  that  the  dividends  paid  in  the  first  half  of  these  years  did 
not  differ  materially  from  those  paitl  in  the  last  half,  the  average  annual  divi- 
dends on  capital  were,  for  the  first  five  years,  seven  and  forty-five  hundredths 
l)er  cent ;  for  the  succeeding  twenty-seven  years,  live  and  ninety-three  hun- 
dredths per  cent ;  and,  for  the  ^\  hole  period,  six  and  seventeen  hundredths 
per  cent ;  or  at  the  rate  of  about  six  and  one-sixth  per  cent  per  annum  for  the 
whole  period.  The  average  annual  ratio  of  dividends  to  capital  of  the  national 
banks  of  Massachusetts  from  1870  to  1876  was  nine  and  six-tenths  per  cent, 
and  the  ratio  of  dividends  to  capital  and  surplus  for  the  same  period  was  seven 
and  six-tenths  per  cent. 

NEW    YORK. 

The  Bank  of  New  York  began  business  in  1 784  under  articles  of  associa- 


,S 


8oo 


IND  US  TRIA  L    HIS  TOR  Y 


I, 


i.5f..' 


lU 


m 


i 


tion  drawn  by  Alexander  Hamilton,  who  was  a  member  of  its  first  board  of 
Bank  of  directors.     This  bank  was  chartered  by  the  legislature  on   Muk  i, 

New  York.  31,  1 79 1,  and  was  the  first  bank  in  the  State  organized  under  Icj^is- 
lative  sanction,  and  the  third  bank  in  the  United  States.  It  was  organi/.cil 
with  a  capital  of  ;r»900,ooo,  in  shares  of  $500  each.  The  State  subsctiuciilly 
subscribed  for  a  hundred  shares,  making  the  capital  $950,000 ;  and  tlic  bank 
commenced  business  on  May  2,  1791.  In  1832  the  capital  wa.;  increased  to 
$1,000,000  by  a  State  subscription  of  $50,000,  $15,000  of  which  was  ibr  the 
use  of  common  sciiools,  $20,000  for  Union  College,  and  $15,000  for  llamilton 
College.  On  May  i,  ICS52,  it  was  re-organized  as  a  free  bank  under  the  gen- 
eral laws  of  the  State,  with  a  caj/lai  of  $2,000,000.  On  Jan.  6,  iSdj,  it 
beca.ne  a  national  bank,  the  capital  havi.-ig  previously  been  increased  to 
$3,000,000.  During  its  seventy-four  years  of  existence  as  a  State  l)ank  it  paid 
a  hundred  and  sixty-two  divitlends,  varying  in  amount  from  three  to  five  per 
cent  semi-annually,  averaging  a  little  more  than  eight  per  ce  t  per  annum,  and 
amounting  in  all  to  over  six  limes  its  caj.i'al.  Since  it  bjcamc  a  national 
bank,  dividends  have  been  fleclared  at  the  rate  of  ten  per  cent  per  annum. 
The  gross  losses  duri"g  th  history  of  i.he  bank  amount  to  about  $750.000 ; 
having  never  exceeded  oie-ciuarter  to  one-half  of  one  per  cent  of  (a])ilal 
during  any  single  year,  except  during  the  intervals  from  1S37  to  i<S4?,  and 
from  1873  to  1875.  'V'.ie  bank  was  a  favorite  of  the  Federal  party  at  the  ti:nc 
of  its  organization. 

The  two  great  features  of  State-banking  in  New  York  are  the  vast  inlluence 
politics  have  had  thereon,  and  the  great  security  devised  by  her  laws.  The 
Partisan-  ^'^^'-  charter  granted  was  to  Federalists ;  and  for  several  year?  men 
ship  and  belonging  to  the  opposite  party  could  secure  charters  only  with  the 
banking.  utmost  difficulty,  —  a  denial  the  more  oppressive  because  they  were 
not  treated  at  existing  banks  with  the  same  accommodation  as  were  Federalists. 
The  Republicans  in  New-York  City  ha'/ing  met  with  this  latter  experience,  and 
anticipatir?'  the  former  trouble,  applied  to  the  legislature  for  a  charter  tor  a 
water  company  ;  but  a  provision  was  artfully  introduced  which  gave  the  corpo- 
ration banking-privileges.  The  phraseology  was  not  understood  fully,  r'ul  the 
ruse  succeeded.  Thus  was  establi'^hed  the  Manhc  ttan  Company  in  1  -(, , 
largely  through  the  efforts  of  Aar'jn  Burr,  Hamilton's  greci  rival.  In  1792  t'ne 
Bank  of  Albany  had  been  chartered ;  but  it  was  controlled  by  Federalists. 
Accordingly,  there  was  soon  a  plea  for  a  ne\v  bank  to  be  run  by  R'^publicans. 
In  1803  some  i)ersons  appealed  to  the  legislature  to  charter  die  New-York 
State  Bank  at  Albany,  and  alleged  that  the  other  institution  in  that  city  was 
very  oppressive.  Th'^  other  two  neighboring  bank«  —  the  Farmers'  near 
Troy,  and  the  Colmnbia  at  Hudson  —  were  also  controlled  by  Federalists. 
B}  admitting  the  Clinton  and  Livingston  interest  to  the  privilege  of  hold- 
ing some  of  the  stock  (a  privilege  that  was  very  valuable),  the  charter 
was    finally  obtained  from  what  would  now  be  regarded  as   a    Republican 


Sr 


^%4HMJ...liisi 


^H 


'  .  ;'     ./^)s^ 


OF    77/ E    VMTED    STATES. 


80 1 


-c  to  Hvc  per     I 
f  annum,  and     { 
nc  a  national 
't  per  anmnii. 
iiit  ;>75o.ooo;     ji 
•nt  of  capital 
to   184?,  and 
ty  at  the  time 

vast  influence 
er  laws.     The 
■al  year?  men 
only  with  the 
luse  they  w  ere 
re  Federalists, 
perience,  and 
charter  for  a 
^e  the  corpo- 
'idly,  ;"ul  the 
any  in    1  -c, 
in  1792  the 
'  Federalists. 
R'^publicans. 
f   New-York 
:hat  city  was 
armers'  near 
Federalists. 
Jge  of  hold- 
the   charter 
Republican- 


^WJ^ir^nrjTjuj^ 


WASIIINGTO.S-    ll.\I.I-U01.I.AR. 


Democratic  legislaairc.  A  clause  was  contained  in  the  original  hill,  granting 
the  corporation  the  c.vclusive  right  to  the  Syracuse  salt-springs  on  condition  of 
^3,000  a  year  l)eing  paid  the  State  for  the  first  ten  years,  $3,500  the  next  ten, 
and  54,000  annually  for  the  nc.\t  ten  ;  but  this  was  stricken  out  before  enact- 
ment. The  same  year  (1803)  the  Feileralist  interest  sought  a  charter  for  the 
Merchants'  JJank  of  New-York  ("ity,  but  was  refused.  A  fresh  application  for 
a  charter  was  then  made  in  1804,  business  having 
been  started  and  continued  under  articles  of  asso- 
ciation ;  but  not  only  was  this  denied,  but  a  re- 
straining act  was  passed,  especially  designed  to 
stop  their  further  proceedings.  Indeed,  not  only 
were  the  DeniocTats  connected  with  .\aron  lUur's 
institution  desirous  of  maintaining  that  and  the 
Manhattan  Hank  as  monopolies,  but  they  thought 
it  very  presuming  in  the  Federalists  to  ask  a 
Democratic  legislature  to  give  them  any  favors. 
However,  the  petition  was  renewed ;  and  after 
very  hot  del)ates  and  a  violent  altercation,  in  which  two  senators,  both  having 
the  title  of  judge,  came  to  actual  fisticuffs  within  the  senatorial  precincts,  the 
bill  of  incorporation  passed  the  Senate  by  a  majority  of  three  votes. 

This  unnatural  obstruction  which  partisanship  placed  upon  legislation  led, 
very  naturally,  to  the  use  of  corrupt  means  to  secure  charters.  There  was  no 
particular  contest  after  the  one  just  mentioned  until  181 2,  when  Bribery  in 
application  was  made  for  a  charter  for  the  Bank  of  .America  with  a  bank  legisia- 
capital  of  $6,000,000.  \Ve  have  already  stated  how  the  Bank  of  *'°"" 
llie  United  States  paid  both  the  Federal  Government  and  the  State  of  Pennsyl- 
vania bonuses  for  a  charter.  It  was  proposed  to  give  New-York  State  S600,- 
000  for  this  Bank-of-AuKrica  charter ;  but  it  was  demanded  that  r.o  other 
bank  be  chartered  for  twenty  years.  To  catch  votes,  it  was  also  pro\ided  that 
immense  loans  were  to  be  made  the  State  to  build  canals,  and  to  the  farmers. 
lUit  it  was  furthermore  evident  that  actual  bribery  was  resorted  to  in  both 
houses  of  the  legislalm-e  ;  and  when  the  Assembly  had  voted,  fifty-eight  to  thir- 
ty-nine, to  give  the  charter,  and  it  was  apparent  that  the  Senate  would  concur, 
Gov.  Tompkins  prorogued  the  legislature.  Later,  a  greatly  modified  charter 
was  granted  instead.  A  clause  was  inserted  in  the  Gonstitution  of  1S21,  which 
rccpiired  the  assent  of  two-thii'ls  of  both  branches  of  the  legislature  in  order 
to  incorporate  a  moneyed  institution.  The  oiiU'  effect  of  the  restrictive  clause 
was  to  increase  the  e\il  by  rendering  necessary  a  more  extendetl  s)'stem  of 
corruption. 

Already  reference  has  been  made  *o  the  restraining  law  of  1S04.     This  \\as 
nominally  to  secure  the  public  interes*^  by  preventing  the  circu-   xherestrain- 
lation  of  an  unsound  currency;  but  it  is  believed  that  it  was  en-   '"si^w. 
acted  in  the  interest  of  existing  monopolies.     It  prohibited  any  person,  under 


n 


9 


.     ..  -4 


rt'Pt 


802 


IND  US  TKIA  L    HIS  TOR  Y 


FinST   UNITIiU-STATKS    DOLLAK. 


a  penalty  of  a  llioiisand  dollars,  from  siihsirihing  to  or  becoming  a  nicnilier 
of  any  association  for  the  purpose  of  receiving  ileposits,  or  of  transacting  any 
other  l)iisiness  which  incorporated  banks  may  or  do  transact  by  virtue  of  tlu  jr 
acts  of  incorporation.  This  law  prohibited  associations  of  persons  from  duing 
a  banking-business  ;  but  individuals  and  incorporated  institutions  subsequcnlly 
issued  bills  in  denominations   as    low   as   six,  twelve,  twenty-five,   fifty,  and 

seventy-five  cents.  To  prevent  the  furtli.r 
issue  by  irresjKjnsible  persons  of  curreiK  y  m 
the  similitude  of  bank-notes,  which  had  bcioinr 
a  great  evil  at  liie  close  of  the  war  of  iSi.;, 
the  Restraining  Act  of  i8i8was  i)assed  ;  whii  h 
provided  that  no  person,  assot  iation  of  persons. 
or  body  corporate,  except  such  bodies  corponitr 
as  were  exi)ressly  authorized  by  law,  should  kcc]) 
any  office  for  the  purpose  of  receiving  deiiosits, 
or  discounting  notes  or  bills,  or  lor  issuing  any 
evidence  of  debt  to  be  loaned  or  put  in  cin  u- 
lation  as  money.  This  law  remained  upon  the 
statute-books  for  thirty-two  years,  and.  aftir 
various  unsuccessful  attempts,  was  finally  repealed  in  1837,  —  one  year  bcfort- 
the  passage  of  the  free  banking  law. 

From  1 79 1,  when  the  Bank  of  New  York  was  incorporated,  until  the 
declaration  of  war  with  Great  Britain  in  1812,  nineteen  banks  were  char- 
Progress  in  tcred,  with  an  aggregate  capital  of  $18,215,000.  Ten  of  tluni 
banking.  ^>^^\\  exist,  and  are  institutions  of  high  rank.  Between  181 2  and 
1829  twenty-four  more  were  chartered,  with  a  capital  of  $25,105,000,  of  which 
$13,770,000  was  for  banks  in  New- York  City. 

As  yet  thpre  had  been  no  legislation  looking  to  the  security  of  bank  circu- 
lation, so  little  had  the  science  of  banking  developed.  But  in  1829,  when  the 
Safety-fund  charters  of  some  forty  banks  were  about  to  expire,  Gov.  Van 
banks.  Burcn  recommended  the  passr^e  of  a  law,  which  was  enacted  in 

April  of  that  year,  providing  a  system  of  insurance  of  bank-notes  basiMJ 
upon  a  custom  pre/alent  among  Chinese  merchants.  The  law  provided  that 
all  new  or  rechartered  banks  should  pay  an  annual  tax  of  one-half  of  one 
per  cent  on  their  capital  stock  until  three  per  cent  had  been  paid  in,  ami 
the  fund  should  be  used  by  the  State  treasurer  to  redeem  the  notes  and 
pay  the  debts  of  insolvent  banks.  If  the  fund  became  imjxaircd  at  any 
time,  nev/  contributions  were  to  be  made  to  bring  it  up  to  a  normal  size. 
The  law  allowed  the  issue  of  notes  to  twice  the  amount  of  the  capital,  and 
loans  to  two  and  a  half  times  the  amount  of  capital.  This  safety- fund  law  did 
not  accomplish  its  purpose.  In  1841-42  eleven  banks  failed,  whose  capital 
was  $3,150,000;  their  liabilities,  which  the  State  had  to  meet,  amounted  to 
$2,558,933.     These  eleven  baiiks  had  contributed  but  $86,274   to  the  safety 


I 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


803 


fund;  and  even  down  to  Sept.  30,  184S,  all  of  the  safety- fund  banks  had 
(ontrihiited  l)iit  ;^  1,876,063.  The  State  issued  six-per-cent  stuc:k  to  make 
111)  ^'"-"  deficiency,  and  was  partly  re-inibiirsed  by  new  contributions  from  the 
hunks.  The  law  was  amended,  however,  in  1842,  so  that  the  safety-fiuul 
i)c(  ame  a  security  for  circulating-notes  only,  and  no  other  debts. 

The  law  of  1829  also  provided  that  there  should  be  three  commissioners 
to  examine  the  banks,  and  ri'port  annually  tc;  the  legislature  on  the  condition 
of  tiiose  institutions,  'i'he  law  provided  that  one  conunissioner  Bank  com- 
sliould  be  appointed  by  the  (lovernor  and  Senate,  one  by  the  m'ss>oners. 
hanks  of  the  southern  part  of  tiie  State,  and  one  by  the  rem';ining  banks, 
iliil  in  1837  tiie  (lovernor  antl  Senate  were  authorized  to  select  them  all; 
and,  this  power  being  abused  for  political  ends,  the  work  of  examination 
was  in  1843  taken  from  the  commissioners,  whose  ofifice  was  abolished,  and 
given  to  the  comptroller.  In  1851  the  present  office  of  bank  superintendent 
was  created  instead. 

Already  we  have  mentioned  how  "jiolitics  affected  the  procurement  of 
charters  in  tiie  early  days ;  the  [)rivilege  of  banking  being  a  rich  one,  and 
hence  regarded  as  part  of  the  spol's  of  office.  This  was  also  More  poiiti- 
the  case  with  the  safety-fund  banks,  wliose  stock  was  sold  mostly  '^"'  abuses, 
to  political  friends  and  favorites  of  the  agents  selected  for  that  business.  'I'his 
j)roduced  an  immense  deal  of  discord  and  animosity  in  business,  social,  and 
political  circles,  and  much  corruption.  The  office  of  bank  commissioner  was 
also  made  a  political  prize,  and  was  sought  for  by  men  utterly  incapable  of 
])erforming  its  delicate  judicial  duties.  It  was  the  re-action  in  public  senti- 
ment against  this  state  of  affairs,  Init  more  particularly  against  the  grant  of 
special  privileges,  which  led  to  the  enactment  of  the  general  banking  law. 

The  tree  banking  system  of  New  York  was  authorized  in  1838.  Its  two 
great  features  were,  that  it  opened  the  privileges  of  banking,  on  certain  con- 
ditions, to  all  persons  alike  ;  and  it  provided  much  better  security  Free  bank- 
for  the  redemption  of  notes  than  had  yet  been  provided.  The  ing  system, 
system  of  deposits  with  the  comptroller  for  security  was  the  one  on  which 
the  national  banks  of  a  later  date  were  based.  It  was  originally  that  all 
banking  associations,  on  depositing  stock  of  the  State  of  New  York  or  of 
the  United  States,  or  any  State  stock  whicii  should  be,  or  be  made,  equal 
to  a  fivc-per-cent  stock,  or  bc^nds  and  mortgages  on  improved  and  produc- 
tive real  estate,  worth,  exclusive  of  the  buildings  thereon,  double  the  amount 
secured  by  the  mortgage,  and  bearing  interest  at  not  less  than  six  per  cent 
per  annum,  should  receive  from  the  comptroller  of  the  State  an  eeiual  amount 
of  circulating-notes.  Previous  to  the  year  1843  twenty-nine  of  these  banks, 
with  an  aggregate  circulation  of  $1,233,374,  had  failed;  and  their  securities, 
consisting  of  stocks  and  bonds  and  mortgages  amounting  to  $1,555,338, 
were  sold  for  $953,371.  entailing  a  loss  of  $601,966.  The  avails  of  the 
securities  were  sufficient  to  pay  but  seventy-four  per  cent  of  the  circulation 


y\\  ii 


i<04 


lNin:STRIAL    II/HTOI^Y 


alone.  The  losses  to  tlic  bill-holders  occurred  only  hi  the  case  of  those  nauk, 
which  had  deposited  State  stocks  other  than  those  of  New  York,  'i'lu  1  n> 
was  thereupon  so  auH.nded  as  to  txthide  all  stocks,  except  those  issued  hy 
the  State  of  New  York,  and  to  re(|uii'e  those  to  be  made  ecjual  to  a  Iim  - 
per-cent  stock.  An  amendment  in  1.S48  retiuired  that  the  stocks  dep();,itc(l 
should  bear  six  per  cent  interest  instead  of  live  ;  and  that  llic  bonds  and 
mortgages  should  bear  interest  at  seven  per  cent,  and  should  be  on  piu- 
ductive  property,  and  for  an  amount  not  exceeding  two-fifths  of  the  value  ol 
the  lanil  covered  by  them.  Subsecpieiilly,  on  .April  10,  I.S49,  the  law  was 
ag.iin  so  amended  as  to  retpiire  that  at  least  one-half  of  the  securities  so 
deposited  should  consist  of  New- York-State  stocks,  and  that  not  more  ihaii 
one-half  should  be  in  the  stocks  of  the  Uniteil  States ;  the  securities  in  all 
cases  to  be,  or  to  be  made,  ecjual  to  a  stock  producing  an  interest  of  six  |)er 
cent  per  annum,  and  to  be  taken  at  a  rate  not  above  their  par  value,  and  al 
not  more  than  their  market-value. 

Two  other  interesting  features  of  the  later  Slate-bank  legislation  in  New 
York  were  the  re([uiren'  ;ut  that  the  banks  redeem  their  notes  at  some  agency 
Redemption  in  Ncw  York,  Albany,  or  Troy,  and  that  stockholders  shcnild  he 
and  liability,  individually  liable  for  the  obligations  of  the  bank  to  the  cMeiit 
of  their  shares.  The  latter  i)rovision  was  incor[)oraled  into  the  ( Jonslitulion 
of  1846.  The  former  was  a  law  of  1840,  which  allowed  a  discount  of  one- 
half  of  one  percent  on  redemption:  in  1851  the  discount  was  reduced  to 
one-fourth  of  one  per  cent.  The  New- York-City  banks,  however,  soon 
inaugurated  the  Suffolk-Hank  system  already  described,  and  divided  the  dis- 
count between  themselves  and  the  redemption  agency.  Such  banks  as  did 
not  provide  for  redemption  were  forced  to  close  up. 


^iill 


OHIO. 

Ohio's  first  banking  institution,  incorporated  in  1803,  five  months  after  the 
State's  admission  to  the  Union,  was  called  "Tlie  Miami  I'^xporting  t'ompany." 
First  Its  purpose  was  to  build  up  trade  in  that  new  section  of  country. 

ventures.  \^^  capital  was  $500,000,  ill  shares  of  a  hundred  dollars  eadi,  to 
be  paid  for  with  five  dollars  cash,  and  the  rest  in  produce  and  mannfacluies, 
subject  to  the  ai)proval  of  the  president  and  directors.  It  subse{[uently  issued 
bills,  redeeming  them  with  bank-notes;  but  it  was  obliged  to  close  up  after  a 
few  years.  'I"he  first  bank  in  the  State  was  that  at  Marietta,  with  a  capital  of 
$100,000,  chartered  in  1808.  Another  was  chartered  at  Chillicothe  the  same 
year,  and  four  more  between  that  time  and  1816;  in  which  year  six  chaitcis 
were  granted  new  banks,  and  the  old  ones  were  rcchartercd.  ICleven  nioic 
had  been  chartered  by  1S32  ;  but,  with  tv.'o  or  three  exceptions  of  double 
that  amount,  $100,000  was  the  nominal  capital  of  all  these  banks.  The 
interest  on  loans  was  restricted  to  six  per  cent  by  law. 


01'    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


«o5 


In  1833  the  F'ranklin  Rink  of  Cinrinnali  was  chartorcd  with  a  capital  (if 
<!i,oc)c),ooo  ;  and  the  Ohio  Ijfc  and  Trust  Coni])any,  incorporated  tiic  next 
year,  had   the  same.     'liic  latter  institution  failed  in   1857,  witjj   Three  large 
estimated   hahihties  of  $7,000,000.      In   1845  a  State  bank  was  '"»"''•• 
authorized,  witii  a  capital  of  $0,150,000,  and  with  sixty-three  branches.     Not 
more  than  thirty-six  branches  were  ever  establislie<l,  however. 

S.  particular  feature  of  bank-legislation  in  Ohio  was  the  comparatively 
heavy  taxation,  based,  doubtless,  u[)on  the  theory  that  it  was  a  valuable  privi- 
lege to  engage  in  banking,  and  upon  the  feeling  against  capital  Bank- 
that  has  often  characterized  the  laboring-classes.  As  early  as  t"""*'""- 
1816,  when  the  Hank  of  Cincinnati,  with  a  capital  of  $600,000,  was  incorpo- 
nted,  a  law  was  passed  rc(|uiring  all  banks  to  pay  to  the  State  such  a  sum  as 
would,  at  tile  expiration  of  their  chai^ters,  amount  to  a  twenty-fifth  part  of  their 
whole  stock.  In  1825  this  was  changed,  so  that  the  tax  was  upon  dividends, 
—  two  per  cent  on  all  previously  made,  and  four  per  cent  there-^ftcr.  The  tax 
was  raised  to  six  per  cent  in  1831.  In  1852  another  tax-law  was  passed, 
which,  by  a  forced  construction,  imposed  ujmn  banks  twice,  and  sometimes 
thrice,  the  burden  put  u[)on  other  [)roperty ;  but  such  was  the  pressure,  that 
much  of  the  ca[>ital  was  sent  into  adjoining  States. 

An  attempt  was  even  made  to  tax  the  two  branches  of  the  United-Stales 
Hank  at  Cincinnati  and  Chillicothe  in  1819.  The  State  imposed  a  tax  of 
^50,000  on  each,  should  they  continue  to  do  business  after  Sept. 
15  of  that  year.  The  bank  apiilied  for  an  injunction  against 
the  auditor,  and  secured  it  from  the  United-States  Circuit  Court ;  states 
hut  that  officer,  on  the  pretence  that  he  had  not  been  properly 
served  with  the  notice,  seized  $98,000  at  the  Chillicothe  banking- 
house,  and  turneil  it  over  to  the  State  treasurer.  The  Circuit  Court  ordered 
its  return,  however;  and  in  1824  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States 
confirmed  this  decision. 

The  Act  of  1845,  establisliing  the  State  Bank,  required,  that,  in  order  to 
create  a  safety-fund,  an  amount  equal  to  ten  per  centum  of  the  circulation  of 
each  of  the  branches  should  be  paid  to  the  I'joard  of  Control,  Thesafety- 
which  was  authorized  to  invest  the  same  either  in  stocks  of  the  ^""''  system. 
State  or  of  the  United  States,  or  in  bonds  secured  by  mortgages  on  unen- 
<'umbered  real  estate  of  at  least  twice  the  value  of  the  amount  secured 
thereby,  which  should  be  payable  on  demand  to  the  State  Bank  of  Ohio ;  and 
each  branch  was  entitled  to  receive  the  interest  accruing  on  the' stocks  and 
bonds  in  which  its  portion  of  the  safety-fund  was  invested.  In  case  of  failure, 
the  stock;;  nd  bonds  of  the  insolvent  bank  were  first  to  be  applied  to  the 
redemption  of  its  outstanding  notes  before  any  part  of  the  safety-fimd  belong- 
ing to  the  other  branches  should  be  so  applied.  The  State  was  divided  into 
twelve  districts,  and  a  portion  of  the  capital  of  the  State  Bank  was  allotted  to 
each.     Sixty-three  branches  in  all  were  authorized,  with  charters  to  continue 


Taxing  the 
United- 


Bank's 
branches. 


pi 

1  73711 


idi'» 


h      \ 


806 


nVD  us  TRIA  L    HIS  TOR  Y 


Rlc^|H 

ilHl 

Bii^ii 

UpM 

Ki^ 

wis 

Pm 

1:1 

m 

wm< 

W>M 

P:^5'.(;|:||l 

fc;dl-ii 

m 

ill 

ii!f 

if:.llri^ 

''inii^ 

hjIb 

ed  of  other 
banks. 


until  1866.  Five  banks  previously  chartered  were  authorized,  upon  certain 
conditions,  to  avail  themselves  of  the  privileges  of  the  act.  The  brandies 
were  under  the  supervision  of  a  lioard  of  Control,  consisting  of  one  repre- 
sentative from  each  branch,  which  was  to  furnish  all  the  circulating-notes. 
Thes^  were  limited  by  the  charter  to  "double  the  amount  of  capital  on  the 
first  J? 1 00,000  ;  150  per  cen*^  on  the  second  $100,000  or  part  thereof,  and  1 25 
per  cent  on  the  third  $ioo,joo  or  part  thereof."  There  were  thirty-six  of 
these  branches  in  operation  in  1856,  with  a  capital  of  $4,034,524,  and  cin  il- 
lation of  $7,112,320.  At  that  date  the  Ohio  Life  and  Trust  Company  was 
the  only  bank  created  p/ior  to  1845  still  in  existence. 

The  law  of  1845  '^'^^  authoiized  the  establishment  of  other  banks  than 
„     ^  the  State  Bank  and  branches  ;    but  such  indeiicndent  institutions 

Further  se-  ■"  '■ 

curity  exact-  werc  recpiired  to  deposit  with  the  State  as  security,  not  simply  cjne- 
tenth  of  the  amount  of  issue,  but  an  equal  amount.  In  i(S56 
there  were  n'ne  of  such  independent  banks,  with  a  combined 
capital  of  $587,500,  and  a  cir.ulation  of  $893,839. 

Thus  far  the  banks  had  been  especially  chartered.  A  general  Inv  was 
passed  in  185 1,  allowing  any  association  to  engage  in  the  business  of  banking 
Free  on  substantially  the  same  conditions  as  the  independent  banks 

banking.  jugj  mentioned,  —  the  deposit  of  State  and  Unired-States  stocks  to 
the  full  amount  of  the  issue.  Most  of  the  banks  so  organized  were  f  ircetl  by 
taxation  to  go  into  liquidation. 

In  April,  1856,  an  act  was  passed  incorporating  the  State  Bank  of  Ohio 
and  other  banks,  similar  in  its  general  provisions  to  the  Act  of  1845,  the 
Charter  charters   to   continue  until  May,  1877.     The  act,  however,  con- 

renewed,  tained  a  personal-liability  clause,  and  it  also  prohibited  the  C.eneral 
Assembly  "  from  imposing  any  greater  tax  upon  property  employed  in  banking 
under  this  act  uian  is  or  may  be  imposed  upon  the  property  of  individuals." 

In  1835  there  were,  in  all,  thirty-four  banks  in  operation  in  Ohio,  having 
a  capital  of  $5,819,000;  in  1837  there  were  thirty-three  banks,  with  ^  capital 
Summary  of  of  $9,247,0^^0;  and  in  1840  there  were  thirty-seven  banks,  with  a 
history.  iox^X  Capital  of  $10,000,000.     On  the   ist  of  January,   1845,  but 

eight  banks  were  in  operation,  with  an  aggregate  capital  of  $2,171,807.  In 
1855  there  were  fifty-one  banks,  whose  capital  amounted  to  a  little  more  than 
$6,000,00'-'.  In  1856  thirty-six  of  the  banks  which  had  been  organized  in 
the  State  had  failed,  their  notes  being  entirely  worthless  ;  while  eighteen  others 
were  in  process  of  liquidation,  their  notes  being  cjuoted  at  fifty  to  seventy-five 
cents  on  the  dollar.  There  were  fifty-six  banks  in  existence  in  the  State  in 
1863,  with  ai)  aggregate  capital  of  $5,674,000,  of  which  number  seven  were 
independent  banks,  with  a  capital  of  $350,000,  and  thirteen  were  free  lianks, 
with  a  capital  of  $1,270,000.  The  State  Bank  of  Ohio,  with  tliirty-six  branches, 
had  a  capUal  of  $4,054,000;  loans,  $8,653,000;  deposits,  $5,631,000;  circu- 
lation, $';, 246,000  ;  and  specie,  $:!,2 17,000;  together  with  a  safety-fund  of 
;?8i4,8oo  invested  in  bonds  and  mortgages. 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


807 


n  certain 
branches 
K'  re  pre - 
ng- notes. 
I  on  the 
and  125 
ty-six  of 
md  cinii- 
)any  was 

nks  than 

istitulion,-, 

ip]y  one- 

In   1856 

conilfined 

w  was 

f  haiikini,' 

-nt  l)anks 

stocks  to 

forced  by 

::  of  Ohio 
1845,  tliL' 
ver,  con- 
e  C.eneral 
1  bankiiii,' 
dnals." 
o,  having 
c    capital 
:s,  with  a 
845,   l)Ut 
807.     In 
lore  than 
mized  in 
Ml  others 
cnty-five 
State  in 
Til  were 
e  hanks, 
ranches, 
;  circu- 
fund  of 


1*'>«""?\V;!'"^» 


PINE-TREE   SHILLING. 


INDIANA. 

Banking  in  Indiana  under  State  laws  has  been  chiefly  conducted  by  the  State 
Bank  and  its  branches.    In  1820  the  State  had  but  t\\o  banks.    The  State  Bank 
was  incorporated  in   1834  with  ten  branches,  afterwards  increased   ^  ^ 
to  thirteen  :  these  were  made  mutually  liable  for  each  other's  debts,   bank  the 
The  only  tax  laid  was  twelve  and  a  half  cents  on  each  share,  for  "^"^'^^  '"''''■ 

ance. 

educational  purposes.  The  parent  bank  kept  the  plates  and 
unsigned  notes  of  the  branches,  issuing  the  latter  only  at  the  rate  of  twice  the 
capital  stock  paid  up.  Most  of  the  capi- 
tal came  from  out  of  the  State  ;  although 
the  State  Government  subscribed  to  a 
million,  and  also  lent  its  credit  to  other 
shareholders  to  the  extent  of  half  of  their 
subscription,  taking  mortgages  on  real 
estate  for  security. 

The   State    Bank    01    Indiana   and   its 
branches  were  managed  with  rare  ability. 

They  began  business  at  a  trying  period,  just  before  the  crisis  of  1837,  which 
bankrupted   so  many  institutions   in  the  West  and  South.      The   Excellent 
Bank  of  Indiana  suspended  specie  payments  from  1838  to  1S41;   manage- 
in  which  latter  year  it  held  $1,127,518  in  specie,  had  a  circulation   "^^ 
of  $2,960,414,  and  deposits  amounting  to  $317,890.    So  well  was  the  institution 
managed,  that  the  stockholders  received  dividends  averaging  from  twelve  to 
fourteen  per  cent  annually  for  twenty  years.     In  1854  the  charter  expired;  but 
it  was  renewed,  with  a  capital  of  $6,000,000,  and  fifteen  or  twenty  branches. 
During  the  crisis  of  1857  it  did  not  suspend,  though  it  contracted  its  issues 
prudently.     In  1861  it  called  in  most  of  its  notes,  but  re-issued  them  the  next 
year  to  buy  coin. 

The  new  Constitution  of  185 1  forbade  the  organization  of  any  more  banks 
except  under  a  general  law.  Such  a  one  was  enacted  in  1852,  which  pro- 
vided that  United-States  stocks,  or  stocks  of  the  several  States,  General 
including  those  of  Indiana  (then  worth  about  ninety-five  per  t>anking  law. 
cent),  should  be  deposited  with  the  auditor  as  security  tor  circulating-notes, 
the  stocks  to  be  made  etp'.al  to  one  bearing  six-per-cent  interest.  The  law  did 
not  require  a  board  of  directors,  nor  that  the  stockholders  should  be  citizens 
of  the  State.  In  October,  1S54,  there  were  eighty-four  of  these  banks;  and 
the  returns  of  sixty-seven  of  them  at  that  date  exhibit  $7,425,000  of  circula- 
tion, with  a  total  authorized  capital  of  $32,900,000.  The  oppressive  tax-law 
of  Ohio  having  driven  capital  from  ihat  State,  it  was  to  a  consideral)le  extent 
invested  in  the  free  banks  of  Indiana.  In  1856,  of  ninety-four  free  banks, 
fifty-one  had  suspended,  and  their  notes  were  selling  at  from  twenty-five  to 
seventy-five  per  cent  discount  in  Cincinnati. 


ut'- 


J- 


8o8 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


ILLINOIS, 


I  '*<'■';."  I'' 


The  record  of  State  banking  in  Illinois  is  not  quite  so  bright  as  tb  i;  of 
Indiana  in  the  eaiiier  history  of  the  two  States.  The  first  bank  was  startLd  ii) 
Disastrous  Illinois  in  1813,  five  years  before  it  was  emancipated  from  Teriito- 
beginnings.  j-jai  government  to  the  dignity  of  a  State.  It  was  located  at  Siiaw- 
neetown,  and  the  whole  Territory  then  had  but  fifteen  hundred  inhabitants. 
A  regular  charter  was  not  given  it  until  1816,  when  it  was  incorporated  for 
twenty  years,  with  a  nominal  capital  of  $300,000.  Large  government  deposits 
were  given  it,  and  it  gready  extended  its  credits;  but  in  1821  it  suspended 
specie  payments,  and  did  little  business  until  1835.  The  legislature  ihcu 
revived  it  by  granting  a  new  charter  which  should  run  until  1857,  increasing 
the  capital  to  $1,400,000,  and  subscribing  for  the  increase  on  behalf  of  the 
State,  authorizing  the  issue  of  stocks  therefor. 

The  second  venture  was  a  State  bank,  the  Constitution  of  181 8  ordering 
that  only  such  a  one  should  be  chartered.     The  act  of  incorporation  created 
Anunsuc-      ^  Bank  of  Illinois  in  182 1,  with  a  capital  of  $500,000,  to  run  ten 
cessfui  State   years,  to  be  owned  by  the  State,  and  managed  by  the  legislattire. 
*"  ■  $3,000,000  were  directed  to  be  issued  and  loaned  on  mortgages, 

with  notes  for  one  year  at  six-per-cent  interest,  and  in  sums  not  exceeding 
1,000  dollars  to  each  individual;  the  notes  to  be  renewed  on  payment  of  ten 
per  cent  of  the  principal  annually.  The  ci  xulating-notes  of  the  bank  were 
receivable  for  taxes,  and  for  all  debts  due  to  the  State  or  the  bank.  These 
notes  were  soon  thereafter  quoted  at  seventy-five  cents  on  the  dollar,  thta  at 
fifty  cents,  and  finally  at  twenty-five  cents ;  when  they  ceased  to  circulate  alto- 
gether. Members  of  the  legislature  received  their  compensation  in  depre- 
ciated currency  at  its  market-value,  which  the  State  was  compelled  to  redeem 
at  par;  and  a  loan  of  $100,000  received  in  these  notes  at  par  was  paid  out 
at  fifty  cents  on  the  dollar. 

We  have  already  referred  to  the  revival  of  the  Shawneetown  Bank  in  1835. 
Simultaneously  a  new  State  bank  was  chartered.  Its  capital  was  at  first  fixed 
Worse  luck  at  $1,500,000,  but  was  increased  to  $2,000,000,  and  subscribed  for 
next  time.  ijy  jj-jg  State.  It  was  required  to  take  up  the  $100,000  loan  above 
mentioned,  but  was  allowed  fifty  days  for  the  redemption  of  its  own  bills.  IJiit 
this  institution  was  shortly  compelled  to  suspend  payment,  and  in  1841  it  went 
into  liquidation.  In  the  same  year  an  act  was  passed  to  preserve  its  ciiarter, 
which  had  been  forfeited,  provided  it  would  pay  $200,000  of  the  State  del)t ; 
l)ut  in  1S43  two  acts  were  passed,  —  one  to  diminish  the  State  debt  and  put  the 
State  Bank  in  lifpiidation,  and  the  other  to  reduce  the  public  debt  by  a  million 
of  dollars  and  to  put  the  Bank  of  Illinois  at  Shawneetown  in  liquidation.  The 
stock  of  these  banks  subscribed  for  by  individuals  was  lost,  and  about  $90,000 
belonging  to  depositors  and  bill-holders  remained  unpaid,  as  well  as  $46,909 
belonging  to  the  government.     The  State  took  possession  of  its  bonds  held 


fi   W 


S    thi;    of            t 

Started  iij 

11  Territo- 

at  Shaw-         I 

liabitants. 

crated  for         '! 

t  deposits 

iispondei! 

lire   tlien 

ncreasing 

alf  of  the 

ordering 

■»  created 

»  run  ten 

gislatiire. 

lortgages, 

xceeth'ng 

It  of  ten 
ink  were 

.     Tliese 

,  then  at 

ate  alto- 

n  depre- 

)  redeem 

paid  out 

in  1S35. 

rst  fixed 

-ibed  for 

n  abo\e 

Is.     ]!iit 

it  went              : 

cliarter, 

2  debt; 

put  the 

milh'on 

.     I1ie 

590,000 

46,909 

Is  held 

OF    THE  UNITED    STATES. 


809 


by  them,  amounting  to  $3,050,000 ;  and,  by  direction  of  the  governor,  they 
were  cancelled,  and  burned,  in  the  presence  of  the  legislature,  in  the  capital 
square  of  Springfield. 

During  the  year  1S43  a  general  banking  law,  similar  in  its  provisions  to  the 
free  l-anking  law  of  the  State  of  Indiana,  was  passed.  The  report  of  the  bank 
commissioners  for  1S61  states,  that,  in  1857,  the  bank  circulation  a  general 
of  the  State  amounted  to  $5,500,000,  which  was  secured  by  $6,500-  banking  law. 
000  of  the  bonds  of  various  States,  of  which  amount  $4,500,000  were  Missouri 
sixes.  In  1861  the  amount  of  Missouri  bonds  had  been  reduced  to  $3,026,- 
000,  and  the  circulation  increased  from  $5,500,000  to  $12,300,000.  About 
three-fourths  of  the  securities  then  held  by  the  auditor  were  the  bonds  of  the 
Southern  States. 

KENTUCKY. 

The  Bank  of  Kentucky  was  incorporated  in   1804,  twelve  years  after  the 
admission  of  the  State,  with  a  capital  of  $1,000,000.     Forty  new  jhe  first 
banks  were  incorporated  in   181 7,  with  an   aggregate   capital  of  few  banks 
$10,000,000 ;   but   no  provision  was    made   for  the    redemption     "  ^°°^  ^' 
of  their  notes  in  specie.    They  issued  large  amounts  of  notes,  and  many  of 
them  failed  >.vithin  a  year  of  their  establishment. 

For  relief,  the  legislature,  in  1820,  chartered  the  Bank  of  the  Common- 
wealth of  Kentucky,  with  a  capital  of  $3,000,000,  pledging  the  public  faith  for 
the  redemption  of  its  circulation,  and  setting  aside  certain  lands  a  stay-law 
south  of  the  Tennessee  River  for  a  guaranty  fund.  If  a  creditor  '°''  ""ciief. 
refused  to  take  these  notes  in  payment  of  a  debt,  the  debtor  was  allowed  by 
law  two  years  in  which  to  pay  it.  This  feature  of  the  law  was  at  first  declared 
to  be  unconstitutional ;  but  a  new  court  was  appointed,  which  reversed  the 
decision.  As  a  consequence,  the  notes  of  the  bank  soon  became  worth  but 
fifty  cents  on  a  dollar.  A  very  bitter  contest  ensued  between  the  new  court 
and  old  court  parties,  lasting  five  years,  and  ending  in  the  repeal  of  the  stay- 
law  or  replevin  act.  The  bank's  circulation  was  suppressed  and  finally 
destroyed  by  authority  of  the  legislature. 

This  bank  was  conducted  under  State  auspices,  the  legislature  selecting  its 
president  and  directors,  its  dividends  accruing  to  the  State,  and  notes  being 
issued  to  the  extent  of  $3,000,000.  On  the  plea  that  these' were  other consti- 
bills  of  credit,  and  that  the  State  had  no  right  to  issue  such  tutionai 
under  the  Constitution,  a  debtor  of  the  bank  who  had  obtained  a  1"^^*'°"^- 
loan  in  this  currency  refiised  to  pay ;  but  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United 
States  held  that  the  notes  of  the  bank  were  not  bills  of  credit  in  the  meaning 
of  the  Constitution. 

In  1834  there  were  established  the  Bank  of  Kentucky,  with  a  capital  of 
{55,000,000,  the  Northern  Bank  of  Kentucky,  capital  $3,000,000,  and  the  Bank 
of  Louisville,  with  a  capital  of  $5,000,000;  all  of  which  were  in  existence  in 


I'll 
■1^ 


! 
■■'J 


8io 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


l'"'l-A^-tf' 


)S-  :^ 


successful 
ventures. 


1856,  with  an  aggregate  capital  of  57,030,000.  All  of  these  banks  susijcml- 
Remaining  ed  payment  in  1837,  and  resumed  in  1842,  with  an  ag^Mvi,'ale 
history.  circulation,  at  the  latter  date,  of  $2,800,000.     This  ainuunl  was 

increased  by  subsecjuent  issues,  until  in  1850  it  had  reached  $6,683,000.  'I'he 
Southern  Bank  of  Kentucky  went  into  operation  in  185J  willi  a  capital  of 
$1,300,000,  and  charters  were  also  subsequently  granted  to  four  other  hanks 
with  large  capitals.  Twenty-seven  Kentucky  banks  failed  in  1854;  Ijm  in 
1856  there  were  thirty-four  banks  and  branches  still  in  operation  in  the  State 
with  an  aggregate  capital  of  $11,730,000,  and  with  a  circulation  of  ahout 
$13,300,000. 

TENNESSEE. 

The  Nashville  Bank  was  incorporated  by  the  Tennessee  legislature  in 
Several  un-  1807,  with  a  Capital  at  first  limited  to  $200,000,  and  aftiiwanis 
raised  to  $400,000.  Several  branches  were  authorized  ;  hut  tluy 
soon  closed  with  loss  to  all  parties.  Another  bank,  the  FarniLMs' 
and  Mechanics',  was  started  in  Nashville  in  18 19  with  $400,000  ;  but  it  hcranie 
insolvent  within  a  year. 

In  181 1  the  Bank  of  the  State  of  Tennessee  was  chartered  and  started  at 
Knoxville  Its  capital  was  $400,000,  and  nine  branches  were  authoii/ed. 
Two  State  But  in  1820  the  State  Bank  of  Tennessee  was  incorporated  at 
banks.  Nashville,  with  a  capital  of  $1,000,000.     The  State  fiuicls  were  to 

be  deposited  at  the  bank,  which  was  authorized  to  sell  $250,000  of  six-per- 
cent State  stocks  to  l)e  used  as  capital.  It  created  agencies  to  loan  money  in 
every  county,  according  to  its  wealth  and  population,  in  sums  not  exceeding 
$500  to  any  one  person.  The  loans  were  to  be  made  un  a  credit  of  tweho 
months,  and  be  secured  by  mortgage  on  real  or  personal  projierty  worth 
douljle  their  amount.  The  proceeds  of  Hiawassee  lands  and  other  funds  wi-re 
pledged  for  the  redemptio.i  of  the  circulation,  which  was  guaranteed  l)y  the 
State,  and  which  was  issued  to  the  amount  of  $1,000,000  ;  but  it  was  so(jn  at 
a  discount  of  ten  per  cent  below  the  value  of  United-States  bank-notes.  I'he 
bank  was  under  the  suj^ervisory  control  of  directors  elected  by  the  legislature. 
Six  years  after  it  commenced  operations,  it  had  an  available  capital  of  about 
$500,000,  chiefly  derived  from  the  sales  of  lands.  The  bank  was  finally  closed 
in  1832,  with  considerable  loss  to  the  State.  Previous  to  the  passage  of  the 
act  under  which  it  was  established,  Gen.  Jackson  addressed  to  the  legislature 
a  memorial  denouncing  its  provisions,  and  declaring  the  proposed  act  to  he  in 
violation  of  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States.  Judge  White  of  Tennessee, 
in  a  speech  in  the  Senate  of  the  United  States  on  March  24,  1838,  stated,  that, 
"in  1820,  there  were  two  State  banks  in  operation  in  Tennessee  having  the 
same  name,  and  that  laws  were  passed  to  force  into  circulation  paper  money, 
an>,l  to  prevent  levies  of  execution,  unless  cr;nlitors  would  agree  to  receive 
irredeemable  bank-paper. 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


8ii 


Nearly  all  the  other  banks  started  for  some  years  were  large  ones  with 
branches.  The  Union  Bank  at  Nashville  was  incorporated  in  1832,  with  five 
branches,  and  a  capital  of  $3,000,000,  one-third  of  which  belonged  The  other 
to  the  State,  The  Planters'  Dank  in  the  same  city,  with  six  ''^nks. 
branches  and  $2,000,000  capital,  of  which  the  State  subscril)ed  a  part,  was 
iiKorporated  the  following  year.  The  next  mstitution  was  tlie  Farmers'  and 
Merchants'  Bank  of  Memphis,  chartered  in  1835,  with  a  capital  of  $600,000. 
It  failed  in  1847,  greatly  to  the  loss  of  its  bill-holders. 

The  place  of  the  old  State  Bank,  unpopular  and  unsuccessful,  was  taken 
in  1838  by  the  incorporation  of  a  new  Bank  of  Tennessee  at  Nashville,  with 
an  actual  capital  of  $3,226,000,  the  nominal  capital  being  $5,000,-  one  more 
000.  The  capital  was  made  up  from  the  assets  of  the  old  State  ^*^"^  ''^"''• 
Bank,  and  by  the  sale  of  $1,000,000  of  State  bond's.  It  had  several  branches, 
which  were  under  the  direction  of  the  parent  institution.  In  1849  'ts  capital 
was  reduced  to  $2,250,000.  Three  other  banks  were  incorporated,  with  an 
aggregate  capital  of  $1,100,000,  within  the  next  three  years,  A  free  banking 
law  was  passed  in  1852,  authorizing  the  organization  of  banks  upon  a  deposit 
of  bonds  of  the  State  equal  to  the  amount  of  their  capital. 

MISSISSIPPI, 

When  Mississippi  came  into  the  Union  in  181 7  she  had  but  one  bank,  and 
no  more  were   chartered   until    1830.     Meaniniie,  however,  the   one  oank 
capital  of  this  one  was  raised  from  $100,000  to  $950,600.  1817-30. 

In  the  last-named  year  the  Planters'  Bank  of  Mississippi  was  started  with 
a  capital  of  $3,000,000.     Two-thirds  of  this  was  subscribed  by  the  State,  which 
issued  six-per-cent  bonds  therefor,  on  which  a  premium  of  $250,-   a  large  and 
000  was  realized.     This  was  made  a  sinking-fund,  and  the  State's   prospv:rous 
dividends  were  devoted  to  paying  the  interest  on  its  bonds.     The   '"s*'*"*'°"- 
bank  paid  ten  per  cent  annually  ;  and  the  State  sinking-fund  steadily  grew  until 
September,  1839,  when  it  amounted  to  $800,000.     The  State  then  transferred 
its  stock  to  the   Mississippi   Railroad    Company ;    but  the   sinking-fund  was 
subsequently  lost  almost  entirely. 

In  1837  the  number  of  banks  in  the  State  had  increased  to  eighteen,  with 
an  aggregate   capital    of  $13,000,000,  more  than  $5,000,000   of  increase  of 
circulation,  and  more  than  $24,000,000  of  loans.  business. 

In  1838  the  Mississippi  Union  Bank  was  chartered,  with  a  capital  of  $15,- 
500.000,  to  be  "  raised  by  means  of  loans  to  be  obtained  by  the  directors  of 
the  institution."    The  State  authorized  the  issue  of  $15,000,000  of  a  huge 
guaranteed  bonds  which  were  to  be  loaned  to  the  bank.    $5,000,000   institution, 
were  issued  in  1838,  and  were  sold  to  the  United-States  Bank  of  Pennsylvania, 
The  next  lot  of  $5,000,000  were  issued  in  1839. 

The   following  year,  however,   the   first   steps   were   taken   by   th";    State 


I;    ^ , 


iTiiii, 


(I ':  '»'•  '■>'■ 


l|<? 


8l2 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


iiMiy 


authorities  toward  repudiating  this  obligation.     The  governor  issued  a  war 
Repudiation.   Pr^^'lamation  against  any  further  negotiation  of  these  bonds ;  ,' 

in  1 84 1  he  addressed  the  legislature,  claiming  that  his  proclai 
had  defeated  the  illegal  sale  of  the  second  issue  of  bonds.     Mis 


iung 


BANK   OF   MOBILE. 


nation 
mossa-c  to 
the  legislature  showed  that 
the  Union  Bank  had  5,.,. 
491,000  of  suspended  debt 
and  luiavailable  assets.  S',- 
034,000  of  circulation,  and 
M,349)OOo  of  specie.  Short- 
ly after,  he  proposed  that  the 
issue  of  55,000,000  made  in 
1838  be  repudiated  outright. 
The  legislature  declare  1  in 
reply,  that  "Mississippi  will 
pay  her  bonds,  and  preserve 
her  credit  inviolate."  p,iit 
they  were  repudiated,  and 
have  never  been  paid.  The 
bonds  issued  to  the  Planters' 
Bank  were  not  ofiRcially  re- 
pudiated :  but  the  people  rc- 
fuped  in  1852,  by  a  majority 
of  4,400  votes,  to  authorize 


a  tax  to  redeem  them ;  nor  is  a  reversal  of  that  decision  now  probable. 


I  fm 


m. 


\    :?■ 


%.  .(*M*».ife 


rl^'it  I 


OF    THE    UN  J  TED    STATES. 


813 


i  }K 


CHAPTER   II. 


INSURANCE. 

THERE  is  some  dispute  about  tlie  antiquity  of  the  insurance-business, 
several  countries  claiming  the  honor  of  originating  it.  There  are  traces 
of  it  as  far  back  as  the  Punic  wars  between  Rome  and  Carthage.  Antiqui':y  of 
The  government  of  Rome  guaranteed  to  contractors  who  were  insurance. 
carrying  provisions  and  arms  to  Spain,  that  they  should  be  held  free  from 
loss  if  their  boats  were  tlestroyed  by  storm  or  the  enemy  en  route  to  the 
province.  In  the  time  of  the  Emperor  Claudius,  there  was  a  period  of  great 
scarcity  at  Rome ;  and,  in  order  to  encourage  importations  of  corn,  the 
emi)cror  took  upon  himself  whatever  loss  or  damage  mariners  might  suffer 
from  sliipwreck  or  tempest  while  bringing  the  grain  to  Rome.  Marine- 
This  was  certainly  a  species  of  insurance.  It  was  not  resorted  '"surance. 
to  as  a  regular  business,  but  was  a  resource  for  an  extraordinary  occasion. 
It  is  related  that  the  generous  offer  of  Claudius  was  taken  advantage  of  in 
a  way  which  shows  tlial  the  human  lieart  is  the  same  in  all  ages  of  the 
world,  and  that  it  makes  vcy  little  difference  under  wliat  clime  the  race 
lives,  or  what  language  it  speaks,  in  regard  to  the  passions  and  impulses 
which  move  i:.  Humanity  is  the  same  everywhere  and  imdcr  all  circum- 
btanccs.  Ship\v?-ecks  were  pretended  to  have  occurred  which  never  took 
place :  old,  shattered  galleys  were  purposely  sunk  at  sea,  and  the  crew 
ostentatiously  saved  in  suiall  boais.  Large  sums  were  demanded  and  ob- 
tained for  these  alleged  losses.  Several  years  afterward  the  fraud  was  disoov- 
tivd  and  some  of  the  contractors  were  seized  and  punished.  Spain  and 
Portugal  dispute  the  real  credit  of  having  invented  insurance  as  a  practical 
li'isiuess-pursuit.  Portugal  in  1367  lunl  a  king  by  the  name  of  Fernando, 
wiv)  did  more  lor  his  realm  than  had  ever  been  done  for  it  before,  or  has 
heeu  since,  e.\cc[)t  by  Jean  II.  l-'crnando  strove  to  build  up  coninicMre  ;  and, 
i'l  order  to  give  seci  rity  to  it,  he  invented  and  put  into  oi)cration  some 
sort  of  marine-insurance.  Barcelona,  in  Spain,  in  1431,  made  an  ordinance 
on  the  same  subject,  and  made  ;narine-insurance  thoroughly  practical  and 
successful.     This  was  before  the   days  of  the   magnetic    needle,  and   it  was 


v..m 


'^r^: 


h 


li 


•*'r^ 


%• 


814 


/JVn  L'S  TRIA  L    Ills  TOR  Y 


h-\-  ■:■ 


15" 


Vr       I, 


a ' 


1 


in  an  age  when  the  Saracens  swarmed  on  the  MecUtcrranean  as  pirates. 
Navigati(>u  was  an  extremely  perilous  affair,  and  something  like  insurance  i 
was  necessary  to  give  security  and  expansion  to  commerce.  'I'lic  jlarcc- 
lonians  made  their  port  the  greatest  on  the  Mediterranean  in  courM;  nf  time 
by  their  insurance  and  other  regulations.  Marine-insurance  thus  \u\v^  ji,,'. 
ceded  all  other  forms  of  the  business.  It  was  soon  adopted  by  all  commercial  I 
nations. 

The  next  branch  of  i*-  t'  be  introduced  was  life-insorance.  TM  p.  t 
of  the  Inisiness  "w  o'  f  V  is  very  m;nter  of  commer<  e.  Mariners  of  the 
Lite-  -ad\  .       :  .< ,  e  st   exposed  to  capture,  that  they  came,  in  time,  to 

insuranre.  stiprlai  ■  "'.u  '  e  freighters  in  whose  behalf  they  undirtook  a 
voyage,  that,  if  ca[)ti;.  ,:,  die  ■  hould  be  ransomed.  There  are  traces  of  thi:, 
in  records  at  Rouen  of  1361,  anil  the  practice  became  quite  genera!  in  after- 
years  in  Spain.  Pilgrims  to  the  Holy  Land  made  the  same  arrangement. 
Out  of  this  practice  grew  life-insurance  proper.  It  is  interesting  to  observe 
that  there  was  against  life-insurance  a  most  violent  prejudice  from  the  very 
beginning  in  (Continental  Europe.  It  seemed  to  be  setting  a  premium 
upon  murder  to  insure  a  man's  life,  and  society  was  in  altogether  too  lawless 
a  conilition  in  that  age  to  make  it  judicious  to  create  extra  inducements 
for  killing,  (ienoa  in  1588  enacted  that  "securities,  bonds,  or  wagers,  may 
not  be  made,  without  the  license  of  the  senate,  upon  the  life  of  the  pope, 
nor  upon  the  life  of  the  emperor,  nor  upon  the  life  of  kings,  car(linal>, 
dukes,  princes,  bishops,  nor  upon  the  life  of  other  lords  or  persons  in  con- 
stituted dignities  ecclesiastical  or  secular."  Decrees  were  made  forbiddin:,' 
life-insurance  positively  in  Amsterdam  in  159C,  in  Rotterdam  in  1604  ami 
1635,  '^'^^'^  ''^  France  in  1681.  The  opposition  to  it  in  France  is  only  relax- 
ing at  this  day.  The  business  was  not  established  in  England  until  i;o6, 
when  the  Amicable  Society  was  started.  After  that,  however,  the  idea  became 
popular.  The  Royal  Exchange  and  the  London  Assurance  Companies  were 
started  in  the  time  of  (leorge  I.  to  insure  lives ;  the  Equitable  was  started  in 
1762;  and  the  business  soon  gained  a  more  vigorous  foothold  in  that  king- 
dom than  in  any  other  part  of  the  world,  this  being  due  to  the  greatcr 
security  to  life  in  that  free  and  wisely-governed  country.  The  only  otlici 
country  in  the  world  in  which  life-insurance  has  since  that  age  attained  any 
great  stature  is  the  United  States.  The  facts  will  be  more  particularly  ,st*. 
forth  hereafter. 

Fire-insurance  came  upon  the  scene  next,  and  accident-insurance  last 
of  all.  Somewhat  the  same  feeling  was  entertained  in  regaid  to  fa-e-insuranco 
Fire-  at  first  as  with  respect  to  life.     In  1609,  it  is  related,  an  ingen- 

insurance.  j^^^  person  Suggested  to  Count  .-Vnthony  Cunther  von  ()ldenl)i.irg, 
that,  as  a  new  species  of  finance,  he  might  guarantee  his  subjects  nipinst 
the  loss  of  their  houses  by  fire  on  condition  that  they  would  pay  to  him  a 
specified  sum  annually,  according  to  the  value  of  their  houses.     The  count 


•it.l 


m 


m 


OF    THE    U XI TED    STATES. 


815 


(lid  not  object  to  the  formation  of  a  c:omi)any  for  do  in  1;  a  thing  Hkf  that; 
hut  iic  said  for  himself  that  lie  doubted  if  it  could  be  by  him  "  honorably, 
in         and    irreproachfuily  ins''tutcd   without    tempting    Providence,   \vith(jut 


KIREMEN   AT   WORK. 

iiv  iirring  the  censure  of  neighbors,  and  without  disgracing  one's  name  and 
di'Miity."  The  .Luidy  count  continued  :  "(iod  has,  without  such  means,  pre- 
served and  blessed  for  many  centuries  the  ancient  house  of  Oldenburg ;   and 


8i6 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


■  I.  , 

ii 

mi' 


he  will  still  be  present  with  me  tiirouf;h  his  mercy,  and  protect  my  subjects 
from  destructive  fires."  'I'iie  plan  docs  not  api)car  to  have  been  agitated 
again  in  Kurope  until  after  the  great  fire  in  London  in  1666,  when  it  w.u 
innncdiately  brouglit  up.  The  agitation  which  tiie  subject  excited  tlicn  was 
remarkable.  We  have  never  had  any  thing  like  it  in  America,  as  far  as 
purely  business-themes  are  concerned,  unless  it  w."s  the  silver-dollar  agita- 
tion of  nS77;  and  that  was  corni)arablc  to  tlie  lire-insurance  furore  in 
England  only  in  intensity,  not  in  duration.  After  the  fire  of  1666,  then; 
ensued  in  lOngland  six  years  of  hot  discussion  and  pamphleteering.  It  was 
proposed  that  the  city  corporation  should  insure  the  houses  of  the  town. 
The  city  did  finally  insure  a  great  many  houses  ;  but  in  1682  the  CcjinuKjn 
Council  became  frightened,  and  backed  out,  and  cancelled  the  contracts. 
In  1696  the  Iland-in-IIainl  Fire  Office,  a  private  company,  was  started  to 
do  what  the  cor])oration  did  not  want  to  do  ;  and  in  1706  the  Sun  I'iie  Ofiicc 
was  started.  The  business  Mien  became  systematized  and  practical,  and 
rapidly  attained  very  large  proportions.  The  London  Assurance  was  incor- 
porated in  1720,  and  is  still  in  existence,  and  doing  a  gigantic  business. 
The  Hand-in- Hand  Company  is  the  only  one  of  the  earlier  period  now- 
surviving. 

Accident-insurance  has  all  grown  up  within  die  present  century,  and  is 
Accident-  merely  a  once  minor  detail  of  the  business,  which  has  now  grown 
insurance.       ^^  't^\\c\\  proportions  as  to  be  able  to  stand  alone. 

Before  proceeding  to  dei)ict  the  origin,  adventures,  and  development  of 
the  insurance-business  in  America,  a  few  words  will  be  proper  in  regard  to 
Principles  of  the  principles  upon  which  this  extraordinary  variety  of  commen  ial 
insurance.  speculation  is  founded.  The  general  principles  are  the  same  in 
all  branches  of  insurance.  A  large  proportion  of  the  losses  and  deaths  which 
take  place  in  die  world  are  the  result  of  the  crime  or  misconduct  of  indi- 
viduals. This  was  more  true  of  the  middle  ages,  when  the  governments  were 
feeble  ;  but  it  is  also  true  to  a  certain  extent  now.  In  order  to  reduce  losses 
and  deaths  from  crime  and  negligence  to  the  lowest  jiossiblc  point,  govern- 
ments have  been  instituted,  whose  duty  it  is  to  assist  by  every  means  in  their 
power  the  efforts  of  individuals  to  |)rotect  themselves  and  their  property,  to 
support  a  police  for  the  purposes  of  prevention,  and  to  maintain  courts  and 
prisons  for  tlie  puri)oscs  of  punishment.  \  good  governmem  imparts  vast  secu- 
rity to  jiroperty  and  life  ;  but,  in  sjjile  of  all  tliat  governments  can  do,  losses 
and  deaths  still  occur,  flales  l)low'  in  from  the  sea  which  the  signal-service 
flags  did  not  predict  in  time,  and  the  coast  is  strewn  with  wrecked  shipr?; 
conflagrations  break  out  in  cities,  and  on  steamboats  and  railroad-trains; 
collisions,  explosions,  the  iall  of  buildings  and  bridges,  and  other  unfore-ecn 
events,  occur ;  and  sickness  carries  away  prematurely  those  in  tiic  soundest 
health.  Few  men  are  so  rich  tliat  they  will  not  feel  heavily  the  weight  of  the 
loss  of  a  mill  or  a  house  by  fire,  or  a  ship  by  wreck.     The  majority  of  families 


m 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


817 


in  the  world  are  not  so  well  provided  with  funds  that  they  ran  endure  without 
financial  suffering  the  loss  of  the  life  of  the  men  who  are  their  main  stay  and 
support,  and  the  consecjuent  termination  of  their  main  income.  Before  the 
days  of  insurance,  most  men  would  have  l)een  impoverished  by  the  loss  of  their 
buildings  by  fire  ;  and  a  large  ])roportion  of  the  (iimilies  of  lawyers,  military 
and  naval  officers,  professional  men,  artisl.s,  and  meclianics,  would  have  been 
(iootncd  to  suffering  by  the  death  of  the  head  of  the  family,  whose  income, 
of  course,  would  terminate  with  his  life.  In  early  times,  in  New- York  City,  a 
man  who  was  burnt  out  was  generally  forced  to  make  an  appeal  to  the  public 
for  ( ontributions  of  money  to  set  him  on  his  feet  again.  Insurance  obviates 
this  distress  by  death,  and  loss  of  [)roperty  by  fire  and  accident,  which  is  sure 
to  fall  on  a  large  number  of  individuals  every  year,  by  distributing  the  loss  in 
each  case  among  a  great  many  people,  instead  of  allowing  it  in  each  case  to 
fall  with  all  its  weight  upon  one.  It  is  found  that  losses  by  fire,  wreck,  acci- 
dent, and  death,  obey  certain  laws.  Take  ten  thousand  houses  in  a  sjjecial 
part  of  the  country,  for  instance,  and  watch  how  many  of  them  burn  up,  year 
by  year,  for  a  period  of  twenty  years.  If  an  average  of  ten  houses  burn  up 
every  year,  it  can  pretty  safely  be  taken  for  granted  that  ten  houses  will  con- 
tinue to  burn  up  every  year  regularly,  circumstances  remaining  the  same. 
Now,  a  company  will  be  found  which  will  aim  to  insure  ten  thousand  houses  a 
year.  As  it  will  have  to  pay  on  an  average  for  ten  houses  consumed  by  fire 
annually,  it  assesses  upon  the  ten  thousand  the  value  of  ten  houses  a  year  ;  and 
each  owner  of  a  house  pays  in  to  the  company  his  ten-thousandth  part  thereof 
annually :  so  that  the  loss  of  the  ten  burned  houses  does  not  fall  on  the  ten 
men  who  own  them,  but  on  the  whole  ten  thousand.  Every  man  is  willing  to 
pay  his  insignificant  contribution  every  year  for  the  protection  and  security  it 
gi\es  him ;  and,  when  his  turn  comes  to  be  visited  with  calamity,  his  burtlen  is 
taken  up  by  the  other  ten  thousand  men  upon  whom  it  is  distributed,  and 
lifted  from  his  shoulders.  That,  in  substance,  is  the  principle  of  fire-insurance. 
It  is  expressed  the  most  perfectly  in  the  so-called  mutual-insurance  companies. 
But  it  is  upon  this  same  principle  that  the  joint-stock  companies  are  founded 
also.  It  is  the  same  with  life,  marine,  and  accident  as  with  fire  insurance. 
'liiL'  average  number  of  deaths  and  casualties  every  year  is  ascertained  by 
oliservation  and  experience,  and  the  business  then  organized  on  the  same 
theory  as  before. 

Now  for  the  story  of  the  progress  of  insurance  in  the  United  States.  It  is 
an  instructive  one  in  many  respects,  and  a  melancholy  one  in  others.  It 
certainly  is  an.  important  one,  as  will  be  seen  when  one  reflects  progress  of 
that  the  people  of  the  United  States  are  now  paying  annually  the  insurance, 
sum  of  $150,000,000  at  least  for  the  protection  and  security  which  insurance 
gives  them ;  and  that,  in  return  for  this  large  payment,  the  companies  are 
guaranteeing  to  the  people  indemnity  against  loss  to  the  amount  of  $10,000,- 
000,000. 


f 


i 


u.r 


llllH 


Il 


'^hj.. 


8iS 


INDUSTRIAL    II  iS  TON  Y 


MA  KINK. 


^ 


-» (-1  m. 


Marine-insurance  appears  to  have  been  tlic  first  branch  of  the  business 
which  engaged  attention  in  America,  just  as  it  had  been  the  first  in  prattirc  in 
Marine-  ^'^^'  ^^'*'  ^^o^ld.     'I'hc  colonies  were  pre-eminently  commercial,  and 

iniurancein  folt  the  need  of  marine-assurance  from  the  beginning  of  ilujr 
the  colonies.  |),,^i„^.^^  activity.  At  first  they  took  out  their  policies  in  I'.nghmd  ; 
but,  even  before  the  Revolutionary  war,  there  was  talk  about  the  l)ii-,inf-,s 
among  the  colonies  themselves.  In  1721  an  advertisement  appeared  in  a 
newspaper  in  Philadelphia,  as  follows  :  — 

"  Assurances  from  losses  happeni.ipf  at  sea,  \:c.,  being  found  to  !)e  very  niiK  h 
for  the  ease  and  benefit  of  the  mere  hants  and  traders  in  general ;  and  whereas 
Colonial  ad-  the  merchants  of  the  city  of  Philadelphia  and  other  parts  liavo 
vertisement.  lJ^.^.,l  obliged  to  send  to  London  for  such  assuran('e,  which  has  not 
only  been  tedious  and  troublesome,  but  even  very  precarious,  fortiie  remedyint,' 
of  which  an  office  of  public  insurance  on  vessels,  goods,  and  merchandise, 
will,  on  Monday  next,  i)e  opened  by  John  Kopson,  at  his  house  in  tlio  IliLjh 
Street,  where  all  persons  inclining  to  be  insured  may  api)ly ;  and  care  shall  he 
taken  by  the  said  J.  Copson  that  the  assurers  or  underwriters  shall  be  persons 
of  undoubted  worth  and  reputation,  and  of  considerable  integrity  in  this  city 
and  province." 

In  1725  Francis  Rawle  of  Philadelphia  suggested  that  there  should  be  a 
marine-insurance  office  under  the  sanction  of  the  colonial  legislature.  His 
Francis  pamphlet  on  the  subject  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  work  which 

Rawle.  \y.^j;   issued  from   Franklin's  press.     Neither   Kopson    nor   Rawle 

accomplished  any  thing,  however ;  and  Mr.  F'owler,  a  writer  on  insurance,  says, 
that,  for  seventy  years  afterward,  the  traders  of  Piiiladelphia  continued  *o  seek 
their  insurance  abroad.  In  New-York  City  a  marine-insurance  office  was 
opened  at  last  in  the  year  1759,  Kefeltas  and  Siarpe  being  the  clerks.  A  rival 
office  was  opened  the  same  year,  with  Anthony  van  Dam  for  clerk ;  and  in 
1778  the  New  Insurance  Office  was  opened.  These  were  all  for  marine-insur- 
ance. The  underwriters  were  simply  wealthy  men  of  the  city.  F'ach  man 
subscribed  his  name  for  the  sum  he  agreed  to  pay  in  case  of  loss  of  the  ship 
or  cargo.  Insurance  was  thus  carried  on  by  individual  underwriters  in  the 
commercial  cities  for  a  few  years,  until,  very  near  the  beginning  of  the  present 
century,  the  business  assumed  a  more  organized  character. 

Several  companies  were  being  formed  for  fire  and  life  insurance,  and  tlic 
,    idea  was  apiilied  to  the  marine  branch  of  the  business  also.     In 

Formation  of  '  ' 

first  marine  1 794  the  first  two  marine  companies  in  the  United  States  were 
companies  at    fomied  in  Philadelphia,  the  city  which  was  really  the  birthplace  of 

Philadelphia.       ,  ,     ,      .  \.         ^  j  ]  l 

the  whole  msurance  system  of  this  country.  These  were  chartered 
companies,  and  were  called  "The  President  and  Directors  of  the  Insurance 
Company  of  North  America,"  and  "The  Insurance  Company  of  the  State 


-•kuinJAiu* 


OF    THE    UMTEl'>    STATES. 


819 


(il  IViinsylvania."  'I'licsc  two  <()m|»anic's,  founded  in  a  city  whi(  li  has  hccn 
hy  no  means  the  greatest  of  tlie  seaports  of  the  country,  have  made  the 
proudest  record  of  any  Anieric  an  inaritiiuc  companies.  They  luive  weathered 
every  gale  of  tlie  century,  and  are  still  doing  iiusiness  to-day  on  an  enormous 
s(alc.  Boston  was  second  in  the  field.  The  Massa(  hiisetts  l''ire  and  Marine 
Company  was  forme<l  in  that  ( iiy  in  1795,  and  did  a  large  business  for  many 
vcars.  It  remained  in  existence  until  1S48,  when  its  charter  was  "-evoked. 
With  the  return  of  comparatively  peaceful  times  after  the  Revolutiori,  com- 
niLT'e  increased  very  fast,  anil  companies  sprang  up  in  several  plac  es.  Thirty- 
two  insurance  companies  were  formed  before  i.Soo,  and  ten  of  them  were 
exclusively,  or  in  part,  for  the  taking  of  maritime  risks.  They  were  as 
follows :  — 


i 


1 


li 


I79.(.  Insiir.ini't.'  Coinpiiny  of  North  America,  I'hilacielpliia. 

1794.  IiisiiraiKc  Company  of  the  State  of  reimsylvania,  riiilaclelphia. 

1795.  Massachusetts  Fire  and  Marine,  lloston. 

1796.  (!haritai)le  Marine  .Society,  llaitim.)rc. 

1797.  Ncw-llaven  Insurance  Company,  New  Ilavcn. 

1797.  Charleston  Insurance  ('ompany,  Charleston,  S.C. 

1798.  New-York  Insurance  Company,  Nesv  York. 

1798.  United  Insurance  (!omi)any,  New  York. 

1799.  Newhuryport  Marine,  Newburyport,  Mass. 
1799.  Hoston  Marine,  Hoston. 

The  Union  Mutual  was  started  in  Philadelphia  in  1804.  All  of  these 
companies  hatl  all  the  business  they  wanted  to  do,  and  prospered  finely,  until 
that  troubled  period  of  four  or  five  years  just  before  the  war  of  181 2  ;  when 
the  interferences  of  ICngland  with  our  commerce  made  the  busi-  Effect  of  war 
ness  extremely  precarious,  and  subjected  the  companies  to  great  with  Great 
and  unexpected  losses.  Frightened  by  the  interferences  of  Kng-  ^'■'**'"' 
land,  merchants  abandoned  their  vessels  hastily  to  the  companies  which  had 
insured  them ;  and  one  of  the  Philadelphia  concerns  lost  half  of  its  capital  in 
ronsequence  of  this  practice.  The  companies  met  this  new  state  of  things  by 
issuing  regulations  against  improper  abandonment  of  vessels ;  l)ut,  in  spite  of 
all  i)recautions  they  could  enforce,  they  were  frecjucnt  and  heavy  losers  by  the 
operations  of  thosi  years  of  uncertainty  and  war.  After  the  war  the  com- 
panies again  became  ;)rosperous,  losses  diminished  to  a  low  average,  and  the 
( oinpanies  made  monev.  The  usual  result  followed,  —  the  formation  of  new 
(ompanies. 

About  the  year  1828  the  marine  companies  were  subjected  to  new  lossf^s. 
arising  from  a  circumstance  which  brings  back  forcibly  to  mind  the  example  ot 
the  Roman  navigators  in  the  time  of  Claudius,  and  which  revealed   Loss:*;  i« 
again  the  one  weak  point  of  insurance ;  namely,  the  temptation  it   '^'^ 
presents  to  the  commission  of  fraud.     The  companies  began  about  i<S.'8  to  he 
called  on  to  pay  for  a  large  number  of  vessels  wrecked  on  the  Atlantic  and  Gulf 


mi\ 


m: 


I 


SW,!.!*!!!.  '- 


<S20 


AVZ>  C/S  TRIA  L    L .  S  TON  V 


coasts  and  in  the  West  Intlics  l)y  intcnticm.  Vessels  were  deliberately  scuttled 
at  sea,  or  run  ashore  in  collusion  with  wreckers,  in  order  to  secure  the  insunuice 
on  them.  Others  were  run  into  some  jiort  in  the  West  Indies,  and  condeiniuil ; 
ships  of  the  most  worthless  description  being  abandoned  to  the  conipaiiiis  at 
enormous  prices.  The  wreckers  added  to  the  evil  by  decoying  honest  ^iiips 
ashore  with  false  lights.  'I'l'.is  state  of  things  continued  for  seven  or  ei"iu 
years.  The  frauds  were  finally  discovered,  and  many  a  merchant  of  rc|)iiia. 
tion  was  ruined  by  the  exposure  ;  but  the  practice  was  not  stoi)ped  until  tin 
companies  had  been  subjected  to  a  fearful  strain. 

Marine  conii)anies  were  established  in  the  following  States  in  tlu'  \.aiN 
named,  the  companies  being  the  first  of  any  kind  in  those  States,  and  giiKialU 
doing  a  lire  as  well  as  a  marine  business  :  — 


Ahibama 
Illinois . 
Indiana 

Mississippi 

Missouri 
Texas    . 


Montgoniciy-County  Tiisurancc  ("ompanv 
Alton  Marine  ami  P'irc  ..... 
Lawrencehurgh  Ins'irance  Company 
Mississii)])i  Insurance  (.'ompany  (at  Vicksburg) 
Protection  Insurance  t'onipany  (at  Natchez)  . 
Missouri  Mutual  Fire  and  Marine  and  others  . 
JSrazonia  Insurance  C'(jmpanv  .... 


1S32 

iS  ;, 
'f^37 


Although  the  number  of  companies  increased  during  this  decade  between 
1830  and  1 840  in  consequence  of  the  wonderful  growth  of  commerce,  the  vear 
From  1830  to  1840  found  the  companies  in  a  state  of  very  uncertain  pros- 
^^*°-  parity.     Several  of  the  more  recently-organized  companies  were 

compelleil  to  wind  up  their  affairs.  All  the  other  concerns  were  losing  niouev  • 
and  this  department  of  the  business  seemed  to  be  in  danger,  for  a  second 
time,  of  being  blotted  out.  The  losses  of  ships  by  wreck  had  become  so 
iiumerous  once  more  as  to  set  at  defiance  al!  previous  calculations  of  the  law 
of  averages;  and  there  seemed  to  be  nothing  in  view  for  the  companies,  exicpl 
to  re-adjust  the  whole  system  of  marine  underwriting,  or  to  go  out  of  business. 
That  which  brought  aboe.t  this  condition  of  things,  however,  was  not  the 
action  of  the  elements ;  but  it  was  once  more  the  avarice  and  misconduct  of 
man,  against  which  the  law  of  ave  ge  is  of  no  avail.  The  wreckers  at 
different  pomts  on  the  coast,  particidarly  at  Key  \\'est,  were  again  at  work : 
and  they  followed  uj)  their  trade  with  such  hardihood  as  to  enter  the  principal 
ports  of  the  United  States,  and  attempt  deliberately  to  bribe  ship-captains  lo 
cast  away  their  vessels.  In  too  many  cases  they  sue  ,eded.  Merchants  were 
cither  ;'ctively  or  j^assively  engaged  m  the  commissio.i  of  these  frauds.  There 
vas  little  popular  sympathy  with  the  comi)anie;  The  consequence  of  il  all 
was,  that  one-third  of  all  the  losses  of  the  companies  from  1820  to  1S40  i> 
estimated  to  have  be^n  the  result  of  the  corruption  and  ungratefiil  malice  ot 
those  wiiom  marine -'nsurance  was  established   to  benefit   and   protect.      The 


"; 


!'llll 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


S.M 


■ly  scutlled 
1^-'  insur.incL' 

'nd'jiiiiu'il  ; 
Jiiipaiiits  at 

IDIlCSl    >hi|,s 

-11   or  ri-hi 

'd   umil  ihi 

11    thr    \r,ir> 
I'l  .uvni-iallv 


IS;: 
iS  • 


companies  now  began  to  withdraw  from  the  marine-business,  and  to  extend 
tlieir  fire-risks ;    and  in  a  few  years  the  former  branch  of  the  business  would 


idc  l)clwrcn 
rce,  the  yrar 
erlain  jji-ds- 
ipanics  were 
sing  iiionov  • 
or  a  sccuiid 

become  so 
i  of  the  law 
mies.  cx(  e])l 

of  business, 
.vas  not  t!ie 
sconduct  of 
wreckers  at 
in  at  work  ; 
he  prin(ii)al 
-captains  ;o 
■clianls  were 
lids,  'i'here 
ice  of  it  all 

to     I.S40    IS 

III  malice  of 
otect.      I'lie 


have  l^ecome  extiiu  1.  had  it  not  been  for  the  exposure  of  the  frauds  and  the 
prosecution  (;f  offenders.      In    1844  tlie    Philadelphia  companies  organized  a 


822 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


I-;    e 


\'^\* 


y. ... 

V*'    f        , 


board  of  marine  undenvriters  for  their  own  protection  ;  and,  l)y  its  action 
stability  and  confidencx"  were  once  more  finally  imparted  to  the  business. 

The  marine  concerns  which  were  opened  in  the  West  after  1832  were  tor 
the  taking  of  risks  njjon  vessels  engaged  in  lake  and  river  transportation. 
..    .  That  business  became  very  large  after  1850.     There  were  ten  or 

Marine-  ^  ^  ^ 

insurance        twclvc  hundred  vesscls  on  the  Northern  lakes,  mosUy  sailini;  ( rati, 
companies       ^^j^j  a^^Qiit  as  many  more  on  the  Western  rivers,  which,  in  turn 

in  the  West.  -^  .  /  ,  .., 

were  mostly  steam-vessels.  The  insurmg  of  these  vessels  calkil 
for  the  existence  of  numerous  companies,  which  were  duly  formed,  and  (lid 
business  on  a  large  scale.  There  was  a  fault,  however,  in  the  system  uij(jii 
which  these  companies  went  to  work.  Competition  led  them  to  take  risks 
without  much  regard  to  the  goodness  of  the  vessels.  Ship-builders,  fmdiiiL; 
that  slighUy-built  vessels  secured  as  large  a  policy  at  as  low  a  risk  as  stout  ones, 
put  less  and  less  timber  and  iron  into  their  work  ;  and  a  class  of  weak  vessels 
was  thereupon  created  in  the  trade  of  the  lakes,  which  could  not  buffet  tiie 
storms,  and  which  in  a  blow  were  almost  sure  to  be  wrecked,  unless  they  l;ap 
pened  to  be  safe  in  harbor  at  the  time  the  storm  broke  out.  The  grand  jury 
of  Northern  Ohio  made  a  report  in  1855,  Mr.  C.  C.  Hine  says,  in  which  tliev 
stated,  that,  while  there  were  only  1,190  vessels  afloat  on  the  lakes  at  the  end 
of  1854,  the  wrecks  of  that  and  the  six  previous  years  had  amounted  to 
1,560  in  number.  The  state  of  things  was  so  serious  as  to  require  ])iil)lir 
attention.  The  evil  was  finally  remedied  in  1855  by  the  formation  of  the  lake 
Underwriters'  Association,  which  prescribed  rules  as  to  how  vessels  should  bo 
built,  and  which  agreed  to  take  no  risks  except  upon  vessels  which  came  .'[) 
to  their  requirements.  This  gave  a  new  life  to  the  business ;  and,  while  the 
companies  began  now  to  make  money  under  the  new  order  of  things,  the 
public  also  came  to  be  benefited  by  it  through  the  greater  security  to  life  and 
proi)erty. 

The  war  of  1S61  formed  another  era  in  the  marine-insurance  business  ot' 
the  country.  For  the  first  two  years  of  the  war,  the  companies  on  the 
Effect  of  Northern  seaboard  made  a  great  deal  of  money.     They  all  raised 

late  war.  ^y^^  rates  of  insurance  ;  and  one  New- York  company,  whose  reeeipt 
of  premiums  was  only  $6,000,000  in  1S60,  took  in  5 10,000,000  in  1863,  with 
American  navigation  all  the  while  declining.  If  the  first  two  years  v.ere  j.iros- 
perous,  however,  the  following  two  were  not.  The  cruisers  which  slipped  out 
of  the  por's  of  England  to  prey  upon  the  American  ships  changed  the  fa(  e  o\ 
things  materially.  During  tlie  last  two  years  of  the  war,  the  companies  neadv 
all  lost  heavily  ;  and  one  of  them,  "The  Columbian."  failed  outright  in  spite ol' 
its  gains,  because  of  a  loss  of  $1,000,000  on  ships  destroyed  by  the  unexpected 
cruisers.  The  end  of  the  war  found  the  business  very  much  reduced  in 
amount ;  and  it  has  not  yet  recovered  the  proportions  it  enjoyed  before  llKit 
struggle  began,  simply  because  there  are  fewer  shii)s  and  cargoes  to  ]^n>te(i. 
The  ocean-tonnage  of  the  United  States  is  even  now  only  about  one-half  what 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


823 


y  't-i  ;ii:tion, 

-'  \\i-"iv  (or 
■^'isporialion. 
\\'«-'re  ten  or 
sailin,i,r-,  raft, 
ich,  ill  inni, 
'■essels  ,-ali,,i 
it-'cl,  and  ,]|,| 
pystem   upon 
fo  take  risks 
[klers,  fmijin- 
^s  stout  ones, 
weak  \esseK 
ut  buffet  tile 
-ss  tliey  l;ap. 
2  grand  jnrv 
1  wliich  thrv 
at  llic  end 
imouiued    to 
-quire  ])ubli(: 
1  of  the  J ake 
els  should  be 
ich  came  .ip 
id,  wliile  the 
f  things,  the 
K  to  life  and 

business  of 
iiies  on  tlic 
ey  all  rai:,ei! 
hose  reeeipi 
I  1S63,  ^\''!i 
s  Were  pros- 
slipped  out 
the  face  of 
lilies  nearly 
t  in  spite  of 
uiiexpecteii 
reduced  in 
before  lli;;! 
to  jinilet  I. 
>hair  what 


It  was  before  the  war.  The  single  feature  of  the  situation  which  was  encoura- 
i;ing  was,  that  no  new  marine  companies  had  been  started,  and  that  those  still 
doing  business  were  generally  in  a  sound  condition,  and  could  be  relied  ui)on 
to  give  a  good  guaranty  of  indemnity  in  case  of  loss  to  such  ships  as  they 
admitted  to  their  books.  Connected  with  the  losses  of  the  war  of  1861  are 
the  facts  concerning  the  Geneva  award.  The  claims  of  the  United  States 
against  Great  Britain  were  presented  in  gross,  and  covered  both  the  losses  of 
private  citizens  and  those  of  the  insurance  companies.  'I'he  award  was 
$15,000,000.  Of  this  sum,  however,  the  Congress  of  the  United  States  has 
permitted  only  a  part  to  be  distributed.  Although  the  losses  of  the  insurance 
companies  formed  a  part  of  the  ground  of  our  claims  against  Great  Britain,  the 
companies  have  been  refused  a  participation  in  the  distribution  of  the  award,  — 
an  injustice  against  -.vhich  they  still  protest,  and  which  they  are  trying  to  have 
corrected. 

The  marine-insurance  companies  have  been  beneficial  to  the  United  States 
in  more  ways  than  one.  'J'he  security  they  impart  to  the  commercial  ventures 
of  our  merchants  is  their  most  valuable  office  ;  yet  they  do  much  Benefits  of 
more  than  that  for  the  comfort  and  material  well-being  of  our  peo-  companies. 
])le.  They  prescribe  rules  and  a  standard  by  which  shi])s  must  be  built  in 
order  to  secure  the  most  advantageoiij  rates  of  insurance  ;  and,  as  it  is  cheai^er 
in  the  long-run  for  an  honest  merchant  to  have  his  insurance  as  low  as  possi- 
ble, he  accordingly  finds  himself  obliged  to  build  a  good  ship.  This  of  itself 
is  a  means  of  prevention  against  loss  by  wreck  and  accident ;  and,  it  is  hardly 
necessary  to  say,  it  also  ''enders  voyaging  vastly  more  safe  to  the  people  of  the 
ship,  and  persons  bound  across  the  sea  on  the  pursuits  of  pleasure  or  business. 

There  is  an  absence  of  exact  statistics  in  regard  to  the  development  of  the 
marine-insurance  business,  because  there  is  as  yet  no  central  authority  to 
which  all  the  companies  report.  Most  of  the  marine  companies 
combine  a  fire -business  with  their  marine  operations,  unci  the 
returns  of  the  two  branches  of  the  business  are  not  kept  separate.  It  is  esti- 
mated, however,  that  the  marine  companies  of  the  United  States  now  have 
outstanding  risks  to  the  amount  of  $400,000,000.  Of  this  large  sum,  $186,- 
000,000  are  at  the  port  of  New  York,  and  perhaps  $100,000,000  at  the  port  of 
boston. 

FIRE. 

It  is  stated  by  the  insurance  authorities  that  not  a  single  building  in 
America  was  covered  by  a  policy  of  fire-insurance  before  the  year  1752.  In 
that  year  the  first  fire-insurance  company  was  organized,  in  imita-    „ 

^  I        y  o  '  Organization 

tion  of  similar  companies  in  London,  by  a  number  of  citizens  of  of  irst  fire- 


statistics. 


It  was  called  "The  Philadelphia  Contribution^hip   '"'"^ance 

company. 

for  the    Insurance    of    Houses    from    Loss    by   Fire."      Benjamin 


I'hiladelphia. 
'or  the  Insu 
i'"rankUn  was  the  president  of  the  company. 


This  concern  was  organized 


'!■!  '  ! 


?»;  ni 


jftit'lf  -,: 


824 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


;» 

■''      \ 

5 

•:.:■*■ 

fii 

-Ii* 

■Slit 


1 1 'Ik  : 


I       .. 


«Li       'i 


-J 


fc    *  11.   "^  1,  t 


somewhat  upon  the  principle  of  a  mutual  society.  The  man  who  wished  to 
have  his  house  insured  deposited  a  sum  of  money,  the  interest  u[)un  \viii(  h 
belonged  to  the  company.  The  man  making  such  a  deposit  became  a  niciib 
ber  of  the  company.  J.osses  and  expenses  were  paid  out  of  the  deposits  and 
the  interest  arising  therefrom,  and  at  the  end  of  seven  years  the  account  was 
balanced  with  each  member.  The  policy  ran  for  seven  years  ;  and  each  im,iii- 
ber  was  liable  to  the  amount  of  his  deposit,  and  half  as  much  more.  A  ^xid 
deal  of  infoimation  has  been  preserved  in  relation  to  this  pioneer  of  Ameri;  an 
fire-insurance  companies,  possibly  because  so  much  of  it  is  of  a  (juaint  (  har- 
acter.  It  seems,  according  to  Mr.  C.  C.  Hine,  the  editor  of  "  The  Insuram  c 
Monitor "  at  New  York,  that,  instead  of  appropriating  the  two-shilling  lines 
laitl  on  absentees  at  the  monthly  meetings  of  the  company  to  the  use  of  the 
company,  the  contributors  spent  them  in  putting  up  milestones  on  the  roads 
leading  into  Philadelphia.  They  dotted  the  roads  with  these  stones  for  twriuy 
miles  around.  In  1783  the  house  of  one  of  the  contributors  caught  fire  from 
a  burning  shade-tree;  and  the  company  thereupon  refused  to  take  risks  on 
houses  with  shade-trees  around  them,  except  at  enormous  rates.  This  led  to 
dissatisfaction  ;  and  the  second  fire-company  in  America  was  finally  started 
in  consequence  of  it,  called  "The  Mutual  Assurance  Company  for  the  Insur- 
ance of  Houses  from  Loss  by  Fire,"  dating  its  origin  from  i  784.  This  new- 
company  took  for  its  symbol  and  trade-mark  the  "green  tree,"  and  ac(:e])ted 
risks  on  houses  surrounded  by  shade-trees.  The  symbol  of  the  "Contribuliun- 
ship  "  was  the  badge  of  two  clasped  hands,  —  the  same  as  that  adopted  1)y  the 
pioneer  Hand-in-Hand  Society  of  London.  Like  the  London  company,  the 
pioneer  in  Philadelphia  is  sdll  in  existence,  and  doing  business. 

The  subject  of  insurance  was  agitated  in  New- York  City  in  1770,  1784, 
and  1785;  but  nothing  appears  to  have  been  done  in  the  way  of  forming 
Insurance  in  companies,  Owing  to  the  bad  financial  condition  of  the  times. 
New  York.  jj^^.  return  o*"  peace  and  the  establishment  of  a  strong  national 
government  appear  to  have  given  new  life  to  all  business-enterprises,  and 
then  in  1787  New  York's  first  company  was  started.  The  Mutual  Assurance 
Company  was  inmiediately  formed  for  the  local  uses  of  the  city.  The  same 
year  the  Baltimore  Fire-insurance  Company  was  incorporated.  The  new  Na- 
tional CiO\-ernment  having  fairly  got  into  rinining-order,  charters  -.^'ere  applied 
for  in  various  States,  and  by  1800  nineteen  fire-insurance  companies  were 
doing  business  in  the  United  States.  Some  had  the  right  to  do  a  marine- 
business,  and  some  had  inland  privileges  also.     They  were  the  following :  — 

'752.     Philadelphia  Contributionsliip.     (Fire.) 

17S4.     Mutual  Assurance.  Philadelphia.     (Fire.) 

i;8-/  r.'u!  IV95.     Paltimor    Fire.     (Fire.) 

:;'\j  :.iA  i')>.     ^[ut'|.l    Assurance,  New  York.     (Fire.) 

170-1.     I'altimore  T"';'iital)le.     (P'ire.) 

(•794.     Norwich  Mutu.  1,  Norwicii,  Conn.     (Fire.) 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES.  825 

1794.  Insurance  Company  of  North  America,  Philadelphia.     (All.) 

1794.  Insurance  Company  of  the  State  of  Pennsylvania,  Philadelphia.    (All.) 

1794.  Mutual  Assurance  Company,  Richmond,  V'a.     (Fire.) 

1795.  r'aryland  Insurance,  Baltimore.     (Fire  and  Marine.) 

1795.  Massachusetts  P'ire  and  Marine,  Boston.     (Fire  and  Marine.) 

1797.  New-IIaven  Insurance  Company,  New  Ilavcn,  Conn. 

1797.  Charleston  Mutual,  Charleston,  South  Carolina.     (Fire.) 

1798.  Georgetown  Mutual,  (leorgctown,  Maryland.     (Fire.) 
1798.  Massachusetts  Mutual,  Boston.     (Fire.) 

1798.  New-York  Insurance  Company,  New  Vork.     (All.) 

1798.  United  Insurance  Company,  New  Vork.     (.Ml.) 

1799.  New-Hampshire  Insurance  Company,  Portsmouth,  N.II.     (Fire.^ 
1799.  Providence  Washington,  Providence,  R.I.     (Fire.) 

Most  of  these  companies  are  still  in  existence,  though  not  all  with  their 
original  names.  The  Mutual  Assurance  of  New  York,  for  insiance,  retained 
that  name  only  until  1846,  when  it  was  re-organized  as  the  Knickerbocker, 
and  under  that  title  is  still  a  llourishing  concern.  In  addition  to  the  above, 
tliere  was  a  private  concern  at  Hartforel,  Conn.,  as  early  as  1 793  ;  but  all 
record  of  it  has  been  lost  e.xcepi  a  Mngle  policy,  which  has  been  foimd  to 
indicate  that  the  company  once  e.  isted. 

The  Union  Mutual  was  formed  in  Philadelphia  in  1803  ;  the  Eagle  Fire,  in 
Xew  York,  in  1806;  and  the  .Albany,  at  Albany,  N.Y.,  in  181 1.  Other  com- 
panies were  also  the  outgrowth  of  those  times ;  but  th';  three  which  have  been 
named  are  the  only  ones  which  have  led  a  connected  existence  to  the  present 
time,  and  are  still  extant.  The'  old  Norwich  Fire  (Nor*vich,  Conn.)  was 
incorporated  in  1803,  but  was  crushed  in  1871  by  the  Cl.i'-ago  fire. 

One  of  the  features  of  fire-insurance  at  that  early  day  was  the  (.pening  of 
nt'tices  in  the  principal  cities  of  the  country  by  London  companii>.     Many 
peoijle  preferred  to  insure  with  the  London  offices,  because  they   p    |y  ^p. 
possessed  so  much  larger  capital.     The  Phcenix  had  an  office  in 
New  York  as  early  as  1805.     When  the  troubles  which  led  to  th( 
'var  of  181 2  took  place,  however,  the  hostility  felt  in  this  countrv 
toward  England  caused  the  State  of  New  York  to  pass  a  law  ex- 
cluding the  foreign  companies  from  doing  business  within  her  • 
1809,  Pennsylvania,  Maryland,  and  .South  Carolina  did  the  same  • 
latter  State,  which  was  more  friendly  to  English  interests,  re     .i. 
hihition  the  following  year. 

\\\  18 10  fire-insurance  was  established  on  a  small  scale  in  a  little  New- 
iaigland  city,  which  was  destined  in  a  few  years  to  become  fa' nous  for  its 
insurance-interests,  and  to  have  erected  upon  its  principal  strict-   „.      ,. 

'  111  Rise  of  in- 

a  number  of  buildings,  devoted  to  the   occupancy  of  insuraiK  c   surance 
companies,  finer  than  anv  business-structures  in  the  country,  ex-   ^^on^pa"'"'" 

^  '  .  .  ■"  Hartford. 

copt  those  in  tlie  great  metropjolitan  communities.     It  was  in  th  n 

\car  that  the  Hartford  I'ire- Insurance  Company  was  incorporated  at  Hartford, 


ranee  of 

don 

com- 

ies 

nthe 

lited 

.ates. 

itory. 

\x\ 

diough  the 

d  the 

pro- 

liB'l 


826 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


I  r'l^^i 


-  - 1 


m^ 


-,i  (J«-'  ^ 


Conn.,  with  a  capital  of  $150,000.  This  enterprise  was  a  timid  venture,  and 
for  several  years  was  a  plant  so  tender,  that  one  good  fire  would  have  snnlVcil 
it  out  of  existence  prematurely.  The  total  income  of  the  comjjany  tor  ilu 
first  year  was  only  54,498.  Its  expenses  were  five  hundred  and  thirty  doilais 
only ;  three  hundred  dollars  going  to  pay  the  salary  of  the  only  eniplo)  c.  tlu- 
secretary,  and  thirty  dollars  being  expended  for  rent  and  fire-wood.  \\\  iS:o 
the  income  had  only  risen  to  $10,102  a  year;  but  after  that  tlie  businchs  of 
the  company  began  to  grow,  and  the  corporation  soon  became  a  great  ( 011- 
cern,  with  a  national  reputation,  taking  risks  amounting  to  tens  (jf  uiillions 
annually,  and  with  an  income  which  grew  in  time  to  exceed  two  millioiis. 
This,  like  most  of  the  eariy  companies,  was  a  joint-stock  concern.  Tlu: 
capital  was  small  at  the  start,  —  only  $150,000;  and,  though  now  5 1,000, 000, 
was  increased  to  $300,000  only  in  1854.  On  the  other  hand,  the  risks  were 
large,  amounting  in  1854  to  over  $10,000,000.  But  the  ])olicies  were  well 
placed,  and  in  1S54  the  losses  annually  were  only  about  $300,000;  and  the 
premiums,  being  adapted  to  the  losses,  gave  the  company  an  income  of 
$500,000  a  year,  without  touching  the  capital.  Thus  the  losses  were  all  ])ai(l 
from  the  premiums,  and  a  handsome  surplus  left  for  distribution  in  the  torni 
of  dividends,  or  for  investment  as  a  surj^lus  fund.  The  success  of  the  li.ut- 
ford  Fire,  and  the  safety  of  this  form  of  business,  led  to  the  formation  ofnther 
companies.  The  .Etna  came  first,  appearing  in  1819  ;  and  then  the  Protec- 
tion. The  Hartford-County  Mutual  came  along  in  1831,  the  Phoenix  in  1854. 
Such  has  been  the  growth  since  1810,  that,  in  spite  of  the  losses  caused 
by  the  great  fires  of  recent  years  and  other  depressing  causes,  the  city  of 
Hartford  has  in  the  year  1878  ten  insurance  companies  in  full  operation, 
having  an  income  of  $11,000,000  annually,  and  insuring  property  to  the 
amount  of  $680,000,000. 

The  growth  of  the  Hartford  companies  was  in  large  part  due  to  a  causi', 
which,  being  taken  advantage  of  afterward  by  other  companies,  brought  aJHnit 
Causes  of  '^^  expansion  of  the  whole  business  of  insurance.  Until  the  .i'.tna 
their  Started  in  1819,  the  business  of  the  several  companies  had  been 

growt  .  almost  entirely  of  a  local  character.     Each  concern  was  as  inu(  ii 

circumscribed  by  the  limits  of  the  neighborhood  it  was  in  as  the  town^lr'> 
cider-mill  and  the  early  county  tlouring-mill.  The  .Tiltna  appears  to  hav, 
conceived  the  idea  of  creaung  a  network  of  distant  agencies,  and  obtaininu 
business  in  all  parts  of  the  eouiitry.  Possibly  the  practice  of  New-l'.nulinil 
manufacturers  in  sending  out  peddlers  suggested  the  idea;  but,  whether  it  d.ii 
or  not,  the  /Etna  adopted  the  agency-system,  and  soon  built  up  an  enormous 
and  prosperous  business.  The  Hartford  Fire  adopted  the  system  also,  and  in 
the  course  of  twenty  years  the  p/ractice  became  common  with  all  large  and 
aspiring  companies.  The  city  which  invented  it,  of  course,  profited  by  it  the 
first,  and  proportionately  the  most. 

Every  thing  went  swimmingly  with  the  companies  up  to   the  year  iS;,;. 


fc.-i 


\'  ■ 


OF    rilE    UNITED    STATES. 


827 


\i-'ntiirc,  and 

lany  i,,,-  i],,. 

'lii'ty  dollar, 

iiipKnc,  thr 

•     l>y  i.Sjo 

iHisinch-,  1,1 

^rcai  ((111 

of  iriiili.iii, 

wu  inillioii,, 

ic-crn.       I'll, 

5l,000,(K)<), 

!<-'  risks  U(.-i\' 
-s  were  Well 
00;  and  till- 
incdiiK'  (jf 
'Vc-Tc  all  paid 
in  the  form 
of  the  Hart 
lion  of  other 
the  l'roie(  - 
-nix  in  1S54. 
)sses   caused 
the  city  of 
11    operation, 
)crty   to   the 

to  a  cause, 
ought  about 
til  the  .I'tna 
's  had  been 
as  as  inu(  ii 
K'  town.dr'i 
.irs   to   hav, 
d  ohtaininy 
ew-luigland 
lether  it  did 
1  cnornious 
Use,  and  in 
I   large  -xwA 
d  hy  it   the 

year  1S55. 


The  coiiiputalion  of  the  average  miniber  of  losses  in  the  year  and  the  adjust- 
ment of  premiums  tiiereto  was  effectively  done,  and  tlie  companies  Great  fire 
had  themselves  alone  to  blame  if  they  did  not  make  money.  °' '^35- 
They  did  make  money,  and  new  and  rival  organizations  were  continually 
coming  into  the  field  to  reap  a  part  of  the  golden  harvest  they  were  gathering. 
Ill  i(S35  the  first  severe  blow  was  struck  at  the  insurance  interest  by  the  great 
fire  in  the  city  of  New  York  on  tiie  night  of  Dec.  16.  By  noon  of  Dec.  1 7,  'iwi 
hundred  and  twenty-nine  stores  and  forty-one  other  buildings  in  that  city, 
sduth  of  Wall  Street,  were  burned  ,  the  ground,  and  left  in  smoking  ruins, 
and  $15,000,000  worth  of  pro[)erty  l)ad  been  consumed.  This  totally  imex- 
piH  ted  and  overwhelming  visitation  vviped  out  of  existence  every  one  of  the 
fire-insurance  companies  of  New-York  City  (twenty-six  in  number)  except  the 
North  River,  the  (Greenwich,  and  the  liowery,  .\11  of  their  $9,450,000  of 
(ai)ital  which  could  l;c  made  available,  together  with  $3,000,000  placed  by 
them  in  Boston  and  elsewhere,  was  consumed  in  paying  the  losses.  They 
jiaid  over  every  cent  of  money  they  could  realize  from  their  assets  ;  and  twenty- 
three  companies  either  wound  up  their  affairs  entirely,  or  Ijegan  business  again 
with  capital    freshly  sub- 

s(  ribed,     and     upon     an  .^^         >-..at     -^    -- 

entirely  new  foundation. 
This  calamity  produced  a 
sensation  in  the  United 
States  more  extraordina- 
ry even  than  the  greater 
fire  at  Chicago  in  I1S71, 
for  the  reason  that  fire- 
insurance  was  new  in  this 
country  :  and  from  the 
experience  of  the  pre- 
ceding twenty  years,  and 
the  brilliant  success  of  a 
few  notable  companies, 
])ublic  confidence  in  the 
companies  had  become 
excited  to  a  degree  which 
has  never  been  paralleled 
in     the     history    of    the 

I  nited  States.  Insurance  had  come  to  be  considered  so  safe,  that  the  courts 
li  ul  been  in  the  habit  of  directing  explicitly  that  trust-funds  and  savings 
siiould  be  invested  in  the  stock  of  the  companies.  The  best  men  of  the 
day  had  given  the  weight  of  their  sanction  to  these  investments,  and  widows 
ind  orphans  had  put  large  sums  of  their  money  into  the  stocks  of  these 
<  omijanies  in  order  to  dei)Osit  it  where  it  would  certainly  be  secure  and  remu- 


HAKTl-OKU    FlUli-INSL'KANCE  CO.MI'ANV. 


u-  \         li 


i 


Wmi' 


828 


INDUSTRIAL    lllSTOKY 


1 


l»lii^ 


nerative.  The  re-action  after  the  fire  of  1S35  was  ronsequently  (Ircadfiil. 
'I'he  wliolc  country  stood  aghast.  I'ubhc  confulcnco  in  tlic  joint-st()(  k  .  nni- 
panies  was  prutoiindly  shaken;  and  so  miicli  did  (■a[)itahsts  distrust  ilmn, 
that  new  companies  could  not  l)e  f(jrmt;(l  fast  enougii  to  re-insuic  iIk- 
property  which  iiad  l)cen  dei)rive(l  of  protection  by  the  faihu-e  of  the  N\\v- 
York  societies.  'I'he  danger  of  concentrating  the  risks  of  a  -onipany  in  <  iiics 
was  made  apparent,  and  altogether  a  new  aspect  was  given  to  the  wholf 
business. 

Uliat   httle  faith  in  tlie  stock-system  was  left   after  tlie    lire   of   iS^-   w.k 
badly  shattered  bv  the  New-York  .ire  of  1X45,  when  four  hiuidixil 

Fire  of  1845.  ,  .  '  .        ,       ,        .  .    , 

and  iitty  buikhngs  ui  the  busmess-c -ntre  ot  tlie  city  were  {ieslnnril, 
and  $6,000,000  of  pr()|)erty  lost,  —  an  incident  which  brought  about  a  fivsli  ioi 
of  insurance  bankruptcies. 

The  fi>  '  of  1S35  (anil  incidentally  that  of  1845)  had  two  important  coiisc- 
Conse-  ([uences  :    one  was  the  improvement  of  the  apparatus  in  use  for 

quences  of  extinguishing  fires;  the  other  was  the  formation  of  a  vast  niini- 
these  fires.  j^^^^.  ^j-  ,^^^,^^^.^l  fire-insurance  companies  'n  all  parts  of  the  ( ountiy. 
With  relerence  to  the  first  matter,  it  may  be  said  that  't  was  through  the  iulln- 
Fire-  ence  of  the  companies  that  attention  was  now  drawn  to  the  sulijc(t 

apparatus.  gf  ^team  firc-cngines,  to  that  of  paid  fire  departments,  and  to  tlie 
need  of  city  water-works.  The  insurance  companies  of  New  \'ork  L'a\e  an 
Fire-  order  in  1840  to  have  a  steam  fux'-engine  Iniilt,  and  one  was  built 

engines.  |,y   \\y    Hodges,  and  tested,  in   behalf  of    the   companies  ;    ami 

inventors,  'hen  being  set  to  work  at  the  subject,  soon  had  practical  steam  fire- 
engines  in  operation  in  various  parts  of  the  coimtry.  The  ("roton  water  was 
introduced  to  New  York  in  1S42.  I'aitl  fire  departments  in  the  principal  ( ilies 
Paid  fire  de-  were  slower  of  introiluction  ;  l)ut  they  came  along  ill  a  few  yeai>, 
partments.  m-,j  niostly  through  the  efforts  of  the  companies.  By  1862  all 
large  cities  had  them  except  New  York,  and  the  system  was  introduced  there 
in  1865.  liesides  using  their  inOuence  to  secure  these  things,  the  underwriters 
did  one  thing  more.  In  1839  the  companies  in  New  York  organized  and 
employed  a  paid  fire  patrol,  which  has  ever  since  been  in  active  and  successful 
operation,  and  has  been  of  incalculable  benefit  for  the  preser\ation  of  property. 
Boston,  Philadeli)hia,  CMiicago,  and  other  cities,  organized  similar  patrols  in 
imitation  of  New  York.  Their  cost  is  a  mere  fraction  of  the  value  of  the 
property  whiih  would  be  destroyed  without  the  agency  of  their  services.  The 
celebrated  London  Corps  was  organized  by  ("apt.  Shaw  of  the  Fire  Brigade  of 
that  metropolis,  after  witnessing  the  performances  of  the  Insurance  Patrol 
of  New  York.  The  underwriters  also  effected  a  salutary  change  in  tin' 
combustible  character  of  buildings,  by  their  action  in  regard  to  rates  of  insur- 
ance, &c. 

The  second  immediate  effect  of  the  fire  of  1835  was  the   formation  of  a 
large  number  of  mutual  insurance  companies.     There  had  been  some  discoii- 


Oh     THE    I'XITF.n    STATES. 


839 


'Ircadfiil. 
'tock  .1111). 
'list  tlniii, 
IllMllC      lin- 

Ihr   N\w- 
!>■  in  (  iti(.-s 
tlif   \\ii,,le 

11"  hllllillrd 

•  IcslroNfi], 

fant  coiisc- 
in  use  lor 
vast  uuni- 
L'  rouiitl'V. 
the  iiillii- 

tlU'    SIlhJLTt 

uid  to  ilii,. 
k  L'iUc  an 
c  was  liiiih 
mics ;  and 
steam  liiv- 

watcr  was 
cipal  ( itics 
few  years, 
S  X862  all 
iced  there 
itlerwriteis 
iiized  and 
successful 
"property, 
patrols  in 
uc  of  the 
ces.  The 
rigade  of 
CO  Patrol 
jc    in   the 

of  insur- 

tion  of  a 

e  discon- 


tent in  the  public  mind  at  the  j<jint-stock  system,  because  of  the  imlimited 
|io\v'.T  which  it  conferred  on  the  compmies  for  making  money  from  Formation 
the  public  without  imposing  a  corresponding  liability,  i'or  instance,  of  mutual 
a  (  om|)any  would  be  formed  with,  say,  $150,000  capital,  of  which  '=°'"P''"'"" 
ten  per  cent  would  be  paid  in  at  the  start,  and  [jossibly  the  whole  of  it  within 
the  cxnirse  of  a  few  years.  Upon  this  slender  basis  of  capital  the  company 
would  proceed  to  erect  a  colossal  to|)-heavy  superstructure  of  risks,  frequently 
amounting  from  $5,000,000  to  $10,000,000.  'l"he  company  would  assess  the 
|)olicy-holders  from  $50,000  to  $100,000  a  year,  and  from  that  sum  of  i)renii- 
iiins  would  pay  the  occasional  losses  by  fire  occurring  year  by  year,  amounting 
generally  from  $40,000  to  $60,000  a  year.  The  company  would  then  put  a 
portion  of  the  profits  into  a  surplus  guaranty-fund,  and  divide  the  rest,  thus 
making  an  exceedingly  handsome  thing  of  it.  The  stockholders  of  that  class 
of  companies  used  to  get  their  whole  capital  back  in  di\  idends  every  four 
years.  At  the  end  of  twenty  years  a  great  fire  might  occur  which  would  bring 
upon  the  company  a  loss  of  $2,000,000.  The  concern  wouKl  have  its 
$150,000  of  capital,  perhaps  $200,000  of  surplus  fimd,  and  $100,000  of 
receipts  for  premiums  for  the  then  current  year,  in  all  $450,000,  with  which  to 
meet  a  two-million-dollar  loss.  The  stockholders  would  have  no  liability 
beyond  the  $450,000  ;  and  though  they  had  enjoyed  the  benefit  of  large 
profits  for  twenty  years,  and  had  got  the  amount  of  their  investment  back 
several  times  over,  the  policy-holders  could  not  compel  them,  in  the  hour  of 
their  extremity,  to  restore  one  cent  of  the  gains  dius  accpiired,  and  save  the 
owners  of  the  burned  property  from  loss  beyond  the  amount  of  the  $450,000 
referred  to.  After  the  fire  of  i<S;55,  when  the  field  was  cleared  so  suddenly  of 
insurance  companies,  the  current  feeling  toward  joint-stock  concerns  foimd 
expression  immediately  in  a  demand  for  mutual  charters.  Under  this  system 
the  corporation  has  no  capital  :  the  losses  are  paitl  from  the  premiums,  as  in  the 
original  Philadelphia  Contributionship,  and  the  i)rofits  are  divided  among 
the  policy-holders.  No  greater  security  was  gained  than  under  the  other 
s\stem  ;  but  the  policy-holders  who  paid  the  premiums  secured  their  share  of 
the  profits,  and  thus  got  a  part  of  the  benefits  of  the  system  which  was  sus- 
tained by  their  money,  and  theirs  alone.  The  security  was  as  good,  after  a  few 
years,  as  under  the  joint-stock  plan  ;  for  all  the  surplus  was  transferred  to  a 
ynaranty-fund,  and  a  capital  thus  created.  The  sole  weak  ])oinl  of  the  sys- 
tem was  the  danger  that  a  heavy  loss  might  occur  in  the  first  few  years  of  the 
mutual  concern.  This  danger  was  met  by  the  formation  of  mixed  companies, 
with  a  capital  subscribed,  which  could  be  called  on  in  case  of  emergency ;  the 
Imsiness  being  conducted  otherwise  upon  the  mutual  plan. 

The  rage  for  mutual  companies  manifested  itself  first  in  New-York  State, 
where  a  largo  number  of  buildings  were  left  without  insurance  by  the  bank- 
rni)tcy  of  the  existing  companies,  and  where  diere  was  a  demand  for  new 
corporations  ac-ordingly.      In    i8;,5   there   were  only  five  applications  to  the 


;i.ii 


.'iWr 


S,^o 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


I 


L^  fj^i^r... 


*-.fl 


'  I  ■  i'i.i. . 


legislature  for  insurancc-chartt-rs  ;  hut  in  i(S36  there  were  over  fifty,  om  halt 
Their  "^  K\\^i\w  bciii},'  for  imilual  companies  ;  and,  durint,'  that  and  tlu-  f,,l- 

growth  in  lowing  year,  forty-four  charters  were  granted  for  the  organi/alion  .,f 
New  York,  ^j^^^  ^.|^^^  ^j-  ,.()„,.^.r^s.  'J"hc  applications  cavne  principally  from  liic 
inland  cities  and  towns  of  the  State,  where  the  people  resolved  to  separate  tin.- 
fortunes  of  their  property,  as  far  as  possible,  from  the  special  hazards  and  ( on- 
centrated  risks  o'i  large  cities.  The  excitement  over  mutual  companies  sood 
Their  spread  extended  to  Other  States.  During  the  next  ten  years  they  miilti- 
in  other  plied  rapidly  throughout  New  I'Jigland  and  all  tlie  Middle  .Stale-,, 

'"'"■  and  the  idea  was  ailopted  throughout  the  West,  where  a  field  for 

business  was  just  opening.  The  mutual  plan  was  extremely  popular.  ])e(  jim- 
in  the  rural  communities,  where  capital  was  scarce,  companies  could  be  fdiiiuil 
without  its  aid  ;  and,  in  the  cities,  those  wlio  paid  heavy  premiums  for  iusunun  e 
received,  in  return,  part  of  the  profits  (jf  the  business.  As  has  already  been 
indicated,  this  rage  for  mutual  companies  receivetl  a  new  imi)etus  in  1845  from 
the  six-milhon-dollar  fire  of  that  year  in  New  York.  The  failure  of  more  of 
the  Eastern  joint-stock  companies  was  the  result  of  the  fire  ;  and,  as  these 
companies  had  had  agencies  in  different  parts  of  the  country,  the  lo(  alities 
where  those  agents  had  offices  were  deprived  of  insurance  accordingly.  Incal 
comjianies  upon  the  mutual  plan  were  found  to  fill  the  gap  thus  created.  New- 
Orleans,  which  had  theretofore  depended  on  the  agency  system,  was  one  of  the 
sections  which  now  organized  mutuals  for  fire,  marine,  and  life  jnirposes.  'Hie 
mutuals  of  that  city,  by  the  way,  secured  by  their  promptitude  a  monopoly  of 
the  city  and  river  business  until  1857,  when  local  stock  companies  began  lo 
comi)ete  for  the  business. 

The  mutual  system  was  far  more  advantageous  to  the  general  jiublic  lliaii 
the  other.  When  prudently  managed,  the  companies  were  found  to  aflonl 
Advantages  ^'"ple  security,  especially  outside  of  the  large  cities,  and  the 
policy-holders  secured  protection  at  an  extremely  low  minimum  of 
expense.  The  mutual  system  grew  rapidly,  therefore,  especially  in 
the  three  great  insurance  States  of  Massachusetts,  New  York,  and  Pennsylvania. 
It  was  sdmulatcd  in  New  York  by  the  celebrated  law  of  1849,  ^vhich  was  passed 
by  the  legislature  without  one  dissenting  voice,  and  which  was  simply  flesigned 
to  be  a  general  law  to  facilitate  the  formation  of  companies  without  the  dela\  s 
consequent  upon  applying  for  a  special  charter.  That  it  did  "facilitate  "  tliini,'s 
there  is  no  question  ;  for  forty-two  companies  had  been  formed  under  the  law 
by  1853.  Growth  was  so  rapid,  that,  by  1855,  the  bulk  of  the  farm  and  villaui' 
property  in  the  three  States  above  named  was  covered  by  the  policies  of  the 
mutuals  ;  and  the  same  was  true  of  other  States. 

Unfortunately,  with  this  rapid  extension  of  a  system  which  promised  to 
Defects  in  bc  of  such  public  importance,  there  came  demoralization,  specu- 
system.  lation,  and  fraud.     The  ])rofits  of  the  companies  were  large,  and 

speculators  and  wreckers  forced  their  way  into  the  insurant'"  system  to  carry 


of  mutual 
system. 


''     ,!! 


oni'-lialt 
M(l  thv  fol- 
u/ation  ,,|" 
^  from  tiiL- 
I '.irate  till.' 
-^  and  (on- 

iiiics   SOOl} 

tlK-y  mulii- 

Ik'  Stair,, 

I  field  lor 

;ir.  l)c'(Mii  J 

l)c  foniK'd 

)r  insuraiK  e 

ready  been 

KS45  tVoiii 

>r  more  of 

d,  as  tl  r^c 

It'  localities 

gly.     Local 

ated.    New 

s  one  of  the 

wscs.     'I'lie 

lonopoly  ci" 

;s  began  i» 

public  than 
id  to  alTord 
's,  and  the 
ninimiini  of 
;?specially  in 
ennsylvania. 

was  passed 
)ly  designed 

the  (leLiys 
tatc  "  thini,s 
der  the  law 
1  and  village 
icies  of  the 

)romisetl  to 
tion,  specu- 
;  large,  and 
•m  to  carrv 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


831 


(lilt  deliberately-planned  schemes  of  oppression  and  wrong.  The  story  is  the 
sanic,  in  its  general  outline,  in  each  of  the  States  of  Pennsylvania,  New  York, 
;in(l  .Massachusetts.  Hut  the  wildest  swindling  was  in  New  V'ork.  In  that  State, 
the  law  of  1849,  which  formed  the  pattern  for  the  insurance  legislation  of  other 
St.ites,  provided  that  mutual  companies  in  New- York  and  Kings  (bounties 
niiist  not  start  without  a  hundred  applicants,  nor  with  less  than  $300,000  in 
marine  premiums,  or  $200,000  in  fire  i)remiums,  for  which  notes  must  have 
licen  already  given.  lOlsewhcre  in  the  State,  ouiy  iSioo.OMi  in  notes  were 
rciiiiired.  Any  number  of  persons  not  less  than  thirteen  might  incorporate. 
What  followed  in  New- York  State  after  that  law  is  so  well  told  in  the  report 
111  James  M.  Cook,  comptroller  of  the  State  in  the  year  1854,  that  the 
nords  of  the  report  are  copied  herewith  :  — 

"One  of  the  fundamental  errors  of  the  law  of   1849  was  '■''  '^'^^  method 
(if  aggregating   the  original    capital,  by  iilacing    no   reasonable    limit    to   the 
jinount  of  each  of  the  notes  forming  it.     Any  mutual  company   _.        .   ^, 
(lAild  l)e  formed  out  of  the  county  of  Kings  or  New  York  by  thir-   law,  evil 
teen  persons  giving  premium  notes  to  the  amount  of  jS  100,000,   "=°"''- 
tnd  actually  commence  the  business  of  insurance  without  a  dollar 
111  money,  even  while  the  property  actually  insured    'uder  the  bogus  notes  was 
of  less  value  than  the  notes  represented.     These  notes  could  be  withdrawn  by 
the  makt'rs  as  fast  as  they  could  get  bona  fide  premium  notes  froi  ,  insurers 
who  actually  desired  insurance  on  their  jjropcrty.     Thus  the  original  capital,  as 
it  was  termed,  would  disappear  exactly  in  the  ratio  that  agents  could  cajole 
real  risks  to  supply  its  place.     This  defect  is  reiiicdicd  by  the  law  of  1853, 
hy  the  wholesome  provisions  of  its  sixth  section. 

"A  greater  and  mcjre  serious  difificulty  grew  out  of  this  apparent  and 
sometimes  real  necessity  of  quickly  obtaining  policies  to  supply  the  place  of 
the  original  notes.  Connected  with  this  process  prevailed  a  prac-  -^^^^^  j^ 
tice  at  war  with  all  sound  business-transactions:  I  mean  the  modeof  pay- 
practice  of  paying  both  officers  and  agents  by  the  policy,  instead  '"^° 
of  fixed  salaries.  Let  me  describe  the  results  flowing  from  this  method  of 
husiness.  Competition  reduced  the  amount  for  which  the  note  should  have 
lucn  taken ;  and,  for  the  same  reason,  the  cash  percentage  .vas,  of  course,  too 
small  for  the  risk.  Business  increased  with  the  reduction  of  the  cost  of 
insurance,  both  in  the  amount  received  in  notes  and  in  cash  payments. 
A^jents  redoubled  their  activity,  as  the  measure  of  their  pay  depended,  not 
i>n  the  qualities,  but  on  the  number,  of  the  notes  they  obtained  ;  not  ctw  the 
kind  of  buildings,  or  the  amount  insured  thereon  ;  a  farm  was  as  good  for  their 
purpose  and  for  their  profit  as  a  modern  fire-proof  store.  Salaries  increased 
ftn  the  officers  with  such  magical  celerity,  that  time  was  flying  almost  too  fast 
to  even  sign  policies.  Soon  losses  came,  as  come  they  will ;  and  the  money 
received  to-day  was  paid  for  the  losses  of  yesterday.  The  happy  Paul  of 
to-day  paid  the  percentage  upon  his  premium  note  which  was  to  insure  his 


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Hiotographic 

Sciences 

Corporation 


23  WEST  MAIN  STREET 

WEBSTER,  N.Y.  14580 

(716)  872-4503 


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«32 


JA'D  US  TNI  A  r.    JUS  TOR  Y 


property  for  five  years,  without  the  remote  suspicion  that  he  was  to  he  the 
sorrowful  Peter  of  a  comparative  to-morrow.  '  All  went  merry  as  a  marria"c- 
bell.'  Soon  everybody  within  their  control  in  the  respective  beats  of  ai;Liu> 
was  insured ;  new  fields  and  new  agents  were  sought :  but  distance  lent  no 
enchantment  to  the  view  presented  by  the  agents,  or  perliaps  a  new  am,. 
petition  was  created  by  some  envious  neighbor.  The  numl)er  of  poIi(  ics 
began  to  fall  off;  the  receipts  of  cash  on  premium  notes  for  the  percent ai^f 
became  'small  by  degrees,  and  beautifully  less;'  property  would  burn  up; 
and  the  managers  began  to  doubt  the  pohcy  of  taking  any  but  farni-iisks. 
The  summit  level  of  folly,  spurred  on  by  avarice,  had  been  reached;  and. 
as  the  ascent  was  with  the  speed  and  splendor  of  the  rocket,  the  cksdnt. 
as  a  matter  of  course,  was  like  the  stick  that  guided  it  upward.  Tax  uijon 
tax  followed  in  quick  succession  upon  their  premium  notes,  amid  the  niiit 
tered  curses  of  those  who  were  compelled  to  pay  them.  Credit  or  standing 
as  a  company  only  existed  as  the  snow  of  last  winter,  —  a  matter  of  rcnicni- 
brance. 

"  This  was  sometimes  followed  by  a  spasmodic  effort  to  prolong  existence. 
A  flaming  handbill  in  large  letters  is  posted,  announcing  that  "  this  company 
takes  none  but  farm-risks,"  or  that  it  has  separate  classes  of  risks,  with  a 
grand  sum  total  of  the  amount  of  tlieir  premium  notes,  and  exhibiting  a  large 
amount  of  moneys  in  the  hands  of  the  agents  and  in  the  course  of  trans- 
mission to  it.  Under  this  state  of  things,  the  agents,  with  the  sagacity  pecul- 
iar to  their  class,  retire  in  disgust  from  the  employ  of  the  company;  ami 
while  they  sing  pa;ans  to  some  younger  brother  in  whose  employ  they  arc. 
and  who  is  destined  to  the  same  foolish  and  unpitied  fiite,  they  freely  coni- 
mer.t  upon  and  express  their  doubts  as  to  the  management  and  honesty  of 
the  ^^Ider  one.  The  beginning  of  the  end  has  come.  Exeunt  oiiiiifs  of 
the  managers  of  the  company.  The  curtain  falls ;  and  a  receiver,  ippoinled 
by  the  court,  makes  his  bow  before  the  astonished  audience,  and  gives  notice 
that  the  farce  of  folly,  avarice,  and  mischief  has  ended,  and  that  the  tragedv 
of  collecting  a  sufificient  percentage  on  the  notes  to  pay  the  liabilities  of  the 
company  will  soon  begin." 

The  picture  is  faithful  to  the  life.     The  companies  in  New  York  adopted 
the  mixed  premium  and  stock-note  plan,  and  pushed  a  reckless  regency  i)iisi 
Number  of      ucss  in  different  parts  of  the  country.     In  less  than  ten  years  ot 
failures.  jj^g  passage  of  the  law,  five-sixths  of  the  companies  formed  undei- 

it  went  down,  entailing  a  loss  of  ^2,000,000  on  the  community.  Of  the  fortv 
two  organized  from  1849  to  1853,  thirty-three  were  swindles,  and  failed  out 
rageously.  By  1859  there  were  left  in  New-York  State  only  twenty-eight  ot 
the  sixty-two  mutuals  doing  business  in  1853  ;  and  of  the  twenty-eight  the 
majority  had  been  organized  under  special  charters  prior  to  1846,  and  had 
adhered  stricUy  to  the  mutual  plan.  By  i860  only  seven  of  the  nearly  sixty 
mutuals   formed   under  the  law   of   1849    still   survived  in   New-York  State. 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


^2>h 


Twcnty-onc  mutuals  failed  in  I'cnnsylvania  from  1S53  to  1.S60,  owing  to  the 
saiiK'  causes  ;  tluit  is  to  say,  an  erroneous  plan  of  doing  business,  and  the 
deliberate  swindling  of  speculators  who  organized  the  companies  for  liie  sake 
of  Luge  salaries  and  i)lunder.  In  Massachusetts  the  mutual  companies  which 
wrre  formed  from  1844  to  iSOo  were  nearly  every  one  of  them  closed  by  the 
Liitcr  year  through  the  action  of  the  courts,  or  by  consolidation  with  better 
coiKerns.  Pennsylvania  was  the  <  hampion  State  of  the  intentionally  bogus 
companies ;  l)ul  scarce  any  State  in  the  iNorth  was  free  from  them. 


«fAj,!rfpii, 


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STKAM    IlIiE-IiNGINU. 


Statistics. 


It  is  difficult  to  obtain  exact  statistics  concerning  the  fire-insurance  busi- 
iiL'ss  in  ihe  United  States,  owing  to  the  al^sence  of  laws  in  many  of  the 
States  recpiiring  reports  ;  but  the  situation  in  1S60  in  the  New- 
luigland  and  Middle  States,  including  a  hundred  and  forty  com- 
|Miiies  in  the  South  and  West,  was  as  follows  :  41  7  companies ;  capital,  $40,- 
000,000  ;  cash  ])remiums  ])aid  every  year,  $25,000,000  ;  fire-risks,  $3,300,000,- 
001).  After  1S60  the  l)usiness  was  conducted  more  ])ru(lcntly  throughout  the 
tountry,  owing  to  tiie  enactment  of  judicious  laws,  and  the  establishment  of 
State  su])ervision  of  the  companies  in  New  York  ar.d  Massachusetts.  The 
insurance  department  of  the  latter  was  founded  in  1S54  ;  that  of  New  York,  in 


I 

a 


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834 


/JVD  US  TRIA  L    niS  TOR  Y 


1859.  In  imitation  of  those  two  States,  Connecticut  established  a  (lopartmoiit 
in  1866;  Ohio,  in  1867;  Iowa  and  California,  in  1S68;  Illinois  and  .\li>M)uri. 
in  1869;  Wisconsin  and  Kentucky,  in  1870;  and  Michigan,  in  1871.  'I'ln; 
wild-cat  companies  have  been  nearly  driven  out  of  existence  by  these  suc(  js- 
sive  enactments  and  the  action  taken  under  them. 

From  i860  to  the  present  time  the  growth  of  fire-insurance  has  Wvw 
generally  sounti,  though  marked  by  extraordinary  features.  The  nunilRi  of 
Fircinsur-  b'lildiiigs  ill  the  country  —  which  was  only  3,3^*2.337  in  1X50,  irM 
ance  since  4,969,692  in  i860  —  had  increased  in  1870  to  7,042,8?^  in  -iijic 
of  the  devastation  of  the  four-years'  war.  Compctiliim  and  tln' 
mutual  system  had  reduced  the  cost  of  insurance  ;  and  the  protection  (irdw,!!- 
ings,  stores,  and  factories,  by  policies  of  insurance,  had  become  nni\cr-;il. 
There  were  causes  at  work  which  compelled  the  companies  to  exercise  men 
prudence  ;  sui  h  as  the  increasing  use  of  jietroleum  for  lam|)s  and  for  li.Lihtiiu; 
fires  in  stoves,  the  lawlessness  engendered  by  the  war,  and  the  tenipiaiion  lo 
burn  heavily-insuretl  property  for  the  sake  of  securing  the  insnran(  '•.  Hut 
these  dangers  were,  on  the  whole,  offset  by  the  general  adoption  of  steam  liri'- 
engincs  and  paid  fire  dei)artments  throughout  the  coimtry,  and  the  ,i;eiier,il 
erection  of  fire-proof  buildings.  When  the  war  was  approaching  a  dose,  ihe 
prospects  of  the  fire-insurance  business  were  bright,  and  the  companies  were 
hopeful  and  happy.  With  the  burning  of  Charleston,  S.C..  and  the  loss  of 
$7,ooo,ooc  of  property  thereupon,  and  the  destruction  of  other  Southern  ( ities 
in  that  last  year  of  the  war,  there  began  a  series  of  losses  by  fire  in  this  eonntrv 
such  as  had  never  been  seen  on  the  face  of  the  earth.  During  the  year  endiiiL,' 
May  I,  1865,  over  ^50,000,000  of  property  was  burned  in  the  United  St,;te., 
mostly  in  the  South  of  course,  only  $5,000,000  of  it  being  in  the  North.  This 
loss  fell  generally  on  the  English  companies  and  on  a  few  Southern  companies, 
many  of  the  latter  being  crushed  by  their  losses.  On  July  4,  1866,  a  fire 
broke  out  in  the  city  of  Portland,  Me.,  caused  by  a  boy's  fire-cracker,  whii  h 
burned  out  $10,000,000  worth  of  property  in  the  business  quarter  of  the  ( ity. 
This  was  a  heavy  blow  to  the  New-Mngland  companies;  but  il  was  an  '"airy 
nothing"  compared  with  the  experience  of  1S71,  1872,  and  1873.  l''roni  iSr/j 
the  daily  rec'.rd  of  losses  became  so  large,  that,  in  the  country  at  large,  the 
companies  were  called  upon  annually  to  make  good  losses  amounting  to 
$10,000,000  or  more.  This  was  sufficiently  serious ;  but  in  1871  came  the 
shock  of  a  great  calamity.  On  Oct.  7  of  tiiat  year  one  of  the  most  destructive 
fires  which  had  ever  occurred  in  Chicago  had  broken  out  and  been  subihieil. 
On  Sunday  evening,  Oct.  8,  a  barn  caught  fire  (owing,  it  was  said  at  ihc 
time,  to  the  kicking  over  of  a  milk-pail  and  a  lamp  by  a  cow)  at  the  jum  timi 
of  I)e  Koven  and  Jefferson  Streets,  in  an  inflammable  part  of  the  city  ;  and.  at 
the  end  of  two  days,  more  property  had  been  consumed  than  in  the  historic 
London  fire  of  1666.  In  London  13,000  buildings  were  burned,  covering 
500  acres;  and  the  loss  was  $50,000,000.     In  Chicago  17,450  buildings  were 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


835 


burned,  covering  a  tract  about  four  miles  long  by  one  wide,  an  area  of  2,124 
acres,  and  wortli  with  their  contents,  at  a  moderate  calculation,  ;$  160,000,000. 
Thi-,  was  a  (juarter  of  f  he  total  actual  valuation  of  the  real  and  personal  property 
of, the  city,  which  in  187 1  was  only  $620,000,000.  'I'he  fire  rendi,'red  98,500 
puople  iiomeless,  50,000  of  them  leaving  the  city  within  a  few  weeks ;  and  250 
lives  were  lost.  On  the  burned  property  tiiere  was  ;f;98,ooo,ooo  of  insurance, 
,»;2  ^.000,000  of  it  being  by  New-York  companies.  The  total  loss  was  dis- 
tributed among  two  hunilred  comi)anies,  of  whom  sixty-four  failed  in  conse- 
(Hunce  of  their  losses,  i^leven  of  the  companies  were  in  Chicago,  sixteen  in 
New  York,  five  in  Hartford,  five  in  Providence,  four  in  Eoston,  three  in  San 
Francisco,  and  ihe  rest  scattered  all  over  the  country.  Only  about  $49,000,000 
were  realized  by  the  policy-holders.  Chicago's  actual  loss,  including  loss  of 
business  and  depreciation  of  property,  was  estimated  at  fully  $150,000,000. 
Two  fires  in  IJoston  followed  tl.i:,  calamity.  One  began  Nov.  9,  1872,  and  in 
thirty-six  hours  destroyed  750  buildings,  worth,  with  their  contents,  $80,000,000 
(the  wares  in  them  being  valued  at  $60,000,000),  upon  which  there  was  an 
insurance  of  $56,000,000.  Fourteen  lives  were  lost  by  the  fire.  In  Boston 
the  fire  was  remarkable,  because  it  swept  away  a  large  number  of  imposing 
granite  edifices  which  had  been  deemed  absolutely  fire-proof.  A  larger  pro- 
])orti()n  of  the  insurance  was  [)aid  in  the  case  of  this  fire,  and  again  there 
\va^  a  wiping-out  of  companies.  .Another  fire  occurred  in  Boston  in  1S73, 
(k^lrcjyiug  property  worth  $1,500,000,  insured  for  $1, 100,000.  Thirty-two 
companies  closed  their  doors  in  conse(;uence  of  the  Bos'.on  fires,  twenty-six 
being  Massachusetts  companies,  and  twenty-two  of  the  latter  number  being^ 
joint-stock  concerns,  leaving  only  eleven  joint-stock  companies  in  Massa- 
cliusctts.  These  great  calamities  have  been  succeeded  cv-er  since  by  a  num- 
ber of  smaller  ones  in  other  parts  of  the  country.  Two  or  three  million-dollar 
fires  have  taken  place  in  New  York,  and  one  or  two  in  Chicago.  One  in 
Pittsburgh  was  more  disastrous,  and  the  number  of  small  fires  swells  the  yearly 
aggregate  now  to  about  $10,000,000. 

Tliis  is  an  extraordinary  record  ;  and,  shouUl  t!ie  history  of  the  next  twenty 
years  present  a  similar  picture  of  destruction,  it  will  become  a  problem,  whether 
fire-insurance  can  continue  to  jirospcr.  It  is  confidently  believed,  however, 
that  the  calamities  of  Chicago,  Boston,  New  York,  and  Pittsburgh,  have  now 
called  such  attention  to  the  subjects  of  the  architecture  of  cities,  watcr- 
sup[)ly,  patrols,  and  fire-apparatus,  that  the  chances  o(  any  other  great  city 
being  entirely  or  even  partially  destroyed  by  fire  during  this  generation  are 
Very  much  diminished. 

In  1876  the  fire-insurance  companies  of  the  United  States  had  increased 
to  eight  hundred  and    fifty-one,  including  thirty-four  foreign  com-   Companies 
panics  doing  business  here.     From  the  following  table  no  idea  is   '"  ^^^^• 
piincd  of  the  comparative  importance  of  the  insurance  interest  in  the  various 
States  ;  as  Connecticut,  for  example,  transacted  more  business  than  several  other 


>        J 


\  ij 


m 


m 


I  1 


mm 


836  INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 

States  which  had  a  much  larger  list  of  companies.    They  were  distributed  as 
follows :  — 

Alal)ama 11 

California 7 

Cunnccticut 31 

Delaware 4 

District  of  Columbia it 

Geor^^ia •        ....  6 

Illinois 9 

Iiuliana 5 

Iowa 7 

Kansas 2 

Kentucky 13 

Louisiana 17 

Maine 42 

Maryland iK 

Massachusetts 85 

Michigan 40 

Minnesota 2 

Mississippi 1 

Missouri 29 

New  Hampshire 37 

New  York 121 

North  Carolina 2 

Ohio 5S 

Pennsylvania 177 

Rhode  Island 24 

South  Carolina i 

Tennessee 13 

Texas 7 

Vermont 6 

Virginia 16 

West  Virginia 6 

Wisconsin 9 

Foreign 34 

Total S51 

The  risks  assumed  by  these  companies  amount  to  something  over  Si 0,000,- 
000,000,  the  people  of  the  United  States  paying  for  this  protection  a  siiin 
variously  estimated  from  $100,000,000  to  $150,000,000  yearly.  This  is  indeed 
a  very  heavy  tax  to  pay  in  order  to  be  secure  from  the  conseciuences  of  one's 
own  negligence,  or  the  accidents  or  wrong-doing  of  others ;  but  human  nature 
is  such  a  poor  thing,  that  no  man  is  regarded  as  prudent  now-a-days  who  does 
not  carry  a  proper  amount  of  insurance  upon  his  houses,  barns,  factories,  shi])s, 
or  merchandise.  It  is  a  very  rare  thing  to  see  a  structure  of  any  sort,  ])os- 
sessing  much  value,  tliat  is  not,  in  part  at  least,  insured  ;  though  occasionally 
an  insurance-fund  is  accumulated  by  companies  out  of  which  they  reinibnrse 
themselves  whenever  losses  arise.  The  following  was  the  business  done  by  a 
few  of  the  principal  companies  in  1875  •  — 


'•■.fl 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


837 


COMPANY. 


1819  /Ktiia  (Hartford)     . 

,u.v  S  Agricultural  Insurance  Co.  | 
"1  I      (Watcrtown,  N.V.)  .         ) 
1S5:  Continental  (Hartford)    . 

1820  K ire  Association  (I'hihulclpliia) 
i8;f)  Franklin  Fire  (I'liiladclphia)  . 
1S59  (Icrmania  (New  York)    . 

1S50  (lien's  Fall.s((;icn's  Falls,  N.V.) 

185::  Hanover  (New  York) 

iSio  Hartford  (Hartford) 

iSjj  lloinc  (.\cw  \'ork) . 

I  Insurance    Co.    of    North  | 
I      America  (Philadelphia)     ' 

iS49iNiagara  (New  \'ork) 

1S25  Pennsylvania  (Philaddpiiia)    . 

185.4  Pha'nix  (Hartford) 

i8()7  XVatertown  (\Vat<  rtown,  ?<I.Y.) 

o,.   \  Westchester     (New     Ro-  | 
•"  i  I      chelle,  N.Y.)     .        .         ) 


■794 


$3,000,000 
200,000 

1,000,000 
500,000 
400,000 
500,000 
200,000 
500,000 
1 ,000,000 
3,000,000 

1,000,000 

500,000 
400,000 
600,000 
200,000 

200,000 


INCOME. 


56,878,000 
1 ,058,000 

2,845,000 
3,457,000 
3,308,000 
1,710,000 
747,000 
1,592,000 
3,032,000 
6,047,000 

5,167,000 

1,465,000 

t, 557,000 

1 ,950,000 

694,000 

823,000 


I.OSSKS 
VEAK. 


$4,097,000'$: 
542,000 

1,677,000 
1,341,000 
1,208,000 
992,000 
338,000 
1,044,000 
2,066,000 
3.393.000 

3,351,000 

864,000 

677,000 

1,556,000 

352,000 

807,000 


KISKS  IN 
KURCK. 


1,059,000 
267,000 

733.000 
507,000 
586,00c 

378,oof 
187,000 
433.000 
998,000 
1,682,000 

863,000 

469,000 
3 1 6,000 
871,000 
187,000 

402,000 


$269,984,000 
206,471,000 

195,168,000 

1 36,990,000 

65,380,000 

86,814,000 

■5,192,000 

.6,948,000 

139,965,000 

356,804,000 

174,596,000 

67,338,000 

63,537,000 
115,826,000 
109,193,000 

72,112,000 


Perhaps  forty  other  companies  take  risks  amounting  to  from  $20,000,000  to 
$50,000,000.  All  the  rest  do  a  business  of  under  $20,000,000.  The  above 
table  very  fliirly  illustrates  the  proportion  of  assets  and  receipts  to  losses  and 
risks  common  in  all  companies. 

LIFE. 

We  now  come  to  another  branc  of  the  insurance-business  which  has  had 
its  own  independent  growth  and  iu-tory,  and  which  has  passed  through 
vicissitudes  as  unifpie  and  interesting  as  the  others. 

Life-insurance  in  this  country  is  as  ancient  in  its  origin  as  the  fire  and 
marine  branches.     It  was  introduced  in  a  modified  form  as  early   introduc- 
as  1769.    On  the  7lh  of  February  of  that  year,  the  proprietaries  of  tion  of  life- 
IVnnsylvania  appear  to  have  issued  letters-patent  to  a  company 
called  "The  Corporation  for  the  Relief  of  the  Widows  and  Children  of  Clergy- 
men of  the  Communion  of  the  C'hurch  of  England  in  .America."     The  object 
of  this  society  was  to  secure  to  the  widows  and  children  of  clergymen  the 
I^iyment  of  an  annuity  after  the  death  of  the  contributor.     The  contributors 
paid  eight,  sixteen,  or  twenty-four  dollars  per  annum,  as  they  pleased  ;  and,  if 
fifteen  annual   payments  had  been   made,  their  families  thereby  secured  an 
annuity  of  five  times  the  amount  of  the  annual  payment,  —  forty,  eighty,  or  one 
hiuidred  and  twenty  dollars,  as  the  case  might   be.     If  the  number  of  pay- 
ments was  less  than  fifteen,  the  annuity  was  reduced  accordingly.     Charters 


838 


liXn  [  \S  TNI  A  I.    HIS  TOR  )  • 


were  taken  out  for  this  society  in  New  \ork  and  New  Jersey,  and  in  i;xy 
lliey  were  renewei.  in  ail  tliree  Slates.  I'lu-  New-\'ork  and  N\w  |.i„y 
l)ra;iclies  were  afterwards  <lis( ontinned  ;  altli()iiL;ii  tlie  ( iiarters  remain  m  Im|i,._ 
it  is  believed,  to  this  day.  'I'iie  ori.L;inal  society  is  still  rnniiinL,',  thouj^li  un  a  \rry 
small  seale.  It  scarce  attracts  attention  now,  except  as  an  lii>toii(  al  cniioMiv^ 
althonyh  its  benefits  are  really  valuable,  and  are  shared  by  a  uinnljer  of  |n(  pli'. 

The  examjjle  of  I'ennsylvania  was  f<<llowed  in  Maryland  in  1784.  A  (,m- 
poration  of  llpiscopal  clergy  was  formed  on  e.xactly  the  same  plan. 

No  regular  life-business  was  done  in   this  country,  however,  until   iXu, 

The  same  feeling  against  putting  a  pric  e  \\\tuw  the  lii'e  of  a  human  beiii;,'  was 

prevalent  as  in  earlier  times  in  lairopc.     It  was  looked  upon  .^  n 

i8ia.  .  . 

speculation  whicli  the  laws  of  (lod  could  not  sanction.  llns 
prejudice  wore  away,  however,  with  time  ;  and  in  iSi  2  the  fust  life  (ompanv  of 
the  United  States  was  started.  It  was  in  Philadelphia  of  course,  llu-  City 
of  IJrolherly  L<nc  and  of  a  great  many  other  good  things  besidi^.  It  u.is 
Pennsyi-  Called  "The  Philadelphia  Company  for  Insurances  upon  la\(.>  and 
vania  granting  .Annuities."      It  had  a  capital  of   ;r!5oo,ooo,  and  ln-an 

company.  Jjusincss  in  I  Si  3,  using  the  mortality-tables  of  Dr.  Pri(  e,  wIikIi 
were  then  in  use  in  England.  This  table  passed  out  of  use  long  ago  ;  bni  it 
may  be  interesting  to  (piote  it  here  for  comparison  with  the  one  now  in  use, 
which  will  be  cited  farther  on.     It  is  as  follows  :  — 


Uirth 

5  • 

10  . 

>5  • 

20  . 

25  . 

30  • 

35  • 

40  . 

45  • 

5°  • 

55  • 

60  . 

65  . 

70  . 

75  • 


This  tal)le  was  based  upon  the  observation  of  the  average  length  of  life  of 
ten  thousand  people.     It  gave  an  excessive   mortality-rate,  however,  even  lor 


OF    77//':    CNITED    STATES. 


839 


K 


Kii,L;lan(l  ;  and  an  experience  (^{  about  twenty  years  ( .jnvinced  the  company  in 
riiiladelplua  that  it  was  excessive  also  for  tiie  Unileil  Slates.     The  company 
thcK-lore  reduced  its  premium  rates  in  iS^i.and  af,Min  in    iS^^y.    Reduction 
ilu'  lirst  tables  of  vital  statistics  in  America  made  nj)  for  insurance-   °'  '^"'"• 
imrposes  were  prei)ared  by  the  I'hiladelphia  concern  for  its  own   use  from  the 
uidrtality-reporls  ftf  the  city. 

In  I'Sjo  tiiere  became  apparent  a  ])erceptible  impuKe  toward  tlu'  forma- 
tion of  regular  companies  for  life-insuran(  e.  Si)me  of  the  U\^:  companies  had 
joined  a  limited  life-business  with  their  other  privileges:  but  the  lota!  business 
was  a  mere  thistle-blow  in  the  air  to  the  clo;;ds  above,  compared  with  the 
lm>iness  which  could  be  developed  by  regular  lite  companies  ;  and 
in  1X30  the  regular  comi)anies  began  t(j  make  their  </(/'///  upon  £,°o^,er°" 
the  stage.  'Ihe  Baltimore  Life  and  tiie  Xew-Vork  Life  and  Trust  compantcsin 
aiM)eared  in   iSjo.     in  New  York   the  Farmers'  Loan  and  'I'rust,    >83oandata 

'  '  '-'  later  date, 

incorporated  in  1S22,  revived  its  life-privileges.  \\\  I'hiladelphia 
the  (iirard  Life  and  Trust  was  chartered  in  1836,  the  (Uobe  ],ife  and  Trust 
in  1838,  and  the  Otld  l'"eilows'  Life  and  l''ire  in  1.S40.  Then,  in  the  West, 
there  was  incorporated  in  1840  the  Ohio  Life  and  Trust  of  C'incimiati  ;  in  the 
South,  the  Southern  Life  and  Trust  of  Mobile  in  1836,  and  the  ()(  can  Mutual 
Marine  and  Life  in  New  Orleans  in  1835.  The  premium-rales  of  these  com- 
panies were  about  the  same  as  the  mutual  rates  now  in  vogue.  Life-insurance 
was  scarcely  imderstood  in  the  United  States  when  the  majority  of  these  com- 
])anies  began  business.  If  the  ancient  prejudice  was  gone,  the  principles  upon 
which  life-insurance  was  based  were  not,  at  any  rate,  well  understood.  These 
companies  had  to  educate  the  public.  'I'hey  did  it  well,  and  established  the 
business  in  i)ermanent  favor  in  the  Tnited  States.  J'.y  1840  the  beneficent 
results  of  the  business  were  so  well  understood,  that  the  State  of  .New  York 
passed  a  law  by  which  the  l)enefit  of  the  policy  was  secured  to  the  wife,  free 
from  the  claims  of  her  husband's  creditors.  The  imjjortance  of  that  law  was 
seen  at  a  glance.  It  was  soon  adopted  in  other  States.  It  gave  a  great  lift  to 
the  whole  business  of  life-insurance. 

Within  seven  years  after  1840  five  great  companies  began  business  in  this 
countrv,  introducing  a  new  era  in  life-insurance.  The  first  \.o  ap[)ear  was  the 
New- York  Mutual.  It  wps  chartered  April  12,  1842,  wilii  thirty-  period  of 
six  of  the  most  prominent  merchants  of  New- York  City  as  the  '^'♦°' 
ill!  orporators.  .\spinwall  being  the  name  at  the  head  of  the  list.  There  was 
no  guaranty-capital  ;  but  the  law  recpiired  that  the  (ompany  should  not 
lirgin  business  until  it  had  received  applications  for  $500,000  of  inr^urance.  In 
order  to  make  a  sure  thing  of  it,  the  c()mj)any  waited  eight  months,  until  the 
applications  had  amounted  to  over  $700,000;  and  on  Feb.  i,  1843,  it  threw 
open  its  doors  for  business.  It  was  the  first  mutual  life  company  in  the  United 
Slates,  and  it  has  been  the  most  substantial  and  successfiil.  In  1844  the  New- 
Kngland  Mutual  was  started  in  lioston.     It  had  been  chartered  in   1835  ;  but 


i 


!4 


IfUi 


840  ixnrsTRiAr  j/istokv 

owing  to  the  monopoly  enjoyed  liy  the  Massachusetts  Hospital  and  Liti-  (\)\\\. 
pany.  ( liartered  in  1S25,  it  had  not  tlioiight  fit  to  l)e;,'in  Imsiness  helori'  tlir 
year  stated.  In  1.S41  the  NaiililiH  Company  of  New  York  was  (liartered.  wuli 
fire  and  marine  privileges.  It  (li<l  not  hej^'in  business  at  once,  l)iit  ^di  it-, 
charter  aiiu-iided  so  as  to  include  life  privileges  too.  It  open"d  its  door-,  m 
1S47,  confining  itself  to  the  life-business  entirely.  In  it.|o  its  name  \v,is 
changed  to  the  New-\'ork  Life.  'Ihe  .State  Mutual  I-ife  of  Worcester,  and  liic 
Mutual  IJenefit  of  Newark,  N.^.,  completing  the  list  of  five  gre.it  miUu.n,. 
came  into  the  field  in  1.S45. 

'The  one  objec  t  of  all  these  comi)anies  was  to  reiluce  the  c  a.-^ii  ( o-^i  ut  hi, 
insurance,  and  to  perfect  the  science  of  the  business,  so  as  to  populari/c  tin  m- 
Object  of  investments,  and  make  them  safe.  All  except  the  Mutual  |.ii< 
companies,  adojjled  the  part-note  system.  In  1846  the  ("onne(  ti(  ul  Muiiiil 
of  Hartford  was  started  upon  the  same  plan  as  the  others.  'I'hese  si\  <  mn 
panies  won  their  way  rapidly  ;  and,  in  ten  years  from  the  time  the  lust  ol'tluiu 
opened  its  doors,  they  had  <lriven  every  other  life-insurance  company  from  tin.' 
field,  except  the  Pennsylvania,  the  (lirard,  and  Corporation  of  i'-piscop.il  (  K  r:;y 
in  Pennsylvania.     'I'hese  three  survive,  as  do  the  six  pioneer  mutuals. 

With  1S46  the  record  of  unsuccessfu'  life  companies  begins.  'I'lu'  Mutii.il 
Life  of  lialtimore  was  founded  in  that  year,  but  was  unable  to  get  busiiu'>N 
Fate  of  ''^'''''  '^^  disappeared  in   five   years.     In    1847  six  comi)anies  wnc 

various  formed;    but  only  one,  tlv.'    I'enn   Mutual   of    Philadelphia,  now 

companies.  j;,|i\ives.  Five  companies  were  started  in  1848  :  three  of  tlum 
were  in  Philadelphia,  and  they  soon  disappeared:  two  of  them  —  the  riiioii 
Mutual  of  Maine,  and  th.e  National  of  Vermont  —  were  successful.  In  iS.j; 
three  companies  started  in  Louisiana,  and  one  each  in  North  Carolina,  Nrw 
Jersey,  and  Connecticut;  but  they  soon  dissolved.  In  1850  twelve  more  \\\iv 
chartered,  —  two  of  them  in  the  South,  and  two  in  the  West.  Seven  of  thnn 
soon  failed,  reinsured  in  other  companies,  and  went  out  of  sight.  'Ihe  oilu  r 
five,  all  in  the  luist,  survived.     The  situation  in  1850  was  as  follows ;  — 

COMIWII.i. 

Connecticut (> 

I'cnnss  l\ani;i i :; 

Marvl.uul 

Louisiana        ............  .j 

New  Jersey 3 

Ohio 'z 

Kentucky 2 

New  "/ork 5 

Massnciuisctts 3 

Vermont i 

Nuitii  Carolina ,        .        .        .  ! 

Georgia I 

Maine     .                 i 

Foreign 3 

Total 47 


Of  ih 

bciiiK  the 
j-'durtei'ii 
next  five 
panies  th 
came  up 
oil  the 
Imildings 
ini-'s  and 
(iinipany 
over  six 
hv  them 


OF    THE    CMTtlO    STATES. 


841 


Of  this  ntinihcr  twenty  oij^lit  have  since  rloscd  or  withdrawn,  throe  of  them 
iK'iii^'  the  roreij,'n  coniiMniis.  Ilu-  year  1^50  w.is  very  priilifif  in  coniiMnies. 
l-'diirteen  were  started,  and  al)()iit  as  many  more  sprang;  up  in  the  Their  faie 
next  five  years.  The  comiJetition  en;;tndered  liy  liu'^e  new  loni  »ince  1850. 
p.iMies  threw  llie  whole  lU  Id  of  life-insurance  into  (onniiotion.  Companii's 
canie  up  hke  niu^lirooms  year  after  year,  and  suddenly  appeared  Mode  of  iio- 
(111  the  princi|)al  streets  of  cities,  with  j^ilded  sif,'ns,  and  showy  'ng  bu»ines«. 
liiiildin^s  paved  in  colored  tiles,  ami  ornamented  with  frescos  and  hron/e  rail- 
inus  and  statuary,  with  porters  in  unilorm  to  re(eise  tlie  visitor;  one  New-N'ork 
company  hiring  a  gigantic  colored  c.x-meniher  ol  the  South-Carolina  legislature, 
over  six  feet  high,  to  act  in  that  (  apacity.  .\n  army  of  agents  was  employed 
by  them  to  flood  the  country,  and  besiege  the  wealthy  to  take  out  policies  on 


NEW-Y(lHK    I.II-IC-ISSUKANCB  COMPANY. 


their  lives  ;  and  all  the  agents  were  sujiplied  with  printed  hooks  for  their 
])rjvate  contemplation,  entitled  ■•  A  l'"cw  Practical  Suggestions."  or  some  similar 
name,  containing  such  instructions  as  these  :  '•There  must  be  hard,  pcisistert 
work."  '-Talk  life-insurance  on  its  merits.  Never  let  any  man  who  has  an 
income  go  without  showing  him  that  his  life  has  a  monev  \aliie"  (a  whole 
cha])ter  being  given  to  the  work  of  showing  the  agent  how  to  put  the  case  to  a 
man).  " 'i'alk  large  amounts  ;  but  there  are  many  wealthy  men  whose  families 
would  not  suffer  in  case  of  their  death  :  these  are  the  men  who  can  best  alford 
to  ])ay  a  ])remium  ;  they  can  i)ay  for  a  handsome  insurance,  and  not  feel  it." 
"  Don't   make   too  large   promises  about  dividends."     And  so  on,  until  the 


t  " 


842 


iNDUSTNlA /.   J//S TOK V 


"  I'ractical  Siif,'ni-sti()ns"  have  covered  every  iiicli  of  the  fitld.  Thr  ( oinpaiiit  s, 
in  fact,  liad  discovered  tliat  Uu-rc  was  money  in  hfe-insiiraiK  e  ;  and  tlu-y  lir;,Mii 
a  systematic  effort  to  swill  ilic  |iiisiiic-.s  of  takin;^  risks  to  tlie  utmost  |l(l-,,lll^■ 
point,  in  order  to  reali/.e  tlurelroin  a  ninnlter  of  enormous  salaries  to  offic  1  in, 
and  the  use  of  the  surplus  funds  of  the  business  for  s|)eculation.  I'mdeui  .n\<\ 
honest  companies  did  mu«h  durinj;  this  perioil  to  i-lahorate  laliK-. of inori.iliiv 
statistics  (the  New-\'ork  Mutual  pre  eminently),  and  to  |tut  the  l)Usiness  otiu  1 
wisi-  on  a  solid  hasis  :  but  the  fever  of  sp»'(  ulation  burned  in  the  veins  ol  li.ili 
the  existinj.5  < ompanies  ;  and  the  iiusiness  was  pushed  at  a  reckless  raU  .  .unl 
on  imsoimd  and  ruinous  principles.  liy  1S60  the  withdrawals  of  coiDpinns 
had  been  as  numerous  as  their  nuilliplK  alion,  and  in  i.S()0  only  lui  iii\  \\s,, 
of  which  there  is  any  rerord  were  doinj;  business  in  the  United  States.  I  li(i>e 
twenty  two  had  outstandin.i,'  insurances  to  the  amount  of  ^^iSo.ooo.ooo  on 
Co, 000  citizens,  their  ri<eipts  of  premiums  being  ;>7,ooo,ooo  a  year. 

With  the  war,  life  insurant  e  received  a  new  imjjetus.  A  new  ni  of 
feverish  competition,  speeuhitit)n,  showy  companies,  and  ruin,  bigan.  In  1X04 
Effector  the  jiolicies  had  increased  to  5400,000,000.  In  the  next  tour 
^"-  years  seventy  new  (:om])anies  sprang  up,  and  insurances  ran  up  to 

$1,600,000,000.  Life  companies  were  the  especial  feature  of  the  teudeiiiy 
of  enterprise  in  the  West.  /MI  the  offices  were  run  on  the  highjjressure 
system.  Mr.  Hine  says,  •'Solicitors  extolled  the  merits  of  their  owit  ami 
depreciated  those  of  rival  companies  in  almost  every  town  and  village  in  tiu- 
country,  aided  by  pamphlets,  periodicals,  and  prosj)ectuses,  picturing  in  iiiag- 
nifieent  figures  the  attractive  features  of  the  new  philanthropy.  Railroads 
and  the  national  debt  were  about  the  only  things  deemed  worthy  of  (oni- 
parison  with  such  a  business.  ICxcessive  outlays  and  defective  man;'genu'nt 
were  alike  concealed  by  the  enormous  volume  of  new  business  whi(  h  i\a ry 
enterprising  office  was  able  to  report  at  the  end  of  successive  years;  and  the 
suggestions  of  speculative  re-action  and  a  ])ossible  collapse  were  unheeded  in 
the  rich  harvest  that  was  being  reaped."  The  experience  of  the  mutii.il  fire 
corporations  in  the  speculative  days  of  their  history  has  already  been  ivlaud. 
The  wild  schemes  of  the  fire  mutuals  were  now  more  than  paralleled  liv  tlir 
life  mutuals,  and  wildcat  companies  were  formed  and  jjresented  to  the  ]mMic 
eye  in  a  manner  which  forcibly  calls  to  mind  the  company  so  keenly  satirized 
by  Dickens  in  "Martin  Chuzzlewit."  One  would  imagine,  on  readin.i^ 
Dickens's  description,  that  the  satire  was  levelled  at  the  l)ul)ble  concerns  of 
America.     The  jiortrait  is  lifelike,  and  may  be  reproduced  here  :  — 

"'I'he  .Vnglo-lJengalee  Disinterested  Loan  and  Life-Insurance  ("onipauy 
started  into  existence  one  morning,  not  an  infant  institution,  but  a  growu-np 
company,  running  alone  at  a  great  pace,  and  doing  business  right  and  left ; 
with  a  '  branch '  in  a  first  floor  over  a  tailor's  at  the  west  end  of  the  town, 
and  main  offices  in  a  new  street  in  the  c  ity,  comjjrising  the  tipjier  i)art  of  a 
spacious  house  resplendent  in  stucco  and  jilate  glass,  with  wire  blinds  in  all 


JIM 


OF    11/ E    UNITED    STATES, 


«43 


till'  windows,  and  '  Anglo- Hcn{,'alcc  '  workrd  into  tho  pattern  of  every  our  of 
thfin.  On  tlu-  door-post  was  painted  aj;ain  in  large  letters,  'Offices  ol  die 
NnL'lo-liiiiLMki' I  )i>^interested  l,(ian  and  Mle-IiiiiinuK  e  ( '(,iii|)aiiv  ; '    .     ,    „ 

"  "  '        -  AmkIo  Hen- 

and  oil  the  door  was  a  large  brass  plate  willi  tlie  sauu'  niitriptioii,    uaUi- Dinin- 

.iKvivs  kept  very  bright,  as  courting  iiniiiiry,  staring  the  « iiy  out   ""«»""' 

'  ...  <->  I       y  o  .  Loan  and 

(if  I  oiinteiiance  alter  olhce-hours  on  working-<iays  and  all  day  Lik>-in»ur- 
Ioiil;  on  Sundays,  and  looking  holder  thaij  the  hank.  Wiiliin,  die  «'":<•  Com- 
()lti(  es  were  lu'wly  plastered,  newly  painte<l,  newly  p.ipiTcd,  lu'svly 
(oiMitered,  luwly  llour  <  lollied,  newly  tabled,  newly  <  haired,  newly  fitted  up  in 
every  way  with  goods  that  were  siibslanlial  and  expensive,  and  designed  (like 
thi'  company)  to  last.  iJusiness  !  —  look  at  the  green  ledgers  with  reel  backs, 
like  strong  c  ric:kel-l)alls  beaten  Hat,  the  court-guides,  the  direcioiies,  day- 
books, almanacs,  letter-boxes,  weighing-mac  hines  fur  letters,  rows  ol  buc  kets 
for  clashing  out  a  conflagration  in  its  first  spark,  and  saving  the  imuieiise  * 
wealth  in  notes  and  bonds  belonging  to  the  company.  1-ook  at  the  iron 
safes,  the  clock,  the  office-seal,  in  its  capacious  self-security  for  any  thing. 
Solidity!  —  look  at  the  massive  blocks  of  marble  in  the  chimney-pieces,  and 
the  gcjigeons  parapet  on  the  top  of  the  house.  Publicity!  —  why,  '.\iiglo- 
Ikiigalee  Disinterested  Loan  and  Life-insurance  Company'  is  painted  on 
the  very  c  oal-scuttles.  It  is  repeated  at  every  turn,  until  the  eyis  are  cl.i//led 
with  it,  and  the  head  is  giddy.  It  is  engraved  upon  the  top  of  all  tlu'  letter- 
paper,  and  it  makes  a  scroll  work  around  the  seal,  and  it  shines  out  of  the 
porter's  buttons,  aiid  is  repeated  twenty  times  in  every  circular  and  public 
notice,  wherein  one  Uavid  ("rimple,  ICscp,  secretary  and  resiclent  director,  takes 
the  liberty  of  inviting  yom*  attention  to  the  accompanying  statement  of  the 
advantages  offered  by  the  .Anglo- Bengalee  Disinterested  Loan  and  Life- 
insurance  Company,  and  fully  proves  to  you  that  any  ( onnection  on  your 
part  with  that  establishment  must  result  in  a  i)erfec;t  ("hristmas-bo.K  and 
constantly  increasing  bonus  to  yourself;  and  that  nobody  can  run  any  risk  by 
the  transaction  except  the  office,  which,  in  its  great  liberality,  is  jjietty ' 
sure  to  lose.  .  .  . 

"  Lest,  with  all  the  proofs  and  confirmations,  any  man  should  W  sus- 
picions of  the  .'\nglo- Bengalee  Disinterested  Loan  and  Life-insurance  Com- 
pany; should  doubt,  in  tiger,  cat,  or  person,  Tigg  Montague,  l',si|.  (of  Ball 
Mall  and  Bengal),  or  any  other  name  in  the  imaginative  list  of  directors, 
—  there  was  a  porter  on  the  premises  (a  wonderful  creature  in  a  vast  red 
waistcoat  and  a  short-tailed  pepper-and-salt  coat),  who  carried  nore  con- 
viction to  the  minds  of  sceptics  than  the  whole  establishment  without  him. 
No  confidences  existed  between  him  and  the  directorship  :  nobody  knew 
where  he  had  served  last  ;  no  c-haracter  or  explanation  had  been  given  or 
recpiired  ;  no  (piestions  had  been  asked  on  either  side.  This  mysterious  being, 
relying  solely  on  his  figure,  had  applied  for  the  situation,  and  hacl  been 
instantly  engaged  on  his  own  terms.     Tiiey  were  high  ;  but  he  knew,  doubtless, 


44 


.m 


844 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


that  no  man  could  carry  such  an  extent  of  waistcoat  as  himself,  and  felt  the 
full  value  of  his  capacity  to  such  an  institution.  When  he  sat  upon  a  seat 
erected  for  him  in  a  corner  of  the  office,  with  his  glazed  hat  hanL'ing  on  a 
peg  over  his  head,  it  was  impossible  to  doubt  the  respectability  ot  the  ( on- 
cern.  It  went  on  doubling  itself  with  every  square  inch  of  his  red  waistcoat, 
until,  like  the  prolilem  of  the  nails  in  the  horse's  shoes,  the  total  became 
enormous.  People  had  been  known  to  apply  to  effect  an  insurance  on  tluir 
lives  for  a  thousand  pounds,  and,  looking  at  him,  to  beg,  before  the  form  dt' 
proposal  was  filled  up,  that  it  might  be  made  two.  .  .  .  He  was  grave  wiih 
imaginary  cares  of  office;  and  having  nothing  whatever  to  do,  and  some- 
thing less  to  take  care  of,  would  look  as  if  the  pressure  of  his  numerous 
duties,  and  a  sense  of  the  treasure  in  the  company's  strong  room,  made 
him  a  solemn  and  thoughtful  man." 

With  1872  the  second  tide  of  speculation  again  ceased  to  flow,  and  tiie 
re-action  came.  Co.npanies  carelessly  conducted,  which  had  allowed  their 
Re-action  cxpeuscs,  commissious,  and  salaries  to  intrench  upon  tlieir  capital, 
since  1873.  began  to  go  down.  Collapse  followed  collapse  in  all  parts  of  the 
country.  Disaster  ./as  postponed,  in  many  cases,  by  the  officers  swearing 
deliberately  to  fiilse  statements  in  regard  to  the  assets  of  their  several  concerns. 
The  salaries  of  $20,000  and  $30,000  they  were  paying  themselves  were  too 
large  to  relinquish  withiL.t  a  fight.  But  State  supervision  was  relentless,  and 
insisted  upon  searching  examinations  into  the  affairs  of  suspected  concerns ; 
and  not  only  were  a  large  number  of  concerns  compelled  to  close  up  their  alfairs 
along  from  1S72  to  1878,  but  in  many  cases  their  officers  were  sent  to  prison 
for  deliberate  fraud  and  perjury.  Some  of  the  men  thus  summarily  and  sternly 
punished  had  occupied  prominent  places  in  the  commimity  for  integrity  and 
godly  lives.  The  losses  inflicted  upon  the  policy-holders  amounted  to  millions. 
No  sympathy  has,  therefore,  been  felt  for  the  punished  officials  of  the  bankrupt 
companies. 

This  era  of  investigating  by  State  officials,  of  failure  and  prosecution,  has 
Present  con-  again  cleared  the  air  in  life-insurance.  The  business  is  again  on  a 
dition.  sound  basis ;  and,  although  the  salaries  and  expenses  of  some  of 

the  companies  are  yet  too  large,  it  is  believed  their  affairs  are  again  in  a  healthy 
condition.  Of  course  the  business  of  life-insurance  has  received  a  tremen- 
dous shock  by  such  an  awfiil  disclosure  of  wide-spread  mismanagement,  and  il 
will  probably  be  a  long  time  before  confidence  in  the  really  sound  companies 
will  be  fully  restored.  The  innocent  cannot  help  suffering  with  the  guilty,  and 
this  trite  truth  is  emphatically  the  case  with  those  insurance  companies  whi(  h 
are  truly  worthy  of  confidence  ;  but,  in  the  end,  the  fact  that  they  i)assed 
safely  through  such  a  trying  ordeal  will  increase  the  faith  of  the  publit-  in 
their  soundness,  and  thus  naturally  bring  renewed  prosperity. 
Sixty-one  companies  are  now  doing  business  in  the  United  States, 
distributed  as  follows  :  — 


Statistics. 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES.  845 

Maine I 

Vermont 2 

Massachusetts 6 

Connecticut 9 

New  York 15 

New  Jersey I 

Pennsylvania 5 

Ohio 2 

Indiana I 

Michigan I 

Wisconsin I 

Missouri 3 

Iowa 2 

Kansas r 

Kentucl<y I 

California i 

Alabama 2 

Georgia i 

Virginia i 

Louisiana        .        .         ,         .      ' i 

Maryland I 

North  Carolina i 

District  of  Columbia 2 

Total 61 

The  policy-holders  number  about  900,000.  The  sum  of  $75,000,000  is 
paid  for  premiums,  and  $50,000,000  is  disbursed  annually  to  the  policy- 
holders. The  companies  hold  $400,000,000  of  assets,  and  have  insured  lives 
to  the  amount  of  $1,900,000,000.  No  other  nation  except  England  can  show 
such  a  record.  In  England,  in  1871,  there  were  136  life-companies,  with 
1,243,349  policy-holders,  the  risks  amounting  to  ;^30i,2i3,i44.  In  Germany, 
in  187 1  (and  this  includes  Austria  and  Switzerland),  there  were  only  thirty-six 
companies  against  ninety-one  in  the  United  States,  The  policies  were  424,- 
922  in  number  only,  and  the  insurances  401,000,000  thalers.  In  France,  in 
1871,  there  were  97.841  policy-holders  and  973,000,000  francs  of  life-insurance. 

"  The  primary  relation  of  a  company  to  its  policy-holders,"  says  C.  T. 
Lewis,  "  is  that  of  the  seller  to  the  buyer  of  insurance.     In  its  simplest  form, 
it  has  no  complications  or  difficulties  but  those  which  arise  between  every 
seller  and  his  customer.     The  company  determines  at  what  price  it  will  offer 
its  insurance  :  the  i'>urchaser  pays  the  price,  and  his  family  is  entitled  to  the 
vTinount  insured  whenever  he  dies."     In  taking  life-risks,  two  tables  are  now 
used  by  the  American  companies.     They  are  called  the  American-Experience, 
and  the  Actuaries'  or  Combined-Experience  tables.     The  former  Tables  used 
is  the  product  of  the  Mutual  of  New  York.     They  differ  from  each   in  insuring 
other  by  a  mere  fraction  only,  and  are  to  all  intents  and  purposes 
substantially  the  san'u;.     The  following  will  illustrate  the  Combined-Experience 
table :  — 


846 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


AGE. 


10 

>5 

20 

25 
30 
35 
40 

45 
50 
55 
60 

65 

70 

75 
80 

85 
90 

95 
99 


Nt'.MnKR 
OK  LIVES. 


NUMBER  OP 

DEAI'IIS  KKOM 

PRECEUlNi;  YEAR. 


EXI'KCTATIONS 
01-  LlKli. 


100,000 

96,636 

93.268 
89.835 

86,292 

82,581 
78,653 

74.435 
69.517 
63,649 

55.973 
46,754 

35.837 

24,100 

13,290 

S.417 

i.3'9 

89 


4S.36 
44.96 
41.49 

3^'-l3 

30..S7 

27.28 
23.69 
20.18 
16.S6 

'3-77 
10.97 

8-54 
6.4S 
4.7S 

3-36 

2. 11 

1. 12 

•50 


The  following  are  a  few  figures  relative  to  the  fliilure  of  life-insurance  com- 
panies in  the  United  States.  The  total  number  of  failures  has  been  one  hun- 
statistics  of  clrccl  and  fifteen  companies,  eighty-three  of  the  number  having 
failures.  bccn  chartered  since  i860,  and  seventy-one  of  the  eighty-three 
since  1865.  The  years  and  the  States  in  which  the  failures  occurred  were  as 
follows  :  — 

YEAR. 

1840 2 

185I 2 

1852 5 

1853 S 

1855 2 

1S56 4 

1857 4 

i86i I 

1S62 2 

1863 2 

1864 I 

1865 2 

1866 2 

1867 2 

1868 5 

1869 8 

49 


YEAR. 
1840-6 
1870 
187  I 
1873 

1873 
1874 

1875 
1876 

1877 


STAT! 

Alaba 

Calik 

Connc 

Distri 

Dclav 

Gcorc 

Indiai 

Illino 

Kcnti 

Louis 

MiuiK 

Michi 

Mary 

Missc 

New 

New 

Novtl 

Ohio 

Pcnn 

Rhoc 

Sout 

Teni 

Texr 

Virg 


It  was 
Cincinnati 
first  great 
Mutual  of 
rame  tuml 
wood-choi: 
cutting  aw 
then  start! 
company  ^ 
hands  of 
brand-ne\^ 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


847 


YEAR. 

1840-69 49 

1870 6 

1871 8 

1872 14 

1873 17 

1874 5 

1875 9 

1876 7 

1877 2 

Total 115 

STATE. 

Alabama 2 

Calit'urnia I 

Connecticut 7 

District  of  Columbia I 

Delaware 3 

Georgia 2 

Indiana I 

Illinois II 

Kentucky 2 

Louisiana ...4 

Minnesota i 

Michigan I 

Maryland 2 

Missouri 8 

New  York 31 

New  Jersey 6 

North  Carolina 2 

Ohio 6 

Pennsylvania 12 

Rhode  Island i 

South  Carolina 3 

Tennessee 6 

Texas i 

"Virginia i 

Total     . lis 

It  was  the  disgraceful  failure  of  the  Ohio  Life  and  Trust  Company  of 
Cincinnati  as  a  bank  which  is  said  to  have  started  the  panic  of  1S57.  The 
first  great  failure    after  that  date  was  that  of  the  Great  Western 

Mutual  of  New  York  in  1870.      From   1870  on,  the  companies  oh'io  Li°e 

rame  tumbling  down  like  a  row  of  trees  in  the  woods  which  the  and  Trust 

wood-chopper  had  prepared  for  a  grand  combination  crash  by  ^^""P^^y'" 
cutting  away  the  trunks  so  that  they  were  all  just  ready  to  fall,  and 
then  starting  them  so  that  each  one  should  fall  against  its  neighbor.     One 
company  would  be  closed  by  the  attorney-general,  and  its  affairs  put  into  tlic 
hands  of  a  receiver.     Its  policy-holders  would  be  re-insured  in  some  other 
brand-new  and  equally  weak  company,  which  would  go  down  in  turn,  often  in 


848 


IND  US  TRIA  L    HIS  TOR  Y 


the;  very  sn me  year.  Each  failure  wps  worse  than  the  preceding ;  and  when 
Failures  in  1876  and  1877  were  readied,  and  the  Continental,  the  Si-c  urity, 
1876-77-  the  American   Popular,  anil  the  Atlantic  Mutual  went  thnvii,  an 

examination  of  their  affairs  revealed  a  shamelessness  of  corruption,  and  (i^pth 
of  inefficiency,  in  the  management  of  the  first  three,  which  shocked  the  moral 
sense  of  the  American  people,  and  led  every  man  to  ask  the  (|U(,-,tion 
of  his  neighbor,  '*  Well,  who  is  there  in  the  community  that  we  can  nini 
now?"  The  Continental  had  ^^5 1,000,000  of  insurances,  the  American  Popu- 
lar 510,000,000,  and  the  Security  ^20,000, 000,  when  t'ley  went  down. 

The  following  is  the  business  which  is  now  being  done  uy  the  best  of  the 
„    .  now  existing  comiianies  :   the  old   Mutual  of  New  York  beiuL:  nut 

Business  o  i  '  o    i'^" 

done  by  at  the  head  of  the  list,  —  a  place  it  deserves,  not  hnlf  so  much 

present  t^^^^^^  ^j^^.  magnitude  of  its  colossal  business  as  from  the  excclicni  c 

companies. 

and  soundness  of  its  management  and  the  substantial  foundation 
upon  which  it  stands  (the  figures  being  for  Jan.  i,  1S76)  :  — 


Q  u 

NAMIi. 

ASSKTS. 

INCOME. 

I'.WMF.NTS  TO 

roi.icv- 

llULUEKS, 

Nl'Mni'.R    OF 
POLICIES. 

HISKS. 

1847'Mutiial  of  New  York  .     . 

$78,534,000 

$20,400,000 

512,674,000 

92.393 

$305,057,000 

1850  .i:tna  (Ilartfoid)      .     .     . 

21,822,000 

5,526,000 

3,453,000 

56,743 

<(  1, 154,000 

1850  Charter  Oak  (Hartford)   . 

13,314,000 

4,448,000 

2,096,000 

26,481 

58.71)11.000 

1S46 

J  Connecticut  Mutual         | 
1      (Hartford)    .     .     .     .i 

43,410,000 

9,8 18,000 

6,206,000 

66,209 

185,076,000 

1859 

Kquitable  (\ew  \  ork)      . 

28,585,000 

9,571,000 

5-335.000 

48,700 

178,632,000 

1S45 

i  Mutual  IJenefit  (Xcw-     ) 
1      ark,  X.J.)      .     .     .     .f 

31,300,000 

6,751,000 

5,526,000 

43.015 

13.1,104,000 

1S30 

N'ew  York  (New  York)    . 

30,505,000 

7,944,000 

4,131,000 

44,461 

126,132,000 

1857 

\  Xortli-westcrn  -Mutual     | 
1      (Milwaukee,  Wis.)     .  \ 

17,044,000 

4,053,000 

2,004,000 

36,428 

67,12.1,000 

1S51 

riioenix  .Mutual  (Ilartfoid) 

10,133,000 

3,298,000 

1,934,000 

30,281 

60,247,000 

The  (iermania,  Globe,  Home,  Manhattan,  Life  Association  of  .Aniorii  a, 
Knickerbocker,  John  Hancock,  New-I'2ngland  Mutual,  Pennsylvania,  Pro\i- 
dence  Life  and  Trust,  Union  Mutual,  and  Union  Central,  do  a  large  business, 
and  have  risks  outstanding  amounting  to  from  $20,000,000  to  $60,000,000. 


ACCIDENT. 

This  is  the  last  of  the  four  departments  of  the  insurance-business.     It  is 
_     ,.       ,      the  creation  of  the  s'agle  mind  of  one  man,  —  Mr.  Tames  G.  l!at- 

Creation  of  ^  '  .. 

terson  of  Hartford,  C'onn,   who,  while  abroad,  had  noticed  the 
workings  of  accident-insurance  in  luirope,  and  who,  upon  his  re- 
turn, organized  the  Travellers'  Lisurance  Company  of  Hartford  lor 
introducing  the  business  to  this  country.     His  company  was  chartered  in  June, 


accident- 
insurance 
companies 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


849 


1863.  It  took  some  time  to  get  it  into  operation,  and  the  first  contract  was 
made  upon  the  street.  In  March,  1864,  Mr.  Batterson  happened  to  meet  Mr. 
James  Bolter  in  front  of  the  post-office  at  Hartford ;  and  the  latter  asked  him, 
"  What  will  you  take  to  insure  me  for  $5,000  if  I  get  killed  by  accident  in 
going  from  here  to  my  house  on  Buckingham  Street?"  —  "Two  cents," 
replied  Mr.  Batterson.  "  Agreed ;  here  is  your  money,"  said  Mr.  Bolter. 
This  was  the  first  insurance  for  accident  in  America.  The  two  cents  thus 
earned  were  preserved  by  Mr.  Batterson,  and  are  still  exhibited  in  a  frame. 
The  first  written  policy  was  issued  to  Mr.  Batterson  himself  for  $5,000  in  April, 
1864. 

In  two  years  the  success  of  the  Travellers'  was  assured.     The  American 
mind  is  quick  to  seize  upon  new  ideas  of  this  sort,  and  in  1865  and  1866 
eleven  new  companies  of  various  kinds  to  do  a  casualty  business  success  of 
were  organized  and  in  operation  in  New  York.     They  all  soon  the  enter- 
retired,  however,  leaving  the  field  to  the  Travellers'.     By  the  end  '"^'*"' 
of   1865,   so  rapidly  did  the  business  of  the  latter  grow  under  the    good 
management  of  its  president  and  founder,  that  it  had  27,000  policies  in  force, 
with  an  income  of  $500,000,  and  risks  amounting  to  $85,000,000. 

In  1866  seven  of  the  accident-insurance  companies  consolidated,  and 
formed  the  Railway  Passengers'  Assurance  Company  of  Hartford.  Mr.  Bat- 
terson became  president  of  that  also ;  and  the  two  concerns,  the  Railway 
Passengers'  and  the  Travellers',  have  since  attained  a  national  reputation  and 
a  great  business.  The  former  confines  itself  chiefly  to  the  general  accident 
business ;  while  the  latter  has  a  life  business  also,  its  risks  now  amounting  to 
over  $90,000,000. 

To  the  casualty  business  a  Plate  Glass  company  was  added  in  New  York 
in  1870.  Other  cities  have  since  formed  similar  organizations.  They  have 
met  with  moderate  success. 


.J\ 


850 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


CHAPTER  III. 


COMMERCE. 


COMMERCE  relates  to  the  exchange  of  products;  transportation,  to 
the  moving  of  them  :  and,  having  ah-eady  considered  the  latter  sul)- 
ject,  we  shall  now  confine  ourselves  strictly  to  Hie  former,  although  the 
two  are  often  treated  as  identical. 


divided  by 
R"volution. 


ANTE-REVOLUTIONARY    PERIOD. 

The  history  of  the  foreign  commerce  of  the  United  States  is  very  sharph' 
Commerce  divided  by  the  Revolution  into  two  periods,  inasmuch  as  the  laws 
regulating  it  were  radically  changed  by  that  event.  ^Ve  shall  lir.-^t 
proceed  to  sketch  the  colonial  policy  inaugurated  by  Great  Uritaiii, 
which  was  prolific  in  mistakes,  and  which  finally  led  to  the  war  of  separation 
between  the  colonies  and  the  mother-councry. 

Great  Britain  was  not  slow  in  declaring  her  intention  to  make  the  colonics 
Great  Brit-  ^^  profitable  to  herself  as  possible.  To  accomplish  this,  she 
ain's  coio-  adopted  a  policy  which  recjuired  the  colonies  to  buy  of  her,  ine- 
nia  policy,  i^pective  of  competing  markets  ;  and  forbade  their  engaging  in  pur- 
suits which  in  any  way  conflicted  with  the  interests  of  English  manufacturers. 
Let  us  briefly  glance  at  the  manner  in  which  these  ideas  were  executetl. 

One   of  the   earliest  industries^  in  which  the   colonies  engaged  was  that 

'  In  the  second  voyage  of  Capt.  Newport  to  the  (Virginia)  colony  in  the  latter  part  of  160S  the  compniiy 
sent  out  in  the  ship  —  which  brought  also  a  crown  for  the  sachem  Powhat.m,  and  orders  for  his  "  crownntioii"  — 
eight  Poles  and  Germans  to  m.ike  pitch,  tar,  glass,  mills,  and  soap-ashes;  which,  had  the  country  been  peopled, 
would  h.ave  done  well,  bu.  proved  only  a  burden  and  hindcrancc  to  the  rest.  A  coloni.il  historian  says,  "  Nr> 
sooner  were  they  landed,  but  the  president  dispersed  as  many  as  were  able,  some  to  make  glass,  and  others  fi>r 
pitch,  tar,  and  soap-ashes.  Leaving  them  at  the  port  under  the  council's  care  and  oversight,  he  himself  cairita 
thirty  about  five  miles  down  the  river  to  learn  to  cut  down  trees,  make  clapboards,  and  lie  in  the  woods."  Tl-.e 
council  in  Ix)ndon,  complaining  that  no  gold  and  silver  was  sent,  wrote  an  angry  letter  to  the  president, 
threatening,  that  if  the  expenses,  two  thousand  pounds,  were  not  defr.iyed  by  the  ship's  return,  they  should  lie 
deserted.  To  this  Capt.  Smith  returned  "  a  plain  and  scholarly  answer  "  by  the  ship,  which  was  ni  leiuih 
despatched  with  the  trials  of  pitch,  tar,  glass,  frankincense,  and  soap-ashes,  with  what  wainscot  and  clap!' .ird 
could  be  provided.  This  cargo,  of  the  v.iluc  of  which  wo  are  not  informed,  appears  to  have  been  the  first  exiort 
made  from  the  British  colonies  to  a  foreign  coiuitn,-,  with  the  exception  of  a  lo.ad  of  sassafras  gathered  iie.ir 
Cape  Cod  in  1608,  and  consisted  almost  exclusively  of  manufactured  articles,  in  the  strict  sense  of  the  term. 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


85« 


In  the  reign  of  Charles   '"5  "''^"  °' 

°  Charles  II. 


of  ship-building.     The  rivers  were  lined  with  abundant  forests  :    water-power 
OS  readily  utilized,  and  this  industry  proved  very  successful  from   ship-buiid- 
tlie  beginning.     In  New  Kngland  especially,  and  afterward  in  New   »"«• 
York  and   l*hila(leli)hia,  ships  of  two  hundred  and  three  hundred  tons  were 
Ixiilt,  which  were  loaded  with  lumber,  fish,  live-stock,  and  other   Early 
articles,  and  then  sailed  for  the  West  Indies,  where  the  cargoes   voyages. 
were  exchanged  for  sugars,  which  were  taken  to  England  in  the  same  vessels, 
and  there  sold.     Not  unfrecjuently  the  shijis  themselves  \yere  disposed  of  in 
the  mother-country ;    for,  as  timber  was  so  i)lentiful,  they  could  be  made  more 
cheaply  at  that  time  on  this  side  of  the  Atlantic  than  anywhere  else.     Thus  the 
business  of  ship-building,  the  trade  with  the  West  Indies,  and  the  sale  of  ships, 
((instituted  prominent  features  of  a  very  lucrative  business.     Other  vessels, 
laden  with  spars  and  timber,  proceeded  directly  to   Uritish  ports,  as  well  as 
those  of  other  European  countries,  where  ships  and  cargoes  were  often  sold  in 
the  same  manner. 

The  commerce  of  the  colonies  with  the  West  Indies  early  attracted  the 
attention  of  (Ireat  iJritain.  Scarcely  had  twenty-five  years  passed  since  the 
settlement  of  New  England  before  a  series  of  trade  re<ailations   _    ^ 

°  o  Trade  regu- 

uiTc  adopted  by  the  British  authorities  for  the  pur{)ose  of  monop-    lations  dur- 
(ilizing  the  carrying-trade  thus  established. 

II.  the  celebrated  statute  was  passed,  entitled  "An  Act  for  the 
encouraging  and  increasing  of  Shipping  and  Navigation."  It  was  enacted,  that 
■•  iVom  and  after  the  first  day  of  April,  16O1,  no  sugars,  tobacco,  cotton,  wool, 
indigo,  ginger,  fustic,  or  other  dyeing  woods,  of  the  growth,  produce,  or  manu- 
facture of  any  English  plantations  in  America,  Asia,  or  Africa,  shall  be  shipped, 
carried,  conveyed,  or  transported  from  any  of  the  said  I'lnglish  plantations  to 
any  land,  island,  territory,  dominion,  port,  or  place  whatsoever,  other  than  to 
siuh  other  P^nglish  plantations  as  do  belong  to  his  Majesty,"  <S:c.  The  act  was 
designed  virtually  to  secure  to  the  English  markets  the  produce  of  the  colo- 
nies, and  was  but  an  extension  of  an  act  passed  in  1650  by  the  Parliament  of 
Cromwell,  restricting  the  import  and  export  trade  of  the  colonies  to  English  or 
colony  built  ships.^  The  list  of  articles  named  in  it,  which  was  extended  from 
time  to  time,  embraced  what  were  known  as  enumerated  articles.  Two  years 
afterward,  in  1663,  it  was  enacted  that  "no  commodity,  of  the  growth,  produc- 

'  The  doctrine  of  each  sovereignty  of  the  world  grasping  and  holding  the  largtst  number  of  monopolies 
I«  ^^ilile,  to  make  the  most  of  its  opportunities,  and  to  keep  its  rivals  down,  was  so  ingrained  and  steeped  into  the 
I'uijile  who  settled  this  coimtry,  that  they  manifested  the  same  spirit.  In  order  to  encourage  the  building  of 
s!ii)is  and  other  vessels,  and  increase  the  trade  of  Perth  Amboy,  which  at  one  time  sought  to  rival  its  neighbor 
New  V'ork  in  commerce,  the  Assembly  of  New  Jersey,  in  1694,  prohibited  the  exportation  of  any  timber,  planks, 
"r  lioards  of  any  kind,  hoops,  or  hop-poles,  except  directly  to  England,  the  West  Indies,  the  Summer  and  Wine 
I^Luids.  The  object  of  this  measure  was  to  monopolize  the  transportation  of  its  only  export,  —  an  experiment 
^>lii-h  proved  injurious  to  both  New  Jersey  and  New  York.  Notwithstanding  the  obvious  defects  in  the  system, 
ii  was  continued;  and  in  1714  duties  and  other  restrictions  were  imposed  on  the  exportation  of  some  commodities 
«iien  they  were  shipped  to  neighboring  provinces.  Indeed,  the  system  was  contini'ed  with  considerable  vigor 
("nil  the  time  of  the  Revolution. 


''I  '  '. !' 


M 


:■: 


852 


INDUSTRIAl.    lllSrOKY 


tion,  or  maniiracture  of  iMiropc,  sliall  be  imported  into  tlic  Hritish  plantalit.tis 
l)ut  such  as  are  laden  and  put  on  hoard  in  lOngland,  Wales,  or  IJerwii  k-ii|M)ii. 
Tweed,  and  in  ICnglish-built  shipping,  whereof  the  master  and  three-fourth-,  (jf 
the  crew  are  ICnglish."  The  effect  of  this  would  be  to  compel  thr  (oloims 
to  buy,  as  the  former  did  to  sell,  in  the  l-jiglish  markets  exclusively.  I'.ut 
these  laws  were  very  little  regarded  by  the  colonies,  with  the  exception  df 
Virginia,  where  they  excited  remonstrance  and  almost  rebellion,  and  wvxv 
not,  until  a  later  period,  enforced  upon  them.  The  i)rimary  objcc  t  of  the 
,  monopoly  was  to  prevent  the  commercial  rivals  of  England  from  supplanll^^ 
her  in  the  colonial  trade ;  although  the  deeper  object,  as  we  shall  vt  rv 
soon  see,  was  to  put  most  of  the  trade  into  the  possession  c>f  I'.iinLiinl 
alone. 

lOven  at  that  early  date,  there  were  those  who  feared  that  the  prosptrit)  of 
the  colonies  would  pave  the  way  to  independence.  Saitl  one  writer  o{  that 
independ-  day,  "The  colonies  are  beginning  to  carry  on  trade:  tluy  will 
ence  feared,  jj^f^p  jj^.  q^j.  formidable  rivals.  They  are  already  setting  up  manu- 
factures :  they  will  soon  set  uj)  for  independence."  'J'he  "  Discourse  on 
Trade,"  by  Sir  Josiah  C.iild,  before  (pioted,  thus  expresses  the  prevailing 
opinion  of  this  class :  "  New  Kngland  is  the  most  prejudicial  plantation  to  this 
kingdom.  Of  all  American  plantations,  his  Majesty  has  none  so  apt  t'oi  the 
building  of  shipping  as  New  lOngland,  nor  none  so  admirably  (pialified  for  the 
breeding  of  seamen,  not  only  by  reason  of  the  natural  industry  of  that  people, 
but  principally  by  reason  of  their  cod  anil  mackerel  fisheries;  and  in  my  poor 
opinion  there  is  nothing  more  prejudicial,  and  in  prospect  more  dangerous, 
to  any  mother-kingdom,  than  the  increase  of  shipping  in  her  colonies,  planta- 
tions, or  provinces." 

It  was  only  by  an  evasion  or  relaxation  of  the  laws,  says  Bishop,  wh-ch  was 
connived  at  by  the  revenue  officials,  that  the  colonies  were  ever  enabled  to  pay 
Evasion  of  ^or  ^'^^  enomious  amount  of  British  manufactures  and  luiropean 
laws  neces-     merchandise  annually  received  from  Kngland ;  which,  at  the  be- 

sary  in  order       ...,.,,  ,  i        /' 

to  continue  gnuimg  of  the  eighteenth  century,  amounted  to  nearly  ;£,40o,ooo, 
purchases  of  and,  toward  the  close  of  the  provincial  period,  ^3,500,000.  or 
"^  °"  ■  nearly  one-fourth  of  the  English  export  trade  of  those  ])erioils. 
None  of  the  colonies  north  of  Maryland  ever  had  balances  in  their  favor,  but 
were,  on  the  contrary,  much  in  arrear.  The  obligations  could  only  be  met  by 
circuitous  trade,  carried  on,  in  contravention  of  the  trade  acts,  with  foreign 
countries,  whence  they  derived  most  of  their  specie  and  remittances  suital)le 
for  returns  to  their  English  creditors.  By  this  illicit  traffic  English  commerce 
was  as  much  benefited,  probably,  as  that  of  the  colonies.  Lord  Sheftield 
admits,  that,  between  the  years  1770  and  1773,  the  colonies  must,  by  this  cir- 
cuitous trade,  have  remitted  to  England  upward  of  ^^30,000,000  in  pa) mcnt 
of  goods  taken  from  her,  over  and  above  their  remittances  in  produce  and  fish. 
Ships  built  for  sale,  as  has  already  been  remarked,  constituted  an  important 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


«53 


m^ 


element  in  this  foreign  colonial  trade,  the  value  of  which  was  usually  remitted 
in  specie,  or  bills  of  exchange  on  London. 

Let  us  look  across  the  sea  for  a  moment,  and  learn  how  the   English  over 
there  carried  on  commert  e  with  the  colonies.     Joshua   (Jea,  in  a  work  upon 
the  "'IVade  and  Navigation  of  (Ireat   Britain,"  which  appeared   in 
1729,  says,  "We  have  a  great  many  young  men  who  are  bred  to   ""^  ^"K" 

'     '         '  ^  J    ]  ^  land  carried 

the  sea,  and  have  friends  to  support  them.     If  they  cannot  get   on  commerce 
cni[)loyment  at  home,  they  go  to  New  I'lngland  and  the   Northern   "^'"^  ^^^ 

/  ^    ^  "  colonies. 

colonies  with  a  cargo  of  goods,  which  they  sell  there  at  a  great 
Ijfofit,  and  with  the  produce  build  ;  .'lip,  and  i)urchase  a  loading  of  lumber, 
and  sail  for  Portugal  or  the  Straits,  (S:c.,  and,  after  disposing  of  their  cargoes 
there,  frecjuentiy  fly  from  i)ort  to  port  in  the  Mediterranean  till  they  have 
cleared  so  much  money  as  will  pay  in  a  good  part  for  the  first  cost  of  the  ( argo 
carried  out  by  them,  and  then,  perhaps,  sell  their  ships,  come  home,  take  uj) 
another  cargo  from  their  employers,  and  so  go  back  and  build  another  siiip. 
liy  this  means,  multitudes  of  seamen  are  brought  up ;  and,  upon  a  war,  the 
nation  is  better  provided  with  a  greater  number  of  sailors  than  hath  heretofore 
been  known.  Kere  the  master  becomes  merchant  also,  and  many  of  them 
gain  by  this  lumbc-trade  great  estates,  and  a  vast  treasure  is  therel)y  yearly 
bror.giit  into  the  1  ingdom  in  a  way  new  and  unknown  to  our  forefathers  ;  for 
indeed  it  is  gaining  the  timber-trade  heretofore  carried  on  l)y  the  Dutch  and 
Suedes,  our  plantations  being  nearer  the  inarkets  of  Portugal  and  Spain  than 
theirs  are." 

Notwithstanding   the    historic    trade    acts   of  (Ireat    lincain,    which    were 
•lesigncd  to  cripple  colonial  commerce,  it  was  actively  carried  on  in  the  man- 
ner described,  especially  with  the  West   Indies  and  the  mother- 
country.     It  is  proof  of  a  pretty  lax  administration  of  the  laws  in   ^./^  ^^  "^^^ 
those  days;  but  there  were  a   great   many   merchants   ''iterested   withstand- 
in  making:  these  exchanges,  from  whom  the  ])olicv  of  Mii.;land,  if  '"^*''°  ^ 

n  n      '  1  -  .-^  '         acts. 

rigidly  enforced,  would  have  evoked  bitter  ojjposition.  Probably 
the  government  was  well  aware  of  the  fact,  and  consetiuently  was  more  willing 
to  acquiesce  in  the  infraction  of  the  laws  than  if  they  had  been  in  jjcrfect  harmony 
with  the  sentiment  of  the  time.  So  exchanges  went  or.  To  the  West  Indies 
were  carried  lumber  of  all  kinds,  fish  of  an  inferior  (lu.ilily,  — the  better  sorts 
going  to  the  Roman  Catholic  countries  of  luu-o])e,  —  beef,  pork,  butter,  horses, 
poultry,  other  live-stock,  tobacco,  flour,  bread,  cider  and  ap[)les,  cabbages,  and 
(inions ;  for  which  was  received,  in  return,  molasses,  besides  silver  and  gold, 
which  metals  were  transmitted  to  ( treat  Britain  to  pay  for  the  commodities  j)ur- 
<  based  there.  While  no  gold  and  silver  mines  were  known  in  America,  the 
Spanish  settlers  in  the  West  Indies  were  rich  in  the  precious  metals  which  they 
were  receiving  from  Mexico  and  Peru  ;  and  from  this  source  the  colonists 
received  something  like  an  adequate  supply  to  discharge  their  obligations  to 
the  mother-country.     But  for  this  illicit  trade,  the  colonies  would  soon  have 


!'    ■I).: 


S)i  - 


«S4 


INDUSTKIA!.    IflSTORY 


been  drained  of  their  supply  of  the  precious  metals,  and  the  I')ni][lish  inor, 
chants  would  have  found  only  a  poor  market  for  their  wares  in  .\iii(.ri(a. 
America  had  only  a  small  siip|)ly  of  the  articles  which  the  people  «;!  (in, it 
Britain  wanted  in  return  for  their  commodities.  Fish,  tobacco,  and  ships 
were  the  chief  exports,  besides  gold  and  silver,  to  that  country;  and  iIksc 
alone  would  have  gone  only  a  little  way  in  payment  for  the  goods  w.uiiid 
of  her. 

It  may  not  be  out  of  place  to  describe,  in  this  connection,  the  fisheric-,  r.f 
the  colonial  period.'  In  those  early  times,  cod,  salmon,  mackerel,  stiii-c  n, 
Colonial  and  other  kinds  of  fish,  were  abundant  along  the  coast  and  in  tlio 

flsheriei.  rivers,  and  large  numbers  of  men  were  employed  in  catc  hini,', 
curing,  and  packing  diem.  Hut  the  New-IOnglanders  also  fretiueiUcd  ihc 
famous  Hanks  of  Newfoundland,  as  far  as  the  coast  of  Labrador,  where  eiior. 
mous  quantities  were  caught.  '  Indeed,  those  waters  are  scarcely  less  abundant 
to  this  day.  Besides  their  own  catch,  the  colonists  used  to  buy  of  the  New- 
foundland fishermen,  paying  therefor  in  rum  of  New-l-Jiglanil  manutartuiv, 
and  also  in  other  things  coming  from  either  the  colonies  or  the  West  Indies. 
The  following  statistics  will  give  the  reailer  an  idea  of  the  quantity  of  the 
warming  fluid  which  was  sent  to  the  provinces  of  Nova  Scotia,  Quebec,  and 
Newfoundland,  for  the  four  years  preceding  the  Revolution  :  — 


1770. 

1771. 

1772. 

'773- 

West-India  rum  (gallons) 
New-England  rum  (gallons)     . 

52,712 
590,748 

36,873 
550,514 

47.736 
520.525 

568,261 

50.7  if' 
608,0:5 

Total         .... 

643,460 

5S7.387 

658,741 

The  fish  obtained  by  both  capture  and  purchase  were  properly  prepared 
for  market,  and  sent  to  the  various  ports  of  Europe.  The  choicer  (lualities 
were  sent  to  Southern  Europe,  and  the  proceeds  were  remitted  in  l)ills  (tf 
exchange  to  luigland  to  pay  for  merchandise  consumed  in  America.  A  tew 
of  the  best  fish,  however,  also  found  a  market  in  Great  Britain  ;  while  the  iiitl'- 
rior  sorts  went  to  the  West  Indies,  and  were  eaten  as  a  relish  to  the  planiains 
and  yams  which  constituted  the  staple  diet  of  the  slaves. 

After  the  peace  of  1763  with  France,  the  whale-fishery,  which  theretofore 
had  not  been  an  important  industry,  developed  rai)idly ;  and  the  seas  between 
Whale-  New  England  and  Labrador  were  vexed  with  a  goodly  nunil)cr  of 

fishery.  vessels  engaged  in  the   hazardous  but  exciting  undertaking.     As 

the  tariff  on  oil  and  bone  was  reduced  at  this  time,  a  new  impetus  was  thereby 
given  to  this  industry;  so  that,  before  the  year  1775,  '"nore  than  a  hundred 
and  sixty  vessels  were  thus  profital)ly  employed.     The  oil  and  whalebone  wero 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


855 


shipped  chiefly  to  Cireat  Hritain  ;  while  candles  were  made  of  the  spermaceti, 
wiiH  h  were  also  exported  thitiicr. 

The  most  unremitting  attention  was  given  to  every  thng  likely  to  yield  any 
profit,  and  so  thoroughly  wide-awake  were  the  colonists  as  to  obtain  the  appel- 
lation of  "  the   Dutchmen  of  America."      Their    prosperity   was   cauieof 
liusely  watched  from  the  other  side  of  the  water ;    and  as  their   commerciti 
trade  diminished  with  (Ireat  Hritain,  and  increased  more  with  other   P'^P^'^y' 
countries,   in  spite  of  custom-houses  and  watchmeii,  while   manufactures  at 
home    were   growing,    the    IJritish    House    of   Commons    in    1731    institute*! 
through  the  Hoard  of  Trade  an  intpiiry  witli  respect  to  liie  laws  made,  manu- 
llu  tiires  set  up,  or  trade  carried  on,  detrimental  to  tiie  trade,  navigation,  or 
manufactures  of  (ireat  IJritain.     Among  other  facts  reported  were  the  follow- 
ing, which  will  doubtless  interest  the  reader,  as  they  throw  much  light  upon  the 
character  of  the  colonists  at  that  time,  the  extent  of  their  trade,  the  progress 
of  home  manufacture,  and  how  laws  which  were  designed  to  oppress  the  colo- 
nics and  enrich  the  merchants  of  Cireat  Britain  had  been  turned  with  deadly 
effect  upon  those  who  had  made  them  :  — 

"  The  Governor  of  Massachusetts  iiay  informed  us,  that,  in  some  parts  of  this 
province,  the  inhabitants  worked  up  their  wool  and  flax  into  an  ordinary  coarse 
cloth  for  their  own  use,  but  did  not  export  any  ;  that  the  greatest  part  of  the 
woollen  and  the  linen  clothing  worn  in  this  province  was  imported  from  (Ireat 
Britain,  and  sometimes  from  Ireland,  but,  considering  the  excessive  jjrice  of 
labor  in  New  iMigland,  the  merchants  could  afford  what  was  imported  chea|)er 
than  what  was  made  in  that  country ;  that  there  were  also  a  few  hat-makers 
in  the  maritime  towns,  and  that  the  greater  part  of  the  leather  used  in  that 
country  was  manufacture  among  themselves ;  that  there  had  been  for  many 
years  some  iron-works  in  that  province,  which  hail  afforded  the  jieopic  iron  for 
some  of  their  necessary  occasions,  but  that  the  iron  imjjorted  from  (Ireat 
Britain  was  esteemed  much  the  best,  and  used  wholly  by  the  shipping,  and  that 
the  works  of  that  province  were  not  able  to  supply  one-twentieth  part  of  what 
was  necessary  to  the  use  of  the  country.  They  had  no  manufactures  in  the 
province  of  New  York  that  deserved  mentioning  (their  trade  consisted  chiefly 
of  furs,  whalebone,  oil,  pitch,  tar,  and  provisions);  no  inanuHicturcs  in  New 
jersey  that  deserved  mentioning,  their  trade  being  chiefly  in  provisions  shipped 
from  New  York  and  Pennsylvania.  The  chief  trade  of  Pennsylvania  lay  in 
the  exportation  of  provisions  and  lumber ;  their  clothing,  and  utensils  for  their 
houses,  being  all  imported  from  Great  Britain.  By  further  ndviccs  from  New 
Hampshire,  the  woollen  manufacture  appears  to  have  decreased  ;  the  common 
lands  on  which  the  sheep  used  to  feed  being  now  appropriated,  and  the 
people  almost  wholly  clothed  with  woollen  from  Great  Britain.  The  manufac- 
ture of  flax  into  linen,  some  coarser,  some  finer,  daily  increased  by  the  great 
resort  of  j^eople  from  Ireland  thither,  who  are  well  skilled  in  that  business  ; 
and  the  chief  trade  of  this  province  continued,  as  for  many  years  past,  in  the 


I!      I 


ill' 


J 


856 


INP I 'S  TRIA  I.    ins  TOR  Y 


exportation  of  naval  stores,  lumber,  and  fisli.  I?y  later  arrounts  from  Massa- 
chusetts iJay  in  New  i;nj;lan(l,  the  Ass^ml)!/  have  voted  a  bounty  of  tlnrty 
shillings  for  every  piece  of  du(  k  or  ranvas  made  in  the  province.  Sonu'  other 
manufactures  are  carrieii  on  there,  as  brown  Hollands  for  women's  wear,  which 
lessen  the  importation  of  calicoes  an<l  some  other  sorts  of  ICasl  India  j^oods. 
'I'hey  also  make  some  small  (|uantity  of  dolh,  made  of  linen  ami  cotlun,  for 
ordinary  shirting  and  sheeting.  Ily  a  paper-mill  set  up  three  years  ago, 
they  make  to  a  value  of  two  hundred  pounds  yearly.  There  are  also  several 
forges  for  making  bar-iron,  and  some  furnaces  for  cast-iron  or  hollow-ware, 
and  one  slitting-mill,  and  a  manufactory  for  naili;.  The  governor  writes  (on- 
cerning  the  woollen  manufacture,  that  the  country  people,  who  used  formerly  to 
make  most  of  their  clothing  out  of  their  own  wool,  do  not  now  make  a  third 
part  of  what  they  wear,  but  are  mostly  clothed  with  British  manufa(  tures. 
The  same  governor  (Belcher),  by  some  of  his  letters  of  an  older  date,  in 
answer  to  our  annual  (pieries,  writes  that  there  are  some  few  co])per-iuiiKs 
in  this  province,  but  so  far  from  water-carriage,  and  the  land  is  so  poor,  that  it 
is  not  worth  the  digging.  I'he  surveyor-general  of  his  Majesty's  woods  writes 
that  they  have  in  New  llngland  six  furnaces  and  nineteen  forges  for  nuikinj^ 
iron  ;  and  that  in  this  province  many  ships  are  built  for  the  French  and  Span- 
iards in  return  for  rum,  molasses,  wines,  and  silks,  which  they  tru  :k  there  by 
connivance.  (Ireat  (piantities  of  hats  are  made  in  New  ICngland,  of  which  the 
Company  of  Hatters  in  London  have  likewise  lately  complained  to  us  that  great 
quantities  of  those  hats  are  exported  to  Spain,  Portugal,  and  our  West- India 
islands.  They  also  make  all  sorts  of  iron-work  for  shipping.  There  are 
several  still-houses  and  sugar-bakers  established  in  New  England.  By  later 
advices  from  New  York,  there  are  no  manufactures  there  which  can  affect  thoiic 
of  (jreat  Britain.  There  is  yearly  imported  into  New  York  a  very  large  (luan- 
tity  of  the  woollen  manufixctures  of  this  kingdom  for  their  clothing,  which  they 
would  be  rendered  incapable  to  pay  for,  and  would  be  reduced  to  the  necessity 
of  making  for  themselves,  if  they  were  not  prohibited  from  receiving  from  llie 
foreign  sugar  colonics  the  money,  rum,  sugar,  molasses,  cocoa,  indigo,  cotton, 
wool,  &c.,  which  they  at  present  take  in  return  for  provisions,  horses,  and  lum- 
ber, the  produce  of  that  province  anti  New  Jersey,  of  which  he  aftirnis  tiie 
British  sugar  colonies  do  not  take  above  one-half.  But  the  Company  of  Hatters 
of  London  have  since  informed  us  that  hats  are  manufactured  in  great  quanti- 
ties in  this  province.  By  the  last  letters  from  the  deputy-governor  of  Penn- 
sylvania, he  does  not  know  of  any  trade  carried  on  in  that  province  tiiat  can 
be  injurious  to  this  kingdom.  They  do  not  export  any  woollen  or  linen  manu- 
factures ;  all  that  they  make,  which  are  of  a  coarser  sort,  being  for  their  own 
use.  We  are  further  informed  that  in  this  province  are  built  many  brigantines 
and  small  sloops,  which  they  sell  to  the  West  Indies.  The  Governor  of  Riiode 
Island  informs  us,  in  answer  to  our  riueries,  that  there  are  iron-mines  there,  but 
not  a  fourth  part  enough  to  serve  their  own  use  ;  but  he  takes  no  notice  of  any 


\M 


OF    THE    CXITF.n    STATFS. 


857 


lort  of  manufacture  set  up  there.  No  return  from  the  (lovcrnor  of  Connoctl- 
iiit :  but  we  fmd  hy  some  accounts  tliat  the  produt  c  of  this  colony  is  tinil)cr, 
Iwanls,  all  sorts  of  English  ^x\\w,  hemp,  llax,  sheep,  black  cattle,  swine,  horses, 
goats,  anil  tobacco;  and  that  they  export  horses  and  lumber  to  the  West 
Indies,  and  receive  in  return  sugar,  salt,  molasses,  and  rum.  U'e  fmd  that 
their  manufactures  arc  very  inconsiderable,  the  people  there  being  generally 
employed  in  tillage,  some  few  in  tanning,  shoemaking,  and  other  handicrafts, 
others  in  the  building,  and  joiners',  tailors',  and  smiths'  work,  without  \vlii(  h 
ihcy  could  not  subsist." 

I'pon  the  conclusion  of  the  war  with.   Krance  in  1763,  Parliament  thought 
the  colonies  ought  to  pay  a  share  of  the  bills  growing  out  of  the  (ontest  which 
was  waged  chiefly  for  tht;ir  defence.     Ac( ordingly,  resolutions  in   Effector 
favor  of  a  Stamj)  Act  similar  to  the  one  which  had  long  been   stamp  Act. 
known  in  Mngland  were  passed  in  1764.     This  measure  was  followed  next  year 
by  another,  ileclariiig  all  written  instruments  used  in  the  colonies  null  and 
voiil,  unless  e.xecutetl  upon  stamped 
pajjer,  or  parchment  chargeil  with 
a  duty  by  Parliament.     This   bill 
at  once  roused  intense  opposition 
here,  and  was  the  prelude  to  the 
Revolution.      The  colonies  imme- 
diately  faced    these    measures   by 
declaring    that   they   would    cease 
their  importations  from  Oreat  Brit- 
ain ;  and   so   effectually  did    they 
execute  this  purpose,  that  British 
merchants  loudly  clamoretl  for  the 
repeal   of   those    laws   which    had 

worked  such  an  unex|)ected  injury  to  their  trade.  Their  rc(iucst  was  corn- 
plied  with ;  and,  just  a  year  from  the  time  of  their  enactment,  these  obnoxious 
laws  were  swept  from  the  statute-book. 

In  1767,  however,  Charles  Townsend  introduced  into  Parliament  another 
bill,  imposing  duties  on  glass,  pasteboard,  paper,  painters'  colors,  and  tea,  which 
passed  into  a  law,  and  once  more  aroused  the  opposition  of  the  Taxation  of 
colonists  to  remonstrances,  petitions,  and  non-intercourse  acts,  '"^ports. 
The  merchants  of  Hoston,  in  October,  passed  resolutions  —  in  which  they 
were  followed  by  other  towns  —  not  to  import,  or  deal  with  those  who  should 
import,  lea,  glass,  paper,  or  colors,  so  long  as  the  duties  on  those  articles 
remained  unrejjealcd.  Resolutions  were  at  the  same  time  formed  to  encourage 
by  all  prudent  ways  and  meaps  home  nrnufarurcs,  and  glass  and  paper  were 
especially  mentioned  as  worthy  of  encouragement.  The  British  exports  to 
the  colonies  at  once  fell  off  again  from  ;^2,378,ooo  in  1768  to  ;^i,634,ooo 
in  1 769,  and  the  repeal  of  the  act  was  loudly  demanded.      Public  excite- 


\r«5iinLLlNQS/ 


STAMPS. 


J 


h^ 


858 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


"tV     i.'4»     ' 

.jimi-K  1' ••.. 

■H 

w\ 

IH 

1- 

^\  !■ 

t'  'i|F 

'1 

.:';t'|!- 

''^^'^f^^.' 

i 

ment  was  once  more  allayed  in  1770,  temporarily,  by  the  reluctant  withdiawal 
of  five-sixths  of  the  duties,  leaving  Ijut  a  nominal  tax  of  threepem  c  per 
pound  on  tea,  as  a  testimony  of  the  asserted  legislative  authority  ot  I'ai, la- 
ment. 

Says  Bishop,  "  The  trade  acts  were,  in  many  respects,  a  manifest  violation 
of  the  rights  of  the  colonists  to  make  the  most  of  their  industry.  lHlcss 
Bishop  on  exemption  were  guaranteed  by  their  charters,  a  right  to  exact  liom 
trade  acts.  thcm  a  contingent  for  the  general  expenses  of  the  empire  of  which 
they  were  an  integral  part  seemed  to  rest  upon  the  same  prerogative  by  \\hi(  I1 
the  parent  state  assumed  in  othe  cases  to  legislate  for  its  dependencies.  Ihc 
legislatures  of  Massachusetts  and  New  York  had  indeed,  ten  years  hcuno, 
enacted  a  provincial  Stamp  Act ;  the  former  granting  to  his  Majesty  duties  on 
vellum,  parchment,  and  paper,  for  two  years,  toward  defraying  the  charge  of 
this  government.  That  of  New  York,  passed  the  following  year,  continued 
four  years  in  operation.  liut  the  imj^ost  was  now  resisted  ui)on  the  principle 
that  the  colonists  were  not  amenable  to  a  statute  which  they  had  no  voice 
in  making ;  and,  upon  this  ciuestion  of  prerogative,  the  empire  was  dis- 
membered." 

How  the  continuance  of  this  policy  resulted  the  world  knows.  It  was 
opposed  by  the  colonies,  and  in  the  end  came  revolution  and  separation,  i'.ut, 
Effect  of  the  before  this  step  was  laken,  a  long  series  of  experiments  in  ihc  way 
system.  qC  imposing  and  resisting  taxes  were  tried  on  both  sides.     Laws 

were  passed,  to  be  modified  or  repealed  at  the  next  session  of  Parliament.  In 
the  year  1767  several  measures  favorable  to  colonial  trade  were  enacted  ;  hut 
the  next  witnessed  a  renewal  of  the  fiscal  schemes  of  the  previous  ministry 
by  the  imposition  of  a  duty  on  paper,  glass,  painters'  colors,  and  tea,  providing 
for  the  (juartering  of  soldiers  in  the  colonies,  and  for  a  more  effectual  enforce- 
ment of  the  revenue  system  by  the  establishment  of  a  custom-house.  Al- 
though the  people  had  so  readily  receded  from  the  determined  stand  taken 
against  the  Stamp  Act,  and  a  sum  of  ^15,000  was  voted  to  be  raised  by  a 
tax  on  foreign  sail-cloth  and  lawns,  to  be  paid  in  premiut.is  on  flax  and  hciiip 
imported  from  the  colonies,  this  and  other  favorable  legislation  did  not  prevent 
a  renewal  of  the  opposition  to  the  new  plan  of  taxation.  Boston,  in  town- 
meeting,  Oct.  28,  commenced  the  former  system  of  retaliation  and  redress  by 
declaring  that  the  "  excessive  use  of  foreign  superfluities  is  the  chief  cause  of 
the  present  distressed  state  of  this  town,  as  it  is  thereby  drained  of  its  money ; 
which  misfortune  is  likely  to  be  increased  by  means  of  the  late  additional 
burdens  and  impositions  on  the  trade  of  the  province,  which  threaten  the 
country  with  poverty  and  ruin."  Resolutions  were  made  to  abstain  from  liie 
use,  after  Dec.  i,  of  such  foreign  articles  as  "loaf-sugar,  cordage,  anchors, 
coaches,  chaises,  and  carriages  of  all  sorts,  horsj-furniture,  men's  and  women's 
hats,  men's  and  women's  ajiixirel  ready  made,  household  fiirniture,  gloves, 
men's  and  women's  shoes,  sole-leather,  sheathing  and  deck  nails,  gold,  silver. 


OF    THE    UXITED    STATES. 


859 


and  tliread  lace  of  all  sorts,  gold  and  silver  buttons,  wrought  plate  of  all  sorts, 
(iianion'ls,  stone,  and  paste-ware,  snuff,  mustard,  clocks  and  watches,  silver- 
smiths' and  jewellers'  ware,  broadcloths  that  cost  above  ten  shillings  per  yard, 
niulTs.  furs,  and  tippets,  and  all  sorts  of  millinery-ware,  starch,  women's  and 
chill h-en's  stayc,  fire-engines,  china-ware,  silk  and  cotton  velvets,  gauze,  pew- 
tcars'  hollow-ware,  linseed-oil,  glue,  lawns,  cambrics,  silks  of  all  kinds  for  gar- 
ments, malt  lic^uors,  and  cheese."  Thus  the  regulations  which  were  designed 
to  yield  such  a  revenue  to  Cireat  Britain  signally  failed  in  their  purpose. 

On  the  loth  of  September,  1774,  was  passed  by  the  Continental  Congress, 
then  in  session  at  Philadelphia,  the  famous  non-importc*uon  and  non-exporta- 
tion resolutions,  which  constituted  a  pledge  on  the  part  of  the 
colonists,   "  under  the  sacred  ties  of  virtue,  honor,  and  love  of  .  ""■'™p°'^" 

'  '  '  tation  and 

country,"  not  to  import,  after  the  ist  of  December,  any  goods  non-exporta- 
whatever  from  Great  Britain  or  Ireland,  or  British  goods  from  any  "°"  ^'^^  °' 
jjlace ;  not  to  import  or  purchase  any  slave  imported  after  that 
time,  after  which  they  would  wholly  discontinue  the  slave-trade ;  not  to  import 
or  purchase  lOast-India  tea ;  to  suspend  the  non-exportation  agreement  until 
Sept.  10,  1775  ;  to  recjuest  merchants  as  soon  as  possible  to  order  their  factors 
in  Cireat  Britain  not  to  ship  any  goods  to  ^hem  on  any  pretence  whatever;  to 
use  their  utmost  endeavors  to  improve  the  breed  and  increase  the  number  of 
sheep  by  killing  them  as  seldom  as  possible,  and  not  exporting  them,  but  sell- 
ing them  on  moderate  terms  to  their  neighbors  who  might  need  them  ;  to 
encourage  frugality,  economy,  and  industry,  and  promote  the  agriculture  and 
manufactures  of  this  country,  especially  that  of  wool ;  to  discontinue  and  dis- 
courage every  species  of  extravagance  and  dissipation,  shows,  plays,  &:c.  ;  to 
use.  on  funeral  occasions,  only  a  ribbon  or  a  piece  of  crape  on  the  arm  for 
gentlemen,  and  a  black  ribbon  and  nee,  ace  for  ladies,  and  to  discourage 
the  giving  of  gloves,  scarfs,  &c.,  at  funerals.  It  recommended  venders  of 
goods  not  to  take  advantage  of  the  scarcity  occasioned  by  the  association 
to  ask  for  more  than  they  had  been  accustomed  to ;  that  goods  imported 
af.er  the  ist  of  December  ought  to  be  either  reshipped,  or  stored  at  the 
owner's  risk,  until  the  non-importation  agreements  ceased,  or  be  sold,  and 
the  owner  re-imbursed  the  first  cost  and  charges,  the  profits  to  be  de\otetl  to 
the  Boston  sufferers.  Committees  should  be  chosen,  in  each  county,  city,  and 
town,  to  carry  out  the  resolutions,  and  report  violations  ;  and  the  committee 
of  correspondence  should  frerpiently  inspect  the  custom-house,  and  inform 
each  other  of  the  state  thereof:  that  all  manufactures  of  the  country  should 
l)c  sold  at  a  reasonable  rate  ;  and  that  n  ^  trade,  commercial  dealings,  or  inler- 
cdurse,  be  had  with  any  colony  or  province  that  did  not  accede  to  or  should 
afterwards  violate  the  agreements,  but  they  should  be  held  unworthy  the 
rii^hts  of  freemen,  and  as  inimical  to  the  liberty  of  their  country.  These 
resolutions  met  with  general  approval,  and  continued  in  force  until  peace  with 
(ircat  Britain  was  declared. 


i 


;i  J 


.-fei 


860 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


POST-REVOLUTIONARY    PERIOD. 


Commerce 
during  the 
Revolution. 


With  separation  and  peace  came  a  new  era  in  the  history  of  Ameriran 
f ommerce.  During  the  Revolution  it  had  sadly  waned ;  indeed,  it  was  ntarlv 
ruined.  But,  as  soon  as  hostilities  were  declared  at  an  en<l.  tiie 
king  removed  all  legal  restraints  upon  intercourse  with  the  I'nitLd 
States,  dispensing  with  a  manifest  for  a  time  even  on  the  arrival  of 
an  American  vessel  in  a  British  port.  Trade  at  once  revived  ;  the  imports  to 
this  country  amounting  to  $30,000,000,  while  the  exports  were  about  one-third 
of  that  sum,  for  the  first  two  years  of  peace.  This  inequality  in  the  balanc  c 
of  trade  caused  much  distress  ;  but  the  needed  remedy  was  within  reach,  and 
was  speedily  applied.  Thereupon  prices  fell,  imports  were  checked,  and  in 
1788  these  were  nearly  equalled  by  our  exports.  In  1790  our  exports 
amounted  to  upwards  of  $20,000,000,  and  our  imports  footed  up  $23,000,000. 

The  remedy  to  which  we  here  refer  was  an  act  of  retaliation  designed  to 
put  American  shipping  on  an  equal  footing  with  that  of  (ireat  Britain,  and  thus 
Commercial  insure  reciprocity.  The  old  country  forbade  that  produce  be 
freedom.  imported  to  her  harbors,  except  in  Briti  '1  bottoms.  Immediately 
Congress  enacted  that  foreign  prodi^ce  should  not  be  landed  on  om-  shores. 
except  from  American  ships.  Under  this  arrangement,  vessels  had  to  go  one 
way  empty.  This  had  the  effect  of  securing  a  treaty  by  which  (jrcat  Britain 
conceded  equal  privileges  to  American  ships  with  her  own,  as  between  the 
ports  of  the  two  countries.  This  was  the  first  of  three  great  principles  m 
international  usage,  all  in  the  direction  of  commercial  freedom,  which  the 
United  States  established ;  the  other  two  being,  that  neutral  ships  make  free 
goods,  and  that  a  neutral  nation  is  responsible  for  the  damage  done  by  ])ri\a- 
teers  fitted  out  in  her  ports.  Thus  it  will  be  observed  that  the  young  republic 
of  the  West  has  championed  the  rights  of  mankind  upon  the  sea  as  well  as 
upon  land  ;  and,  as  those  of  the  sea  are  exclusively  commercial,  her  champion- 
ship has  been  of  the  greatest  value  to  whoever  navigates  the  common  high- 
ways of  the  world.  The  commerce  of  the  world  has  been  benefited  and 
promoted  by  the  pride,  pluck,  and  conscious  dignity  of  the  American  nation. 

The  prompt  and  decided  self-assertion  of  commercial  equalit}  cannot  be 
appreciated  in  these  present  davs  without  a  recollection    of  the 

Importance  . 

of  maintain-   exclusivc  maritime  sui)remacy  of  the  Dutch  over  the  whole  world 
ing  commer-   pj-jor  to  the  time  of  Charles  II.,  and  of  the  subsequent  monopoly 
of  the  world's  commerce  by  Great  Britain.     Viewed  in  comparison 
with  precedent  history,  it  was  a  singularly  bold  assumption. 

Another  noticeable  influence  upon  the  development  of  America's  foreign 
trade,  immediately  after  the  Revolution,  was  the  rise  of  our  enterprising. 
Merchant-  shrewd,  and  adventurous  merchant-princes,  who  designed  the  most 
princes.  daring    and    successfiil    commercial    expeditions,    comparatively 

speaking,  this  country  has  ever  known.     They  sent  ships  to  all  parts  of  the 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


86 1 


'ms% ' 


to 


t' 


,  and  thus     |V 
3(lucc   he     ^i 
mediately      t 
ur  sliores,      f 

0  go  one  I 
:it  JSntain  " 
ween  the  ':. 
iciples  m  ^: 
s'hich  the 
nake  free      - 

by  priva-  j 
;  republic 
IS  well  as 
hampion- 
lon  iiigh- 
fited  and 

nation, 
annot  he 

1  of  the 
ole  world 
nono])oly 
mparison 


globe,  even  to  China,  founding  in  this  last-named  quarter  a  trade  that  has  never 
ceased  to  grow ;  and  so  summarily  punisliing  tiie  Algcrine  pirates  in  the  Medi- 
terranean, that  American  trade  on  that  sea  enjoyed  unusual  freedom  from  liiat 
pest.  Among  the  most  prominent  among  these  men  was  William  wuiiam 
Cray  of  Boston,  whose  reputation  soon  became  world-wide,  and  as  °''*>'- 
honored  in  the  East  as  in  the  West.  His  ships  navigated  every  sea,  and  em- 
ployed hundreds  of  hardy  men.  The  skilful  and  bold  seamen  who  com- 
manded his  ships  were  not  of  the  later  class  of  "  dandy  captaiiis,"  who  came 
in  with  the  "liners;"  but  it  was  his  saying,  that  the  best  captains  would  sail 
with  a  load  of  fish  to  the  West  Indies,  hang  up  a  stocking  in  the  cabin,  put 
therein  the  hard  dollars  as  they  sold  the  fish,  and  pay  out  from  it  as  they 
bought  the  rum,  molasses,  and  sugar,  tie  up  the  balance,  and  hand  it  in  at  the 
counting-room  on  their  return  home  in  lieu  of  all  accounts.  The  honesty 
and  judgment  of  their  proceedings  were  beyond  question,  and  the  problem 
of  tiie  profits  between  the  fish  sent  and  the  cargo  and  stocking  returned  was 
for  the  clerks  to  solve.  The  genius  for  plotting  long  and  intricate  voyages 
lelonged  to  the  head  of  the  house.  New  York,  in  John  Jacob  Astor,  had  a 
still  more  extensive  operator.  He  first  projected  the  enterprises  to  the  north- 
west coast,  and  laid  out  with  profound  skill  schemes  which  it  took  ten  years  to 
ripen  ;  and  his  name  was  known  throughout  the  world.  Philadelphia  had  an 
exponent  of  her  commercial  power  in  Stephen  Girard,  whose  en-  Stephen 
terprises  belonged  to  the  same  period  of  large  operations  and  bold  Girard. 
conduct.  Girard's  ships  were  actively  engaged  in  commerce  with  the  West 
Indies  at  the  time  of  the  revolution  in  San  Domingo,  and  carried  away  many 
rich  refugees.  His  wealth  received  large  accessions  from  the  property  placed 
on  board  by  those  who  could  not  escape.  The  Patersons  of  Baltimore  led 
the  commerce  of  that  city :  and  behind  these  leading  names,  which  are  asso- 
ciated in  history  with  vast  fortunes,  came  a  crowd  of  lesser  ones  ;  for  the  mer- 
cantile intellect  was  as  busy  in  this  country  at  that  time  as  was  military, 
political,  and  literary  genius  throughout  tlie  world. 

The  internal  agency  that  led  to  the  national  self-assertion  and  this  bold 
individual  enterprise  was  doubtless  the  enthusiasm  of  independ- 
ence.    Already  the  colonists  were  a  commercial  jicople  :  triumph 
over  England  inspired  them  to  greater  ventures  ;    freedom   and 
success  stimulated  further  action  ;  and  the  imposition  of  a  tariff,   )^gf|."^  ^°"^' 
the  organization  of  a  bureau  of  commercial   statistics,  and   the 
establishment  of  our  currency  on  a  sound  basis,  awakened  confidence  in  our 
commercial  strength  at  home  and  abroad. 

Another  impulse  was  given  to  our  commerce  by  the  sudden  development 
of  the  cotton  production  at  the  commencement  of  this  century,   Effect  of 
which  we  have  elsewhere  described  at  some  length.     The  invention   cotton  pro- 
of the  cotton-gin  gave  a  sudden   development  to  this  industry, 
and  gave  us  a  new  and  valuable  commodity  for  export.     In  1 790  we  exported 


Effect  of 
independ- 
ence in  stim- 


862 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


lft 

Embarrass 
ments  of 

SE 

Anglo- 
French 

'M^w 

conflict. 

but  $42,285  worth  of  cotton  :  in  1807  the  amount  was  valued  at  $14,23^,000. 
Later,  still  vaster  dimensions  were  attained.  But,  in  the  last  year  here  <  iU'il, 
our  cotton  alone  formed  nearly  one-third  of  the  value  of  our  total  export,  it 
might  be  mentioned  in  this  place,  that  just  previous  to  this  time  the  South  lia,} 
become  greatly  dei)ressed,  business-wise  ;  for  her  blacks  had  not  been  aMc  to 
earn  their  own  living.  Hence  in  1808,  some  years  after  the  evil  began  to  he 
first  felt,  the  further  importation  of  slaves  was  prohibited  by  an  anicndiiK'nt 
to  the  F'ederal  Constitution ;  anil,  as  the  vessels  engaged  in  this  traffic  wore 
chiefly  of  New-England  ownership,  the  check  was  not  fully  enjoyed  by  the 
commercial  interest.  Other  events,  however,  at  that  time,  distractetl  alteiition, 
and  prevented  any  expression  of  resentment. 

A  cause  external  to  American  politics  and  enterprise  also  gave  new  stiiiiu- 

lus  to  American  commerce  soon  after  the  Revolution.     The  ambition  of  thr 

great  Napoleon  led  to  war  between  I'higland  and   France  at  the 

Napoleon.  ,  ^     ,  .    ,  ,  1      1  1  1  ■       • 

close  of  the  eighteenth  century,  and  thus  the  shii)ping  ot  both 
nations  was  unsafe  at  sea.  The  carrying-trade  was  therefore  assumed  by  the 
navigators  of  this  country,  who  brought  much  of  the  West  Indies  antl  other 
produce  designed  ultimately  for  Europe,  and  much  of  the  exciiange  freight,  to 
our  shores  en  route.  The  stoppage  of  production  in  Europe  on  account  ot"  a 
general  war  created  a  greater  demand  for  American  food-products  and  manu- 
factures, antl  thus  increased  our  domestic  export  trade.  An  interesting  trian- 
gular exchange  of  credits  occurred  at  this  time.  England  had  large  credits  in 
this  country  at  that  time  on  account  of  certain  shipments  of  manufactures : 
the  United  States  was  acquiring  large  credits  in  France  on  account  of  ship- 
ments of  produce.  England  had  no  direct  trade-relations  with  France.  l)ut 
wanted  to  transfer  money  to  the  Continent  for  political  uses ;  and  so  bought 
these  American  credits  in  France,  taking  them  in  payment  of  our  debts  to  lier. 
While,  on  the  whole,  the  Anglo-French  conflict  was  advantageous  to  u-.  at 
first,  it  had  its  embarrassments  and  was  afterwards  disastrous  in  its  influence 
upon  our  commerce.  In  1793,  England,  jealous  of  seeming 
benefits  derived  by  France  from  this  arrangement,  domineeringly 
forbade  American  vessels  to  carry  food  to  any  port  occupied  by 
French  troops.  She  also  exercised  the  right  of  impressing  Ameri- 
can seamen  into  her  own  navy.  Under  these  and  other  orders 
.Americans  were  robbed  of  much  property,  and  war  was  threatened  ;  but 
matters  were  smoothed  over  by  a  treaty  negotiated  by  Mr.  Jay,  by  which  the 
sum  of  ten  million  dollars  war,  awarded  us.  This  enraged  France,  whi(  h 
began  to  seize  our  ships ;  but  Napoleon  put  a  stop  to  such  proceedings  in 
1800.  But  further  embarrassments  ensued.  England  declared  all  of  luirope, 
from  the  Elbe  to  Brest,  in  a  state  of  blockade,  thus  prohibiting  Amerii  an 
ships  from  entering  there.  Napoleon  retaliated  with  the  Berlin  decree  of 
November  in  that  year,  prohibiting  all  intercourse  with  the  British  island-. 
Both  sides  issued  further  and  more  comprehensive  edicts  of  the  same  insane 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


863 


h      ii 


864 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


sort ;  and  finally,  in  1807,  to  avoid  war,  the  United-States  (lovernment  laid  an 
embargo  upon  commerce;  altogether.  So  violent  was  the  re-action  in  Ameri- 
can commercial  circles,  that  our  government  was  forced  to  modify  very 
essentially  this  action  next  year,  substituting  non-intercourse  laws  for  the  first 
enactment.  Still  our  commerce  was  sadly  crippled,  and  was  long  in  recovering,' 
from  the  effects  of  this  blow.  It  is  an  interesting  fact  in  this  connection,  that, 
in  1803,  Jerome  JJonaparte,  brother  of  the  great  Corsican,  married  into  the 
Paterson  family  of  ^Jaltimore,  already  spoken  of  as  eminent  in  comnicree. 
The  Paterson  interest,  through  Jerome,  was  successful  in  gaining  stealthv 
admission  to  French  ports  for  what  was,  after  all,  much-coveted  liroduee. 
This,  however,  was  chiefly  before  the  embargo  of  1807. 

This  was  the  culmination  of  a  long  period  of  remarkable  commercial 

activity  and  prosperity.    An  immediate  and  remarkable  decline  ensued.    Before 

considering  the  latter,  therefore,  it  is  worth  while  to  briefly  review 

Embargo. 

the  former.  The  treaty  of  peace  which  acknowledged  American 
independence  was  signed  in  1 783,  The  loose  confederation  of  States  was 
succeeded  by  the  present  union  under  the  new  constitution  in  1789.  I'Yom 
the  following  year  our  commercial  statistics  date.  The  embargo  occurretl  in 
1807.  The  following  table  shows  the  development  of  our  commerce  in  the 
interval,  and  the  check  put  upon  it  by  this  enactment,  and  the  delay  in 
recuperation :  — 


YEAR. 

TONNAGE. 

DOMESTIC 
EXPORTS. 

FOREIGN 
EXPORTS. 

TOTAL 
EXPORTS. 

IMPOKTS. 

1790 

474.374 

$19,666,000 

)!5S39.is6 

$20,205,156 

$23,000,000 

1807 

1,268,548 

48,669,592 

59,643,558 

108,343,150 

138,500,000 

I80S 

1,247,596 

9.433.546 

12,997,414 

22,430,960 

56,990,000 

I815 

1,368,127 

45.974.403 

6,583.350 

52.557.753 

113,041,274 

i8i6 

1,372,218 

64,781,896 

17,138,556 

81,920,452 

147,103,700 

These  international  complications  led  at  length  to  war  with  England,  whicli 

lasted  from  181 2  to  1815.     The  result  of  that  war,  it  will  be  remembered,  was 

^  ^  ^     the  establishment  of  the  principle,  that  England  had  no  rigiit  to 

with  Great      board  our  merchant-vessels,  and  claim  our  seamen  for  her  citizens ; 

Britain,  and    ^^^^  ^^^  ,^^^^  j.j^g  merchant-marine  of  a  neutral  nation,  in  time  of 

its  effect. 

war,  might  go  where  it  pleased  without  molestation.  It  is  a  well- 
known  fact  that  this  triumph  was  accomplished  chiefly  by  the  American  navy : 
and  it  is  worth  remembering  that  that  navy  was  greaUy  strengthened  by  the 
influx  thereto  of  hardy  sailors  from  our  now  paralyzed  merchant-marine.  .\t 
first  it  was  feared  that  the  magnificent  British  navy  would  destroy  ours  in  almost 
no  time,  and  Congress  was  determined  to  send  the  government  ships  up  the 
rivers  for  refuge  ;  but,  at  the  earnest  solicitation  of  the  naval  officers  themselves, 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


they  were  permitted  to  go  to  sea.  "The  astonishment  in  Europe,"  says  Kettell, 
"the  (hsmay  in  England,  and  delight  in  the  United  States,  could  scarcxMy  be 
equalled,  when  the  encounter  on  the  seas  resulted  in  the  unprecedented  spec- 
tacle of  a  series  of  triumphs  over  the  tyrant  of  the  ocean.  In  the  short 
period  of  twenty  years  a  power  hail  arisen  that  was  thenceforth  to  ];now  no 
master  upon  the  ocean,  and  submit  to  no  insults ;  and  this  j)ower  had  been 
1)0111  of  cgmmerce." 

War  had  paralyzed  all  other  industries  as  well  as  commerce.     Agricultural 
produce,  finding  no  outlet,  accumulated  in  warehouses ;  ships  lay  idle  at  the 
wharves  ;  property  dei^reciated  ;  and  credits  became  overstrained,   y^u  jn^ug. 
Something  like  a  panic  ensued  upon  the  declaration  of   peace;   tries  para- 
bul  general  business  soon  recuperated,  owing  to  the  improvement    ^^^     ^  ''* 
brought  about  by  the  escape  of  penned-up  agricultural  produce,  the  establish- 
ment of  the  Bank  of  the  United  States,  and  the  imposition  of  a  tariff  on  the 
heavy  importations  that  followed  the  war. 

Several  important  changes  now  took  place  in  our  various  industries.  That 
department  of  agriculture  which  producx'd  food  was  depressed,  because  no 
longer  called  upon  by  Europe  for  such  large  supplies :  indeed,  our  foreign 
trade  in  food  did  not  again  develop  for  thirty  years,  Cottbn  was  called  for 
more  than  ever  at  home  and  abroad,  and  its  culture  rapidly  developed.  In 
1818  fully  forty  per  cent  of  873,854,000  worth  of  exports  were  of  raw  cotton, 
or  more  than  double  what  tliey  were  in  1807,  'L'he  conuiiercial  interest  of 
New  England,  which  had  opposed  the  war,  and  lud  been  prostrated  thereby, 
was  discouraged  by  the  frilling  off  in  the  foreign  tiemand  for  food-prcKlucts, 
and  still  more  by  the  resumption  of  their  own  carrying-trade  by  the  other 
countries.  It  will  be  discovered,  from  the  table  which  we  shall  presently  give, 
that  this  latter  branch  of  American  industry  never  regained  the  dimensions 
of  the  period  just  before  the  embargo.  Accordingly,  capital  was  willulrawn 
from  the  shipping-interest,  and  put  into  manufactures,  which  were  protracted 
hy  the  increasing  tariffs  of  i8r6,  1818,  1819,  1824,  and  182S,  These,  in  turn, 
checked  the  importation  of  foreign  goods  after  the  first  rush  consequent  upon 
the  peace  of  1S15.  The  combineil  effect  of  all  these  causes  was  to  reduce 
our  imports,  lessen  our  re-exports,  increase  our  domestic  exports,  keep  the 
balance  of  trade  very  nearly  even,  and  induce  a  period  of  unusually  ([uict, 
even  trade,  whose  proportions  were  rather  less  than  those  of  the  period  pre- 
ceding the  embargo  of  1808,  This  latter  fact  can  be  perceived  from  a 
comparison  of  the  following  figures  with  the  precedhig  table  :  Average  exi)ortd 
of  domestic  produce  for  each  of  the  years  1821-30,  S53, 610,502  ;  average 
Ibreign,  $22,964,383;  total  average  export  per  year,  $76,574,885;  average 
import,  $79,863,340, 

A  notable  feature  of  the  commerce  of  the  era  of  which  we  are  now  speak- 
ing was  the  endeavor  of  Great  IJritain  to  control  it  by  more  peaceful  means, 
but  not  less  certainly  than  before,  by  making  her  ports  the  great  point  of 


V\ 


"!'    M 


I 

I 


,>- 


866 


I. WD  rs  TR  lA  L    HIS  TOR  V 


m 


exchange  between  the  United  States  and  such  other  countries  as  Uadud 
Warehouse  willi  Iier.  This  was  largely  elTocted  by  the  "  warehouse  system." 
system.  "Inducements   were    held   out,"    says    Kettell,    "by  fixciliii<.s  of 

entry,  and  advances  on  merchandise,  to  attract  thither  the  produce  of  all 
nations ;  because,  under  such  circumstances,  not  only  did  iJrilish  maiiiifac- 
turers  have  within  their  reach  the  raw  materials  of  all  manufactures,  but  trading;. 
vessels  had  in  those  ample  warehouses  every  variety  of  goods  to  make  up  an 
assorted  cargo  for  any  voyage  in  the  world,  and  make  of  them  the  medium  of 
selling  British  goods.  Thus  all  the  new  countries  of  America,  Africa,  and  .\<h, 
offered  markets  which  would  absorb  small  (piantities  of  a  great  variety  of 
articles;  but  a  cargo  of  any  one  of  them  would  glut  them.  To  make  a  pmfita- 
ble  voyage,  therefore,  a  cargo  should  be  composed  of  such  a  variety  of  wares 
as  would  all  sell  to  advantage.  If  Virginia  was  to  send  a  whole  cargo  of 
tobacco  to  Africa,  a  portion  of  it  would  sell,  and  the  remainder  be  a  dead 
stock,  and  the  voyage  a  losing  one.  The  same  thing  would  happen  to  a  cari^o 
of  rum,  or  calicoes,  or  gunpowder,  or  hardware,  or  the  variety  of  articles  that 
make  up  the  wants  of  a  small  community.  If  a  vessel's  cargo  should  be  com- 
posed, in  proper  proportions,  of  all  these  articles,  the  whole  would  sell  well, 
and  the  voyage  pay ;  but  for  a  vessel  to  go  around  to  places  where  each  of 
these  articles  is  to  be  had,  and  so  collect  a  cargo,  is  expensive,  and  would  still 
result  in  loss.  The  English  warehouse  system  sought  to  supply  a  want  here 
by  attracting  into  them  all  possible  descriptions  of  tropical  and  other  produce. 
A  ship  might  then  make  up. her  cargo  for  any  part  of  the  world  re  the  smallest 
average  expense,  and  every  cargo  was  sure  to  be  completed  with  liritish  manu- 
factures. Under  such  circumstances,  they  could  compete  with  any  other  nation. 
The  advantage  was  so  manifest,  that  American  ships  would  go  out  in  ballast 
to  England,  to  fit  them  out  for  Asiatic  markets.  It  resulted  from  this,  that 
England  continued  to  be  the  recipient  of  most  American  produce,  not  only 
for  her  own  use,  but  for  export  elsewhere.  With  her  large  capital  she  ad- 
vanced on  the  produce,  and  so  controlled  it,  becoming  the  banker  for  the 
Americans.  The  nations  of  the  Continent,  slowly  recovering  from  the  effects 
of  the  long  wars,  began  to  manufacture  such  articles  as  found  sale  in  the 
United  States  ;  while  they  did  not  purchase  largely  in  return.  China  furnished 
teas  and  silks,  and  got  its  pay  by  bills  drawn  against  American  credits  in 
London.  The  new  Bank  of  the  V  ited  States  operated  the  credit,  giving  the 
China  merchant  a  six-months'  bill  on  London,  which  he  took  in  preference  to 
silver,  which  he  before  remitted.  These  bills  were  paid  out  for  the  tea,  and  by  the 
Hong-Kong  merchant,  who  received  them,  were  paid  to  the  British  East-bidia 
merchant  for  opium  or  raw  cotton.  By  the  latter  it  was  remitted  to  London, 
where  it  was  met  by  funds  already  provided  through  the  United-States  Bank  by 
sales  of  American  produce.  This  centralization  of  trade  in  England,  however, 
became  inconvenient.  The  American  ships  that  now  began  to  carry  cotton, 
tobacco,  rice,  and  some  breadstuff,  to  Europe,  had  thence  no  adequate  return- 


OF    THE    CX/TED    STATES. 


86  7 


freights,  because  those  countries  did  not  as  yet  offer  a  good  supj)ly  of  merchan- 
dise Soon,  however,  there  sprang  up  an  increas-'ig  migration  to  the  United 
States  from  (Jermany,  across  France,  vid  Havre ;  and  tiiese  i)assengers  became 
a  (lesiral)le  return-freight,  causing  a  change  in  tlie  model  of  tlie  ships  engageil 
ill  the  traile.  IJy  this  means  the  height  was  rethiced  ;  or  rather  the  shi[)  could 
carry  out  cotton  cheaper,  since  she  was  no  longer  compelled  to  return  empty. 
The  result  was,  therefore,  cheapened  transportation,  in  the  same  manner  tiiat 
the  modification  of  the  navigation  laws,  enabling  ships  to  carry  cargoes  both 
ways,  had  cheapened  freight." 

We  now  approacii  m-\  important  event  in  the  financial  and  industrial  his- 
tory of  this  country  ;  namely,  the  panic  of  1837.  It  is  not  within  the  scope  of 
our  i)resent  purpose  to  show  all  its  causes  and  effects,  but  merely  panic  of  1837; 
its  relations  to  our  foreign  commerce.  Suffice  it,  therefore,  to  say,  causes  of  it. 
that  the  era  of  land  speculation  from  1S30  to  1837  undermin'^d  the  spirit  of 
industry,  and  lessened  our  jjroduction.  In  agricultural  circle^,  cotton  was 
almost  the  only  commodity  that  continued  to  increase  in  yield  and  exjiort ; 
and  this  it  did  steadily  and  rapidly.  As  for  food,  not  only  did  our  exports  fivU 
away  to  almost  nothing,  but  in  1836  we  were  reduced  to  the  shamei'ul  neces- 
sity o(  i/f//>of/in^' wheat  from  Russia.  In  1831  the  high  tariff  on  imported 
manufiictured  goods  was  greatly  reduced.  It  was  then  discovered,  that,  in  the 
movement  of  capital  after  the  war  of  181 2-15,  more  was  invested  in  domestic 
manufactures  than  was  wise.  There  was  over-production,  and  pernicious 
competition  even  at  home.  The  reduction  of  the  tariff  let  in  a  flood  of  foreign 
goods  at  lower  prices,  and  still  further  paralyzed  the  manufacturing  industry;  so 
that  this  class  of  our  exports  fell  off.  By  consulting  the  table  which  wc  shall  give 
a  few  pages  hence,  the  reader  will  see  how  abnormal  was  the  excess  of  imports 
over  our  exports  during  the  decade  1831-40.  In  the  year  1836  alone  this 
excess  amounted  to  upwards  of  $61,000,000,  which  was  twice  the  balance  of 
trade  against  us  during  the  whole  ten  years  prior  to  1830.  As  a  further  indi- 
cation of  the  demoralized  condition  of  business,  it  may  be  remarked,  that  the 
increase  in  imports  was  chiefly  in  articles  of  luxury,  —  silks,  wines,  &c. ;  yet  in 
the  mean  time  we  were  doing  less  remunerative  labor  to  pay  for  such  things 
than  usual.  Thus,  while  the  imports  of  silk  rose  from  less  than  $6,000,000  in 
1831  to  $23,000,000  in  1S36,  and  silks,  wines,  spirits,  and  sugar,  from  $13,550,- 
000  to  $41,850,000  in  the  same  period,  the  export  of  flour  and  other  pro- 
visions fell  from  $28,000,000  to  barely  more  than  $14,000,000.  At  this  period 
our  credit  was  remarkably  good  in  London ;  and  not  only  was  merchandise 
sent  here  on  credit,  but  capital  was  loaned  to  start  banks  in  the  West  wherewith 
to  promote  land  speculation.  The  crops  were  good  in  England,  money  was 
plenty,  and  capitalists  felt  liberal ;  besides,  the  large  fire  in  New  York  in  1835 
—  which  destroyed  $18,000,000  worth  of  goods,  and  created  a  special  demand 
from  abroad  to  that  extent  —  was  regarded  as  a  piece  of  good  fortune  for 
the  British  merchant,  rather  than  otherwise.     One  cause  that  operated  to  blind 


ii* 


<:l 


(!'; 


868 


IND  US  TRIA  I.    ins  TOK  V 


our  eyes  to  the  coming  collapse  was  the  over-estimate  of  the  value  of  our 
exports.  'I'he  course  of  business  at  that  time  reciuireil  shipments  of  Aincrii  an 
pro(kice,  mostly  cotton,  to  firms  abroad,  who  made  advanc  es  on  the  coiisiL;n- 
nient  at  a  certain  ratio  less  than  the  fa<:es  of  the  invoice.  The  produce  afin- 
wards  sold  for  the  account  of  the  owner,  and  not  infrecpiently  did  not  luini,' 
the  amount  of  the  advances.  Thus,  if  cotton  were  shipped  at  sixteen  cents  a 
j)ound,  and  twelve  cents  were  advanced,  the  amount  realized  might  be  only 
eleven  cents.  I  lence  the  real  exports  of  the  country  w<;re  not  always  nica.>,- 
ured  by  the  export  value. 

The  grand  crash  came  in  1837.  Like  all  such  crises  in  this  and  otlur 
countries,  it  took  even  the  business-men  two  or  three  years  to  fully  understand 
Causes  not  how  it  cauic  about,  and  the  jn'ople  even  longer.  At  length  it  was 
understood,  reali/cd  that  while  speculation  in  land  or  any  thing  else,  ainpli; 
credits  from  home  and  foreign  capitalists,  and  plenty  of  banks-bills  based  niioii 
credit,  gave  a  tenijKJrary  and  artificial  prosperity  to  a  nation,  the  only  basis  of  rial 
wealth  was  labor  in  the  production  of  something  to  sell,  and  enough  of  it  not 
only  to  supply  our  own  consumption,  but  also  to  send  abroad  to  pay  for  what 
we  bought  there.  Accordingly,  personal  and  mercantile  credits  came  to  an 
end,  individuals  and  merchants  stopped  running  in  debt,  and  the  country 
applied  itself  to  productive  industry.  The  effect  is  clearly  discerned  in  tho 
statistics  given  in  our  next  ta])le.  Our  imports  for  the  decade  ending  1S50 
were  slightly  less  than  for  the  previous  ten  years,  and  otir  exports  vastly  niotv  ; 
and  iiie  balance  of  trade  against  us  was  cut  down  from  $260,75^^,1 54  to 
17,219,199  for  the  two  periods,  In  Uie  years  1813,  1821,  1825,  and  1827, 
owing  in  some  cases  to  abnormal  influences,  our  exports  had  exceeded  our 
imports,  but  only  to  a  slight  extent.  In  1825  the  excess  was  a  littlr  over 
^3,000,000,  which  was  more  than  in  any  of  the  other  years  here  named,  but 
in  1840  the  country  had  so  well  mastered  the  teachings  of  the  recent  ])anii: 
and  hard  times,  that  our  exports  exceeded  our  imports  by  $25,000,000.  We 
could  not  keep  up  this  advantage,  however.  Tiirice  during  the  next  (lc(  ade 
did  our  exports  exceed  our  imports :  in  1842  the  difference  was  $4,589,447, 
in  1844  it  was  $2,765,011,  and  in  1847  it  was  $12,102,984.  Yet  in  the 
other  years  we  ran  behind  enough  to  wipe  this  all  out,  and  remain  $7,219,199 
in  debt  to  Europe ;  which,  however,  as  we  have  already  remarked,  was  a  vast 
reduction  compared  with  the  previous  ten  years. 

A  force  which  tended  to  ecjualize  trade  at  this  time  was  the  Irish  famine  of 
1846.  In  1842  the  British  Government  removed  the  prohibition  upon  inipor- 
irish  famine  tations  of  American  cattle  and  provisions,  and  reduced  the  duties 
of  1846.  Q,-j  corn,  which  were  fmally  abolished  in   1849.     Under  the  iptlu- 

ence  of  the  former  enactments  the  export  of  dairy  products,  bacon,  barrelled 
pork  and  beef,  and  grain,  began  to  grow.  But,  when  the  tremenuous  demand 
of  1846  came,  a  wonderful  impetus  was  given  to  food  production  and  export, 
and  a  development  imparted  to  the  agricultural  interests  of  this  country  wliich 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


869 


has  since  steadily  rontinued.  Our  exports  rose  from  5 106,000,000  in  1841  to 
^150,000,000  in  1848  ;  and  the  gain  was  priiu  ipally  in  food,  which  constituted 
onc-lialf  of  the  vahie  of  the  exports  of  1847.  The  Irisii  were  led  at  tiiis  time 
to  adopt  f;orn  instead  of  potatoes  for  the  staple  of  their  diet.  From  this  and 
otiier  like  causes,  American  produce  obtained  a  permanent  foothold  in  the 
foreign  market ;  and,  although  a  slight  subsidence  in  the  trade  ensued  shortly, 
the  growth  -soon  increased,  and  then  kept  up  steadily  anil  ra[)i(lly  to  the 
present  day,  its  dimensions  rivalling  those  of  our  huge  cotton  export. 

'I'he  heavy  export  of  produce  and  its  quick  cash  sales  in   1847  brought  us 
a  specie  import  of  $24,121,289,  —  a  receipt   never  before  paralleled  in  our 
history.     This  enlivened  business  wonderfully.      But  the  French   importation 
revolution  next  year,  turning  upon  property-rights,  depressed  the   "'  tpecie. 
home-market  in  France,  and,  by  lowering  prices,  induced  a  heavy  temporary 
export  to  this  country,  which  soon  absorbed  our  extra  cash.    This  Tariff  of 
movement  was  facilitated  by  a  reduction  in  our  tariff  in  1846.  '^<*- 
Inasmuch  as  business  was  then  on  a  sound  basis  in  this  country,  no  harm  was 
experienced  in  consequence. 

The  next  remarkable  feature  of  American  commerce  was  the  heavy  export 
of  gold  bullion  resulting  from  the  discovery  of  mineral  wealth  in  California. 
Our  cotton  and  food  exports  had  already  risen  into  prominence.  Export  of 
As  yet,  petroleum  was  comparatively  unknown ,  and  American  buUion. 
manuflictures,  while  steadily  growing  in  proportions  ^  and  gaining  a  better  place 
in  our  own  markets,  were  advancing  but  slowly  in  competition  with  those  of 
England  in  the  other  emporiums  of  the  world.  In  1848  gold  was  found 
near  Capt.  Sutter's  fort  in  California.  Although  the  influx  of  adventurers 
quickly  attained  large  dimensions,  the  product  of  the  precious  metal  did  not 
amount  to  much  until  1850,  when  it  was  about  $9,000,000.  This  steadily 
increased,  and  our  total  export  of  bullion  for  the  following  decade  was 
$507,000,000.  The  gold  furore  here  and  in  Australia  stimulated  the  transpor- 
tation to  both  regions  of  immense  quantities  of  food,  clothing,  machinery,  and 
other  commodities,  thus  stimulating  both  our  import  and  export  trade ;  the 
former,  however,  more  than  the  latter.  In  1847,  for  the  eighth  time  in  our 
riistory,  our  exports  exceeded  our  imports.  This  v/as  the  case  again  in  1851. 
But  the  heavy  importation  of  goods  for  the  California  trade,  and  the  slight 
relaxation  of  industry  for  purposes  of  gold-seeking  and  land  speculation,  turned 
the  balance  heavily  against  us  for  the  next  three  years  ;  and  though  the  scales 
turned  again  in  our  favor  during  the  next  five  years,  yet  the  whole  decade  left 
us  indebted  to  the  Old  World  nearly  $11,000,000.'' 


i: 


i. 


1  The  total  value  of  our  manufactures  caught  up  with  that  of  agricultural  production,  and  passed  it  for- 
ever in  the  race  shortly  before  1850. 

*  Only  thrice  since  1854  ^^'^  'h^  balance  of  trade  been  againsi  this  country.  It  is  noteworthy,  that  whereas, 
prior  to  1850,  the  balance  of  British  trade  was  in  favor  of  that  kingdom,  it  has  since  been  increasingly  the  other 
way.    The  imports  and  exports  of  France  are  almost  identical. 


•i] 


870 


/A//)  f/S  TA'/A  r.    HIS  TON  Y 


It  is  unnecessary  to  point  out  licre  tlic  causes  of  the  panic  of  181,/,  or 

to  show  its  general  resemblance  to  the  one  twenty  years  before.     It  is  iiiuii^h 

to  say  here  that  it  was  preceded  by  heavy  foreign  credits,  and  l.v 

Panic  of  1857.  '  ,■    .■  11  1  . 

the  extensive  investmeiU  ot  tc»reif,'n  capital  in  the  railroads  cit  ihc 
Mississippi  and  Ohio  Valleys,  whic:ii  were  called  for  by  the  sudden  agricultural 
development  of  that  region,  and  to  build  wiiich  inunense  (luantilies  of  rails 
were  imported  from  lOngland.  'I'he  general  effect  of  that  panic  upon  our 
commerce  was  to  slightly  diminish  our  exports,  and  largely  lessen  our  imports, 
tin;  following  year;  but  that  was  about  all.  An  attendant  circumstance,  if  not 
one  cause,  of  the  panic  of  1857,  was  the  failure  of  the  Louisiana  sugar-(  rop, 
which  caused  us  to  import  $55,000,000  worth  of  that  commodity,  or  five  times 
the  amount  imported  in  1S50. 

It  will  be  seen  by  the  following  table,  that  while  it  took  the  coimtry  full  ten 
years  to  learn  the  lessons  of  the  [)anic  of  1837,  and  to  recover  from  the  eHt(  ts 
of  it,  the  interval  from  1S50  to  i860  was  one  of  remarkable  prosperity.  Our 
total  trade  with  foreign  lands  during  the  decade  immediately  preceding  our 
civil  war  was  more  than  during  the  twenty  years  prior  to  1851. 


VEAK. 

DOMKSTIC 

FOIIEIGN 

TOTAL 

IMl'OKTS. 

DAI.ANi  i:  OK 

liXl'OKTS. 

liXl'OKTS. 

KXI'UKTS. 

;f484,968,938 

TH-\UK. 

I79I-I80O 

5293,634,645 

;?i9i,344,293 

$591,845,454 

$106,876,516 

I80I-IO      . 

383,401,077 

372,536,294 

755-937.37' 

927.Cj('3.5oo 

171,726,121; 

181  1-20      . 

462,701,288 

127,190,714 

589,892,002 

688,120,347 

98,228,145 

1821-30      . 

536,104,918 

229,643,834 

765.74S.752 

798,633.427 

30.,)55.''^^^' 

1831-40      . 

892,889,909 

1 99.4  5 '.994 

1,092,351,903 

1,302,476,084 

260,753,154 

1841-50      . 

1,131,458,801 

129,105,782 

1,260,564,583 

1,267,783,782 

7.219,199 

1851-60      . 

2,766,799,881 

226,950,036 

2.9'..  ,  .5.9'7 

3,004,591,285 

10,841,368 

In  estimating  the  influence  of  our  civil  war  upon  American  commerce,  it 
needs  to  be  remembered  that  commerce  and  transportation  are  not  identic  al. 
Effect  of  civil  ^Vhile  it  was  unsafe  to  ship  goods  under  the  American  flag  while 
war  upon  the  rebel  cruisers  were  afloat,  there  was  no  interference  with  such 
commerce.  tf^dc  as  was  carried  on  in  foreign  bottoms.  The  rebel  cruisers 
depredated  upon  our  fishing-fleets,  especially  our  whalers ;  but  still  greater 
damage  was  done  to  this  latter  branch  of  industry  by  the  marvellous  and 
sudden  development  of  our  petroleum  product  just  before  and  during  the 
war.  We  may  attribute  to  the  war,  then,  the  diminution  of  our  exports  of  fish 
and  oil. 

The  real  harm  done  to  commerce  by  this  internecine  conflict  was  the 
Effect  upon  lessening  of  actual  production  and  the  impairment  of  our  credit, 
production  The  former  effect  was  most  marked  in  the  stoppage  of  cotton- 
culture,  and  consequently  of  cotton-exports.  This  is  the  princi])al 
explanation  of  the  falling-off  of  domestic  exports  noticeable  in  the  table  which 


e 


OF    THE    UNITED   STATES. 


871 


we  shall  shortly  give.  The  <  aptiirc  of  New  Orleans  opened  up  a  small  siijiply 
of  the  stored  crop  of  i860,  \vhi(  h  now  began  to  lind  its  way  to  market.  I'he 
great  bulk  of  the  hidden  cotton,  though,  was  not  obtaineil  until  1H05  ;  and  it 
lij;iired  in  the  exports  of  the  following  year.  For  four  or  five  years  after  the 
war,  cotton-culture  recuperated  slowly;  but  since  1870  it  has  figured  as  promi- 
P'litly  among  our  exports  as  before  the  war.  'I'hc  impairment  of  credit,  and 
C(Mise(|uent  high  pri(  es,  lessened  importation  ;  but,  when  the  Rebellion  was 
supnressed,  confidence  in  the  ability  of  American  merchants  to  pay  recovered, 
ami  imi)ortation  increased.  The  total  dimensions  of  our  trade  from  1861  to 
1S65  inclusive  was  much  less  than  iVom  1856  to  i860  inclusive:  but  the 
balance  of  trade  was  even  more  in  our  favor  during  the  war-period  than  during 
the  corresponding  interval  before  ;  so  that  the  people  of  the  ( ountry,  in  the 
capacity  of  i)rivate  persons,  more  than  paid  luirope  for  what  she  sold  us  by 
their  labor. 

Two  notable  features  of  the  war-period  of  our  history  were  the  sudden 
development  of  our  petroleum-industry,  and  the  discovery  and  produ(  tion  of 
the  famous  Comstoc:k  lode,  each  of  which  is  treated  at  length  in   _      , 

'  ''  Develop- 

other  departments  of  this  book;    but  we  mention  them   here  to    ment  of 

say  that  the  two  products  formed  a  consi)ic  lous  part  of  our  exi)orts   P'="°'e"'n- 

'  ^  '  *  '  industry. 

during  the  era  of  which  we  are  now  speaking.     Gold  had  fallen 
off  in  production  and  export ;  and,  shortly  after  the  war,  silver  lessened  gradu- 
ally also.    The  petroleum-export,  however,  has  steadily  increased. 

Two  influences  growing  out  of  the  war  exerted  a  peculiarly  stimulating 
effect  on  production,  ami  so  increased  our  trade  immediately  upon  the  termi- 
nation of  hostilities.  One  was  the  imposition  of  a  heavy  tariff 
on  imports,  which  promoted  manufacturing ;  and  the  other  was 
the  invention,  manufacture,  and  extensive  use  of  labor-saving  machinery  for 
both  agricultural  and  manufacturing  purposes.  These  facilities  were  needed 
to  Replace  the  men  called  off  by  the  army  and  navy.  When  the  sursivors 
came  back,  the  new  flicilities  enabled  the  country  to  hugely  augment  its  pro- 
duction in  all  departments  of  industry.  The  effect  was  to  greatly  increase  our 
export  of  food  of  all  kinds,  slightly  increase  our  export  of  manufactures,  and 
lessen  our  importation  of  the  latter. 

The  panic  of  1873  and  consequent  period  of  "hard  times  "  were  brought 
on  by  chiefly  the  same  causes  as  induced  the  panics  of  1837  and  1857.  I-'irst, 
there  was  an  immense  over-production  of  manufactured  goods ;  Panic  of 
second,  agricultural  activity  had  led  to  the  construction  of  new  '^73- 
railroads,  notably  the  Northern  Pacific,  which  were  not  really  needed  ;  third, 
credits  were  vastly  overstrained  for  personal  luxury  and  indulgence,  commer- 
cial extension,  and  speculation  in  oil-lands,  mining-storks,  and  railroad-build- 
ing ;  fourth,  an  inflated  paper  currency  had  imparted  false  values  to  property, 
which  now  began  to  shrink.  That  usual  prelude  to  a  panic,  a  remarkable 
excess  of  imports  over  exports,  was  noticeable  in  1872      In  1S71  we  exported 


War-tariff. 


i 


I*! 


872 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


$50,000,000  more  than  we  imported  :  in  1872  we  imported  $68,000,000  more 
than  we  exported.  So  much  for  causes.  The  effect  of  the  panic  at  home  was 
to  check  manufacturing,  lessen  credits,  reduce  consumption  by  promoting  per- 
conal  and  individual  economy,  lower  prices,  stay  importation,  and  facilitate 
export.  Hence,  on  the  whole,  our  foreign  commerce  has  been  enlarged  sine  e 
the  panic ;  but,  as  the  surplusage  of  manufactured  products  has  been  worked 
off,  the  export  trade  has  slightly  diminished,  and  importation  begun  to  revive. 
This  and  several  other  facts  referred  to  in  the  last  page  or  two  will  appear  from 
the  following  table  :  — 


^ 


W\ 


DOMESTIC 

FOREIGN 

TOTAL 

YEAR. 

EXl'ORTS. 

EXPORTS. 

EXPORTS. 

IMPORTS. 

BALANCE. 

I860I           . 

$373,189,274 

)iS26,933,022 

$400,122,296 

$362,166,254 

$37,956,042 

I86I 

228,699,486 

20,645,427 

249,344,913 

286,598,135 

37,253,2222 

1862 

213,069,519 

8,147,771 

222,217,290 

205,771,729 

14,445.461 

1863 

305,884,998 

26,123,584 

332,008,582 

252,919,920 

79,089,662 

1864 

320,035,199 

20,256,940 

341,292,739 

329,562,89s 

11,729,844 

1865 

306,306,758 

30,390,365 

336,697,123 

234,434,167 

2,262,956 

1866 

550,684,277 

14,742,117 

565,426,394 

445,512,158 

1 19,914,236 

1867 

438,577.312 

20,611,508 

459.188,820 

417,831,571 

41,357,249 

1868 

454,301,713 

22,601,126 

476,902,839 

371,624,808 

105,278,031 

1869 

413,961,115 

25.173,414 

439.134.529 

437,314,25s 

1,820,274 

1870 

499,092,143 

30,427,159 

529,519,302 

462,377,587 

67, -41.715 

187 1 

562,518,651 

28,459,899 

591.978,550 

541,493,708 

50,484,842 

1872 

549,219,718 

22,769,749 

571,989,467 

640,338,766 

68,349,2992 

1873 

649,132,563 

28,149,511 

677,282,074 

663,617,147 

13,664,927 

1874 

693,039-054 

23.780,338 

716,819,392 

595,861,248 

120,958,144 

187s 

559,237,638 

22,432,724 

581,690,362 

553.906,153 

27,784,209 

18768 

^>^^  5,545,352 

23,3".S38 

708,856,890 

461,818,499 

247,038,391 

18773 

671,632,366 

23,618,923 

695,251,289 

504,013,000 

191,238,289 

The  necessity  for  finding  an  outlet  for  our  excessive  stock  of  domestic 
manufactures  has  led  to  much  enterprise  in  the  ,vay  of  reaching  foreign 
markets  formerly  occupied  almost  exclusively  by  Europe.  To 
India,  China,  and  Brazil  especially,  within  the  past  four  years, 
extensive  exportation  of  American  goods  has  been  effected.  This 
is  particularly  the  case  with  cotton-cloths  ;  although,  besides  tliese, 
we  have  been  able  to  stop  the  sale  of  other  foreign  articles  in  our  own  markets, 
and  compete  successfully  in  other  pa'-is  of  the  world.  Paper  of  all  grades, 
from  the  finest  stationery  to  the  coaisest  wrappings  and  pasteboard,  now  goes 


Necessity  of 
finding  new 
outlets  for 
trade. 


m^^ 


•  The  figures  here  given  for  i860  and  the  next  sixteen  ye.irs  are  for  the  fiscal  years  ending  June  30,  not 
the  calendar  years  ending  Dec.  31.  The  calendar  year  i860  shows  a  balance  of  trade  against  us  of  thirty -four 
million  five  hundred  thousand  t'.ollars,  which  here  ei.ters  into  the  statement  of  the  fiscal  year  i86i. 

'  B.-\lance  against  us.     The  other  balances  here  given  are  in  our  favor. 

*  Calendar,  not  fiscal  year. 


'■'^i 


OF    THE   UNITED    STATES. 


873 


abroad.  Agricultural  implements  go  in  vast  quantities  to  Europe  and  else- 
where. This  movement  is  still  further  aided  by  the  efforts  of  the  State  Depart- 
ment at  Washington,  under  President  Hayes,  to  utilize  the  consular  service  in 
finding  out  what  American  commodities  might  find  a  better  market  in  each 
quarter  of  the  globe  where  our  nation  is  represented.  We  can  give  this  chap- 
ter no  more  fitting  conclusion,  perhaps,  than  the  following  analysis  ^f  our 
export  trade  for  1875,  which  appeared  in  "  The  New- York  Times  :  "  — 

The  value  of  our  foreign  exports  can  be  expressed  by  nine  figures ;  but  the 
character  of  that  branch  of  our  commerce,  —  the  articles,  quantities,  and 
values  embraced,  —  and  its  world-wide  diffusiveness,  cannot  fail  to  vaiue  of 
interest  and  instruct  those  not  in  the  habit  of  making  their  own  e«P«>"s. 
generalizations  from  confusing  statistical  tables.  The  entire  value  of  merchan- 
dise exported  from  the  United  States  during  the  last  fiscal  year,  computed  in 
national  currency,  was  $693,039,054.  The  gold  valuation  of  the  same  was 
15652,913,445  ;  which  is  greater  than  the  valuation  of  our  foreign  imports  for 
the  same  period  by  over  $5  7,000,000,  and  the  balance  of  trade  is  consequently 
in  our  favor  by  that  amount.  Many  of  the  articles  enumerated  in  the  list  of 
exports  which  are  grown  or  manufactured  in  the  United  States  are  also  found 
in  the  list  of  articles  imported  from  abroad.  The  simple  statement  of  this  fact 
should  suffice  to  show  the  folly  of  Americans  sending  their  money  abroad  for 
articles  which  may  be  purchased  at  much  lower  prices,  and  of  equally  good 
quality,  at  our  own  mar.  ifactories. 

As  the  Ur^ited  States  furnish  the  principal  market  for  the  sale  of  British 
merchandise,  so  Great  Britain  and  her  dependencies  offer  xhe  principal 
markets  for  our  exported  productions.  We  sent  to  the  markets  of  Quantit 
that  nation  during  the  last  fisc  year  merchandise  to  the  value  of  shipped  to 
§440,945,870;  which  is  nearly  two-thirds  of  the  entire  value  of  all 
our  exports  for  that  period.  Of  that  amount  there  was  shipped 
direct  to  England  $308,876,292,  and  to  Ireland  and  Scotland  564,690,2:6. 
The  value  of  merchandise  received  last  year  from  Great  Britain  was  $255,- 
180,597  gold.  Next  to  Great  Britain,  Germany  is  our  best  customer,  $64, 344,- 
622  being  our  receipts  for  her  purchases.  To  France  and  her  dependencies 
we  shipped  $50,485,045  worth  of  mercliandlse,  of  which  France  received 
directly  over  $50,000,000  worth.  Spain  and  her  colonies  paid  us  $33,505,549, 
of  which  there  was  from  the  mother-country  $11,6/1.3,715,  and  from  Cuba 
*  ■  j597,98i.  To  Belgium  we  sent  merchandise  valued  at  $20,197,515  ;  to 
the  Netherlands,  $15,156,309  ;  Pvussia,  $10,284,803  ;  Italy,  $8,378,666;  Tur- 
key, $2,549,493;  Denmark,  $2,430,791;  Norway  and  Sweden,  $2,385,088; 
China,  $1,629,1  '.5  ;  Japan,  $1,808,107  ;  Brazil,  $7,562,852;  United  States  of 
Colombia,  $5,123,845;  Mexico,  $4,073,679;  Hayti,  $4,265,686;  C'hili, 
$2,730,617;  Peru,  $2,518,494;  Argentine  Republic,  $2,478,513;  Venezuela, 
$2,384, 1 39.  The  countries  named  are  the  largest  markets  for  Oie  sale  and 
consumption  of  our  productions.     The  countries  which  purchased  least  from 


\arious 
countries. 


;::|| 


874 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


BiiKfl 


i 


us  are  Greece,  532,668  ;  Liberia,  5i  23,463  ;  San  Domingo,  ^5 14,633  ;  and  the 
Sandwich  Islands,  $623,280. 

If  cotton  is  no  longer  called  king,  it  is  still  the  largest  and  most  valualjle 
article  of  export,  and  brought  to  this  country  last  year  $211,223,580.  In 
Shipments  exchange  for  that  large  sum  of  money  we  exported  2,903,075 
of  cotton.  bales,  or  1,358,602,303  pounds.  Of  that  quantity  England  alono 
received  over  875,000,000  pounds,  and  paid  us  $136,952,187.  From  France 
we  received  for  the  same  staple  $27,187,222;  from  Germany,  $17,250,000 ; 
Russia,  $8,479,481;  Spain,  $8,266,178;  Ireland,  $3,855,303;  the  Nctlicr- 
lands,  $2,779,265  ;  Italy,  $1,974,114.  In  cotton-fabrics  we  exported  17,872,- 
22  yards,  valued  at  $2,350,000.  It  will  surprise  many  readers  to  learn  that 
' .  jgland  received  of  those  fabrics  1,145,786  yards,  valued  at  $132,857.  lira/.il, 
however,  bought  most  of  our  exported  cotton-fabrics,  the  yards  nvmibcring 
2,236,950,  of  which  the  value  was  $291,674.  France,  which  taxes  us  so 
heavily  for  fabrics  of  her  own  manufacture,  bought  only  $8,000  of  our  cot.'on- 
fabrics ;  while  Germany  patronized  ns  in  that  line  of  goods  to  the  value  of 
$46,000. 

The  Chinese  consumed  of  our  cotton-fabrics  1,749,440  yards,  paying  us 
$204,354  ;  which  is  a  sum  equal  to  twice  the  amount  we  paid  China  for  fire- 
Cotton-  crackers.     Chili  took   1,680,960  yards,  and   sent   us,  to  pay  for 

fabrics.  them,  $2 10,970  ;  while  Mexico  bought  1,363,9x5  yards  for  $15.8,- 

366.  The  remainder  of  that  class  of  fabrics  went  to  Asiatic  and  South-Ameri- 
can countries,  the  British  East  Indies  receiving  nearly  $75,000  worth.  The 
other  exported  articles  manufactured  from  cotton,  and  not  enumerated  above, 
are  valued  at  $745,850.  Our  total  receipts  for  exported  raw  cotton  and  manu- 
factures of  cotton  foot  up  $215,089,081.  Our  imported  manufactures  of  cot- 
ton for  the  year  were  valued  at  less  than  $25,000,000. 

Breadstuffs  are  next  to  cotton  in  valuation  of  exports,  amounting  to  $161,- 
198,864.  These  were  consigned  to  nearly  every  nation  on  the  globe,  the  only 
The  starving  European  countries  not  receiving  them  being  Austria,  Denmark, 
Greece,  Norv/ay  and  Sweden,  and  Turkey.  Of  wheat  we  exported 
71,039,928  busheb,  valued  at  $101,421,459;  wheat-flour,  4,094,- 
094  barrels,  valued  at  $29,258,094;  Indian-corn,  34,434,606  bushels,  valued 
at  $24,769,951.  England  receives  most  of  our  breadstuffs.  43,128,552 
bushels  of  wheat,  1,307,286  barrels  of  wheat-flour,  and  10,299,183  bushels  of 
Indian-corn,  went  to  her  markets  last  year.  Scotland  received  3,903,630 
bushels  of  wheat,  353,495  barrels  flour,  and  2,235,026  bushels  corn ;  while 
Ireland  received  17,609,837  bushels  wheat,  43,203  bane's  flour,  and  i3,7''>4,- 
814  bushels  corn,  which  was  more  than  one-third  cfthe  entire  quantity  of  com 
exported  during  the  year.  France  took  2,223,366  Lashels  wheat,  7,260  barrels 
flour,  and  452,951  bushels  corn ;  and  Goimany  bought  886,485  bushels  wheal, 
21,960  barrels  flour,  and  825,620  bushels  corn. 

France  bought  three  times  as  mucli  flour  as  Germany ;  while  Germany 


miUions  fed. 
Breadstuffs. 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


875 


bought  three  times  as  much  wheat  as  France,  and  twice  as  much  corn.  In  the 
same  time  Ireland  consumed  six  limes  as  much  of  our  wheat  as  both  France 
and  Germany,  thirteen  times  as  much  corn  as  both  these  countries,  six  times 
as  much  flour  as  France,  and  twice  as  much  as  Germany.  Belgium  received 
3,709,694  bushels  wheat,  72,401  barrels  flour,  and  84,798  bushels  corn;  Neth- 
erlands, 3,160,435  bushels  vviieat,  :.'6,389  barrels  flour,  and  51,718  bushels  corn. 
Of  barley  we  exported  320,399  bushels,  valued  at  $210,738;  oats,  812,873 
bushels,  valued  at  $383,762  ;  rye,  1,564,484  bushels,  valued  at  $1,568,362. 
Of  Indian-corn  meal  we  shipped  387,807  barrels,  worth  $1,529,399  ;  and  rye- 
flour,  59,820  barrels,  worth  $388,313.  We  also  'jxported  1 1,142,429  pounds 
of  bread  and  biscuit,  worth  $6:-''/.i97,  th^^  greater  part  of  which  is  consumed 
ill  the  British  West  Indies.  Belgium  and  Germany  consumed  about  two-thirds 
of  the  rye  exported,  and  Cuba  more  than  one-half  of  the  rye-llour.  Canoda 
and  die  West  Indies  bought  most  of  the  Indian-corn  meal ;  while  the  British 
West-India  islands,  Honduras,  and  Guiana  consumed  over  seven  of  the 
eleven  million  pounds  of  bread  and  biscuit  exported.  Peru  received  135,193 
bushels  of  barley,  being  over  one-third  of  the  entire  quantity  exported ;  Eng- 
land took  over  79,000  bushels;  and  24,752  bushels  went  to  British  Australasia. 
One  half  of  all  the  oats  exported  went  to  Canada ;  the  other  half  going  to  the 
West  Indies,  Central  and  South  America,  and  Eastern  Asia. 

The  value  of  provisions  other  than  breadstuffs  exported  was  $78,317,087. 
Bacon  and  hams,  beef,  butter,  cheese,  eggs,  lard,  pork,  fish,  and  vegetables  are 
embraced  under  this  head,  and  were  distributed  over  the  whole  Q^con  beef 
world.  Bacon  and  ham  lead  the  list ;  347,405,405  being  the  num-  and  other 
ber  of  pounds,  and  $33,383,908  the  valuation.  The  beef  was  p''°^'^'°"^- 
valued  at  $2,956,676,  and  the  4,367,983  pounds  of  butter  at  $1,092,381  ; 
which  is  just  $100,000  more  than  enough  to  pay  for  the  sardines  we  imported 
from.  Europe  last  year.  We  distributed  abroad  90,611,077  pounds  of  cheese, 
which  brought  us  $11,898,995.  It  may  be  stated  here,  by  way  c"  comparison, 
that  we  paid  last  year  for  butter  and  cheese  imported  $1,354,495  gold.  Eng- 
land is  the  largest  consumer  of  our  cheese,  nearly  70,000,000  pounds  having 
been  the  amount  sent  her.  Ccmiany  bought  over  10,000,000  pounds,  and 
ScoUand  nearly  9,000,000.  China  and  Japan  each  took  about  29,000  pounds, 
and  14,000  pounds  went  to  the  Sandwich  Islands.  The  West  Indies  consumed 
the  greater  portion  of  the  remainder.  Germany  bought  from  us  64,436,920 
pounds  of  lard;  England,  33,581,107  pounds;  Belgium,  28,174,335  pounds; 
Cuba,  22,186,472  pounds;  France,  9,937,387  pounds;  Scotland,  9,429,771 
pounds,  rhe  entire  quantity  of  lard  exported  was  205,527.471  pounds,  valued 
at  $19,308,019.  Ireland,  Russia,  and  Turkey  are  the  only  European  countries 
which  did  not  nurchase  lard  from  the  United  States.  Of  pork  we  exported 
70,482,379  pounds,  worth  $5,808,712.  About  one-third  of  the  pork  went  to 
Europe.  Of  the  West-India  islands,  Hayti  bought  10,976,705  pounds,  and 
Porto  Rico  2,476,262  pounds.  For  onions  exported  we  received  $52,000,  and 
for  potatoes  $471,332. 


876 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


For  green  and  dried  fruits  we  received  ;^994,i63.  The  dried  apples  ex- 
ported weighed  4,234,736  pounds,  the  valuation  being  $294,893.  Of  this 
Dried  and  •  article  Germany  bought  2,811,915  pounds,  or  more  than  half  of 
green  fruits,  all  that  was  exported;  the  Netherlands  bought  489,612  pounds; 
Australia,  226,332;  England,  209,389;  France,  59,358;  Japan,  21,644; 
China,  2,371.  Of  green  apples  we  sent  abroad  123,533  barrels,  worth  $204,- 
312,  Of  these  England  received  36,814  barrels  ;  Scotland,  27,085  ;  Germany. 
2,427;  Sandwich  Islands,  2,109;  Liberia,  1,286;  Australia,  300;  Russia,  29; 
Mexico,  6,547  ;  and  Cuba,  4,729.  For  fruit  other  than  apples  we  received 
$211,308,  and  for  canned  fruits  $283,649. 

For  iron,  and  manufactures  of  iron,  we  received  $9,578,694,  and  for  steel 
;?4, 1 19,344.  Machinery  was  shipped  to  almost  every  nation  in  the  world; 
Iron,  steel,  bringing  us,  in  return,  $3,357,909.  For  our  machinery  Germany 
machinery,  paid  $908,883;  England,  $197,134;  Scotland,  $84,724;  France, 
and  tools.  $17,773;  Belgium,  $28,532;  Japan,  $99,295;  China,  $7,228; 
British  East  Indies,  $2,079;  Cuba,  $559,679;  Mexico,  $383,006;  Peru, 
$229,564;  Canada,  $270,000;  United  States  of  Colombia,  $208,669.  We 
sent  abroad  seventy-nine  locomotives,  valued  at  $1,147,366.  Of  these  Russia 
took  fourteen  ;  Cuba,  twelve  ;  Chili,  nineteen  ;  Brazil,  thirteen  ;  Canada,  nine ; 
Argentine  Republic,  four ;  Mexico  and  the  Central- American  States,  each  three  ; 
and  Peru,  two.  For  the  forty-eight  stationary  stearn-engines  exported  were 
paid  us  $74,749  :  all  these,  except  one  sent  to  Liberia,  were  purchased  by 
neighboring  American  countries.  American  sto^'es  to  the  value  of  $102,398 
were  pretty  well  distributed  among  foreign  nations,  England  even  purchasing 
to  the  extent  of  $1,000.  Of  manufactures  of  steel  we  sold  abroad  edge-tools 
to  the  value  of  $941,016  ;  cutlery,  $47,162  ;  files  and,  saws,  $21,496  ;  muskets, 
pistols,  and  rifles,  $2,340,138 ;  other  manufactures  of  steel,  $225,457.  Most 
of  our  cutlery  went  to  Canada  and  to  countries  south  of  the  United  States. 
England  took  $906  worth;  France,  $510;  Germany,  $483.  For  edge-tools 
Germany  paid  us  $34,836 ;  England,  $19,425  ;  France  bought  none.  Our 
best  market  for  edge-tools  was  the  United  States  of  Colombia,  where  we  sold 
$324,121.  Australia  bought  from  us  to  Uie  value  of  $122,945  ;  Mexico,  $113,- 
697;  Canada,  $97,171  ;  Brazil,  $75, 2vi2.  Austraha  sent  us  for  files  and  saws 
$4,852;  Mexico,  $2,812;  Cuba,  $2,547;  Canada,  $6,667;  England,  S703. 
For  fire-arms  England  paid  us  $774,598  ;  Germany,  $288,719  ;  France,  $1,750  ; 
Turkey,  $169,960;  Cuba,  $496,426  ;  Argentine  Republic,  $239,192  ;  Mexico, 
$113,846. 

The  total  value  of  agricultural  implements  sent  abroad  was  $3,089,753. 
These  are  classified  as  follows  :  Sixty-three  fanning-mills,  valued  at  $2,645  '> 
Agricultural  horsc-powers,  fifty-nine,  valued  at  $30,685  ;  mowers  and  reajxTs, 
implements.  16,139,  valued  at  $1,797,130;  ploughs  and  cultivators,  17,639. 
valued  at  $236,203  ;  other  implements  valued  at  $1,023,090.  All  the  fannuig- 
mills  went  to  Canada ;  Chili  bought  all  the  horse-powers  except  one,  which 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


877 


was  sent  to  Scotland;  Oermany  purchased  9,613  mowers  and  reapers,  more 
than  ^ne-half  of  all  exportetl,  for  which  she  paiil  $1,167,323  ;  Kngland  bought 
3,838;  France,  1,030;  Sweden  and  Norway,  462;  Russia,  187;  C'hili,  171; 
Scotland,  146;  Argentine  Republic,  292;  Canada,  293;  Netherlands,  52; 
Australia,  12  :  the  rest  were  scattered  over  the  West  Indies  and  South 
America.  More  than  one-half  of  all  the  ploughs  and  cultivators  exported  went 
to  the  British  possessions  in  Africa,  the  exact  number  being  10,504  :  Chili  took 
2.423;  Argentine  Rei)ablie,  1,938;  Peru,  593;  Uruguay,  697;  Brazil,  237; 
Mexico,  132  ;  Cuba,  274.  (Jnly  eighty-five  were  sent  to  I'lurojje,  of  which 
j'iiigland  received  eighty-tiiree,  and  France  two.  The  Sandwich  Islands  bought 
thirteen;  Australia,  sixty-two;  Japan,  two.  The  miscellaneous  implements 
were  pretty  widely  distributed.  About  $300,000  worth  went  to  Europe,  and 
the  rest  to  the  West  Indies,  and  to  Central  and  South  America. 

We  exported  last  year  books  to  the  value  of  $584,950.  The  records  of 
the  exports  show  that  readers  of  American  books  are  to  be  found  in  all  ])arts 
of  the  world.  For  books  we  received  from  I'.ngland  $95,688;  and  American 
from  Canada,  who  was  our  largest  purchaser  of  books,  $138,189.  books. 
Germany  paid  for  our  books  $26,515;  France,  $7,515;  Brazil,  $82,222;  the 
United  States  of  Colombia,  $77,809  ;  Japan,  $32,664  ;  the  Argentine  Rei)ublic, 
$23,821;  Cuba,  $23,779;  Mexico,  $16,207;  Australia,  $14,268;  China, 
$8,758:  Sandwich  Islands,  $4,627.  Other  countries  purchased  in  amounts 
ranging  from  $100  up  to  the  lowest  sum  specified  above. 

The  coal  exported  reached  763,402  tons,  valued  at  $3,823,750  ;  all  of  wliich, 
except  about  2,000  tons,  went  to  American  countries.  F'or  <locks  we  received 
$1,070,822  ;  England  contributing  of  that  amount  $533,600  ;  Cer-  unclassified 
many,  $103,688;  Japan,  $61,485;  China,  $12,461.  Nearly  ^'''''^'es. 
$10,000  wortli  of  American  watches  were  also  sent  abroad  to  record  the  pas- 
sage of  time.  F'or  carriages  and  carts  we  received  $578,433,  must  of  the 
trade  being  with  American  countries.  Cermany,  however,  purchased  American 
carriages  to  the  value  of  $22,924;  and  ICngland,  $12,840.  We  sent  billiard- 
tables  :.i"ound  the  globe,  and  received,  in  return  therefor,  $59,378  ;  of  which  sum 
the  United  States  of  Colombia  contributed  $24,930.  I"or  brooms  and  brushes 
we  received  from  nearly  all  the  countries  in  the  world  $127,593  ;  and  for  shoe- 
blacking,  over  $76,000.  For  cables  and  cordage,  r(j])e  and  twine,  we  received 
$1,379,462  ;  and  for  hides  and  skins  other  than  fur,  $2,560,382.  Hoop-skirts 
are  going  out  of  ii:^shion,  and  last  year  we  sold  abroad  only  $15,302  worth. 
For  combs  we  received  $7,535  :  on  the  contrary,  we  sent  to  foreign  countries 
$409,029  for  combs  during  the  same  |)eriod.  Whether  we  should  have  ex- 
ported more  combs,  had  we  imported  less,  is  referred  to  American  comb-makers 
for  discussion.  For  oils  of  all  kinds,  including  the  products  of  o  .r  oil-wells, 
.re  received  $41,121,707.  For  naval  stores  we  were  paid  $7,384,570.  Tobacco 
brought  us  $32,968,528, — a  sum  about  ecjual  to  what  we  paid  for  our  imported 
silk-goods.     Tobacco  was  chiefly  exported  in  the  leaf;   and  the  number  of 


lif 


1^:11 


ilHi 


liJi 


il'ifl'l 


878 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY   OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


pounds  was  318,097,804,  and  the  value  $30,399,181,  Over  100,000,000 
pounds  of  leaf-tobacco  went  to  Germany,  and  about  63,000,000  to  (Ireat 
Britain.  We  received  for  distilled  spirits  $1,164,6-6;  and  for  beer,  ale,  and 
porter,  ;?39,6o2.  During  the  same  period  we  paid  foreigners  for  malt  li(iuois 
over  $2,500,000.  For  7,435,064  pounds  of  starch  we  received  $420,809.  The 
living  animals  exported  yielded  $3,310,388.  They  were,  —  hogs,  158,581,  val- 
ued at  $1,625,837  ;  horned  cattle,  56,067,  valued  at  :!5i, 150,857  ;  sheep,  124,- 
248,  valued  at  $159,735;  horses,  1,432,  valued  at  $169,303;  mules,  1,252, 
valued  at  $174,125  ;  all  other  cattle  exported,  together  with  fowls,  were  valued 
at  $30,531.  Little  more  than  one-fifth  of  the  entire  value  of  exports  was  carried 
in  American  vessels,  the  record  standing  thus  :  Exported  in  American  vessels, 
$165,998,880;  exported  in  foreign  vessels,  $521,394,909. 


BOOK    VI. 


^\ 


TRADE-UNIONS  AND  EIGHT-HOUR  MOVEMENT. 


k 


(':■ 


m 


XTOo. 
IM  unl( 
they  do  r 
over  theii 
obedience 
that,  in  si 
moting  th( 
when  the 
individual 
trade-unic 
be  condei 

Trade 
men  were 
no  organi 
employer 
Great  fac 
daily  asse 
same  tabl 
questions 
have  spru 
menting  1 
Lowell,  1 
nearly  all 

Railw 
forming 
render  fr; 
the  oper; 
scattered 
some  pe 
among  w 


CHAPTER    I. 


of  trade- 
unions. 


TRADE-UNIONS. 

NO  one  will  deny  tb-  vast  importance  to  which  trade-unions  have  attained, 
unless  he  belongs  to  that  class  of  persons  who  fail  to  see  the  truth  because 
they  do  not  wish  to  see  it.  Moreover,  the  influence  they  wield  importance 
over  their  members  is  enormous,  and  a  marvel  too,  because 
obedience  is  so  general,  while  being  purely  voluntary.  It  is  true, 
that,  in  submitting  freely  to  organized  rule,  it  is  believed  they  are  really  pro- 
moting their  own  personal  advantage ;  yet  this  does  not  always  appear ;  and 
when  the  interest  is  unseen,  or  thought  to  be  opposed  to  the  interest  of  the 
individual,  his  temptation  to  disobey  is  great.  Such  discipline,  therefore,  as 
trade-unions  often  exhibit,  must  excite  admiration,  however  bitterly  they  may 
be  condemned. 

Trade-unions  have  their  origin  in  the  rise  of  factories.  So  long  as  work- 
men were  isolated  in  their  tasks,  and  could  not  meet  in  large  numbers, 
no  organization  existed  among  them ;  and  the  dominion  of  the  origin  of 
employer  over  his  men  was  complete.  But  times  have  changed. 
Great  factories  have  arisen,  employing  thousands.  When  they 
daily  assemble  under  the  same  roof,  tend  the  same  machine,  and  work  at  the 
same  table,  is  it  not  natural,  nay,  reasonable,  to  confer  and  act  together  upon 
questions  in  which  all  are  mutually  interested  ?  Besides,  manufacturing  cities 
have  sprung  up,  busily  engaged  in  producing  the  same  commodities,  thus  aug- 
menting the  mutual  personal  interest.  Sheffield,  Manchester,  Lyons,  Verviers, 
Lowell,  Pittsburgh,  Fall  River,  are  names  of  great  cities,  in  each  of  which 
nearly  all  their  capital  and  skill  are  united  in  a  single  industry. 

Railways  and  other  facilities  of  easy  communication  also  lend  their  aid  in 

forming  these  unions,  by  bringing  workmen  together,  and  enabling  them  to 

render  fraternal  assistance.     A  recent  writer  upon  the  condition  of  ^f.^^.  ^r 

the  operatives  in  the  factories  of  Wurtemberg  remarks,  that,  if  its  easy  modes 

scattered  industry  had  been  a  source  of  much  inconvenience  and  °'  commu- 
nication, 
some   pecuniary   detriment   to   the    manufacturers,   combinations 

among  workmen  have  been  rendered  difficult,  if  not  impossible.     "The  oper- 

88t 


trade- 
unions. 


i;1! 


nn^BB 

^H'     1 

i^^^H  1 

; 

1 

«.S2 


IND  US  TRJA  I.    ins  TOR  Y 


atives  of  isolated  spinning-factories  scattered  along  the  banks  of  woodland 
streams  or  collected  together  in  smaller  numbers  in  the  neighborhood  of 
rural  towns,  or  weavers  who  worked  dispersed  in  their  own  domiciles,  and  only 
came  into  casual  contact  with  one  another  on  their  way  to  and  from  their 
common  employer,  —  these  men  had  little  occasion  for  or  incentive  to  h(jstile 
combination."  But  this  state  of  things  has  passed  away  in  tha,t  country,  as  in 
almost  every  other,  by  creating  the  railway,  the  factory,  and  the  man ufactu ring 
city. 

While  stating  this  as  the  immediate  or  superficial  origin  of  trade-unions,  the 

deeper  one,  as  experience  is  daily  rendering  clearer,  is  the  discontent  existing 

between  workmen  and  their  employers  respecting  the  division  df 

Discontent  t         i        i 

between  em-  profits.  In  the  language  of  Mr.  Hewitt,  an  iron-manufat  turcr, 
ployed  and  whose  testimony  before  the  Trade-Unions  Commission  of  (Jrcat 
Britain  evinced  wide  observation  coupled  with  the  deepest  insight 
into  the  subject,  "Trade-unions  are  a  symptom  of  the  re-adjustment  of  the 
relation  of  capital  and  labor." 

Nor  can  it  be  said  these  unions  contain  only  workmen  of  inferior  skill  and 
intelligence.  The  proportion  between  the  skilled  and  unskilled  varies,  doubt- 
Unions  con-  '^^^^j '"  different  trades  and  at  different  times.  "It  is  probable, 
tain  inteiii-  that,  in  many  trades,  some  of  the  best  and  most  educated  men 
gent  men.  >^tand  aloof.  It  has  not,  however,  been  suggested  by  any  one  that 
the  union  is  ever  composed  of  the  inferior  order  of  workmen,  though  it  may 
not  invariably  be  composed  of  the  superior.  In  some  trades,  and  those 
requiring  the  greatest  skill,  it  seems  to  be  admitted  that  the  union  contains 
the  great  bulk  of  the  most  skilled  men,  as  the  engineers,  the  iron-founders, 
the  painters,  glass-makers,  printers,  ship-builders,  and  others."  ^ 

Respecting  the  right  to  form  these  associations,  it  is  just  as  evident  that 
laborers  have  the  right  to  combine  in  order  to  get  their  dues  as  masters  have 
Right  to  '■^  resist  an  advance  of  wages.     As  long  ago  as  when  Adam  Smith 

form  these  wrote,  he  said  that  "  masters  are  always  and  everywhere  in  a  sort 
associations.  ^^^  ^^^^^  -^^^^^  constant  and  uniform  combination  not  to  raise  the 
wages  of  labor  above  their  actual  rate.  To  violate  this  combination  is  every- 
where a  most  unpopular  action,  and  a  sort  of  reproach  to  a  master  among  his 
neighbors  and  eciuals."  This  is  rather  too  highly  colored  to  represent  the  truth 
in  the  United  States ;  yet  the  statement  is  partially  true  even  in  respect  to 
employers  in  this  country. 

The  reason  for  combining  is  to  form  a  reserve-fund,  by  means  of  wliich 
workmen  seek  to  put  themselves  upon  an  equal  plane  with  the  capitalist  in 
Reasons  for  bargaining  for  wages.  The  latter,  having  such  a  fund,  occupies  a 
combining,  vautage-ground  in  respect  to  the  workman  ;  for  the  capitalist  is 
a  combination  himself.  Workmen,  in  combining,  seek  only  to  get  what  ca])i- 
talists  already  possess ;  namely,  a  reserve-force,  so  that  they  can  bargain  lor 

>  Messrs.  Hughes  and  Harrison,  Dissenting  Report,  p.  33. 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


883 


their  labor  upon  favorable  terms.  It  seems  impossible  to  frame  an  argimient 
for  jireventing  the  sons  of  toil  from  doing  this,  unless  the  olil-fashioned  luid 
txploileil  idea  be  maintained,  diat  workmen  are  bondmen  to  the  capitalists, 
who,  conse(iuently,  have  the  sole  right  to  determine  the  rewards  of  labor.  In 
[•'ranee,  where  the  notion  still  lingers,  we  hear  now  and  then  of  efforts  U)  regu- 
late the  price  of  labor  by  law.  but  in  no  other  country.  Kn."dom  to  labor  is 
as  universally  recognizeil  as  any  other  right.  All  have  their  choice  to  work 
separately,  or  unite  and  form  a  partnership  or  other  organization,  if  they  like. 

It  was  a  long  period  before  workmen  in   I-'ngland  were  permitted  to  form 
these  societies,  so  strongly  intrenched  were  capitalists  in  the  legislation  of  the 
realm.     In    1 799   the   following   act   of    Parliament   showed    the   j-g^i    ^^^^ 
willingness   of  that  body  to  legislate  against  the  coml)iiiation  of  relating  to 
workmen  :  "  Contracts  entered  into  for  obtaining  an  advance  of  *  *^  ^"  '"'" 
wages,  for  altering  the  usual  time  for  working,  or  for  decreasing  the  ([uantity 
of  work  (excepting  such  contract  be  made  between  a  master  and  his  journey- 
man), or  preventing  any  person  employing  whomsoever  he  may  think  proper 
in  his  trade,  or  for  controlling  the  conduct,  or  any  way  affecting  any  person 
or  persons  carrying  on  any  manuflxcture  or  business  in  the  conduct  or  man- 
agement thereof,  shall  be  declared  illegal,  null,  and  void." 

This  statute  illustrates  how  workmen  were  regarded  in  that  day.  Not  until 
1827  did  Parliament  repeal  all  statutes  prohibiting  workmen  from  combining. 
I'ntil  then,  employers  and  Parliament  had  taken  it  for  granted  they  alone  could 
regulate  wages. 

In  France  the  law  permitting  workmen  to  combine  was  not  tlecreeil  imtil 
1864.  Prior  to  that  period  the  "  Penal  Code  "  contained  the  most  rigorous 
stipulations  against  combinations  of  workmen.  They  were  characterized  as 
misdemeanors,  and  the  promoters  of  them  were  punished  with  from  two  to  five 
years'  imprisonment.  It  is  fair  to  state  that  the  combination  of  employers  for 
the  purpose  of  unjustly  depressing  wages  was  also  declared  to  be  illegal, 
though  the  punishment  inflicted  was  less  severe. 

In  the  several  states  constituting  the  (German  Empire  various  laws  were  in 
force  relating  to  the  rights  of  workmen  until  1867,  when  a  new  enactment 
went  into  operation  throughout  the  empi.e,  declaring  that  "all  prohibitions 
and  penal  provisions  directed  against  persons  engaged  in  industry,  trade, 
assistants,  journeymen,  or  factory-operatives,  on  the  ground  of  iheir  co-o|)er- 
ating  and  uniting  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  more  flivorable  wages  and 
conditions  of  labor,  more  especially  b)  means  of  strikes  or  discharge  of  work- 
men, are  repealed;"  thus  guaranteeing  to  the  industrial  classes  the  right  to 
form  trade-union  associations. 

In  the  United  States  workmen  have  no  just  reason  to  complain  ;  for  they 
have  always  stood  upon  *'  z  same  footing  with  capitalists,  and  have  enjoyed 
the  unquestioned  right  tr  form  trade-union  societies.  It  is  true,  in  colonial 
times,  the  price  of  labor  was  sometimes  regulated  by  law ;  but  so  were  the 


"I 
'iirn 

I 

il: 


,h 


'I 


«84 


INDUSTHIAl.    mSTOKY 


trade- 
unions 


prices  of  every  thing  whirh  were  exchanged.  I,al)or  was  never  singled  oni  h 
the  only  tiling  reciniring  State  regulation.  The  rights  of  tiie  laborer  luui; 
been  as  jealously  guarded  as  the  rights  of  those  for  whom  he  has  toiled.  Noi 
until  very  recently  has  the  old  doctrine  been  revived,  that  the  State  has  a  right 
to  control  the  price  of  labor.  (Jov.  iJrovvn  of  (Jeorgia,  in  an  annual  message 
to  the  legislature  of  that  State,  did  remark  that  "  labor  must  be  controlled  by 
law."  'I'here  is  no  occasion  for  fearing  the  re-establishment  of  this  dor  trine 
on  republican  soil.  Liberty  to  contract  for  labor  is  a  right  too  deeply  groiunkd 
to  be  crushed  out  by  the  action  of  (lov.  Brown,  or  by  any  one  else  holding  a 
similar  opinion. 

All  this  by  way  of  clearing  the  field  for  intiuiring  into  the  purpose  of  trade 
unions  and  the  soimdness  of  their  methods. 

Their  purpose  is  twofold  ;  first,  that  of  an  ordinary  friendly  or  benefit 
society,  —  namely,  to  afford  relief  to  the  members  of  the  union  when  incapa- 
Object  of  citated  from  work  by  accident  or  sickness,  to  provide  a  sum  for 
the  fimeral-cxpenses  of  members  and  their  wives,  and  sometimes 
to  grant  superannuation  allowances  to  members  disabled  by  old 
age ;  second,  that  of  a  trade  so::iety,  —  namely,  to  watch  over  and  promote 
the  interests  of  the  working-classes  in  the  several  trades,  and  esi)erially  to  pro- 
tect them  against  the  imdue  advantage  which  the  command  of  a  large  capit.il 
is  supposed  to  give  the  employers  of  labor. 

Many  societies  exist  having  only  one  object  in  view.  Some  are  purely 
friendly  societies  :  others  arc  organizations  for  promoting  the  interests  of  mem- 
bers in  their  various  trades,  without  any  reference  to  their  social  welfare.  I'or 
years,  in  all  the  countries  of  Europe,  societies  of  the  former  description  have 
flourished,  while  trade-unions  are  of  recent  creation.  Thus  we  have  seen  that 
workmen  in  France  were  not  permitted  to  combine  in  order  to  raise  th(!  ratr 
of  wages  until  1867;  but  they  have  helped  each  other  in  an  organized  way 
during  sickness  and  old  age,  and  provided  for  burial,  and  done  other  huniaiiL' 
acts,  for  a  long  period.  And  this  applies  as  truly  to  many  other  countries  as  to 
France. 

It  has  been  found  desirable  generally  to  unite  the  two  purposes  ;  and  in  tliii 
form  most  trade-unions  exist,  especially  in  the  United  States.     Considerable 
opposition  to  them  as  thus  constituted  has  been  manifested,  be 

Arguments  '  ' 

for  and  causc  pcrsons  who  are  friendly  to  purely  benefit  organizations,  and 

against  unit-  j^og^iig  to  those  Organized  for  purposes  of  trade,  oppose  socie- 
ties combining  this  double  purpose.  No  enemies  to  friendly  so- 
cieties have  appeared  ;  for  their  purpose  is  a  most  noble  one,  and 
the  good  they  have  done  is  incalculable.  The  amount  yearly 
distributed  to  sick  members,  and  expended  for  burial  and  other  like  pur[)oses, 
is  an  eloquent  testimony  to  the  character  of  these  institutions ;  but,  in  uniting 
the  two  objects,  trade-unions  taint  the  sensibilities  of  some  people,  who  are 
moved  on  this  account  to  compass  their  destruction. 


ing  two  p 
poses  in 
trade- 
unions. 


OF    T//E    UNITED    STATES. 


885 


Much  can  be  advanced  in  favor  of  and  against  this  coupling  of  ends. 
Did  tiicy  remain  separate,  friendly  societies  would  have  the  sanction  and 
support  of  all ;  for  their  usefulness  none  will  dispute.  Hesides,  they  would  j;row 
ill  ninnbers,  and  swell  their  income.  'I'housands  who  would  not  join  trailc- 
unions  aiming  to  affect  the  price  of  wages  only  would  gladly  join  sot  ieties  of 
a  frieiully  nature.  A  great  many  workmen  beyond  the  pale  of  unionism  are 
likely  to  remain  outside,  who  are  desirous  of  joining  their  fellow-workers  in 
alleviating  ilistress,  and,  consecpiently,  of  laying  the  foundation  for  receiving  aid 
in  return.  Moreover,  benevolent  men  live  everywhere  who  would  willingly  join 
friendly  organizations,  and  contribute  moral  and  fmancial  assistance. 

On  the  other  hand,  trade-unions  are  dignified  and  ennobled  by  superadding 
a  friendly  and  humane  purpose  to  that  of  a  trade  society,  'riiough  they  intlict 
much  evil,  the  enmity  against  them  is  somewhat  softened  when  the  good  they 
do  is  remembered.  Hut  we  cannot  agree  with  Mr.  Morrier,  that  the  strength 
of  the  English  system  depends  upon  the  two-edged  purpose  to  which  the 
funds  of  trade- unions  may  be  applied.  Doubtless  they  are  stronger  when 
created  in  this  manner ;  but  their  vitality  depends  upon  something  more  ^lub- 
stantial  than  this. 

Nor  is  any  moral  i)rinciple  viol.ited  in  bestowing  this  double  function  upon 
the  society.  Provided  the  members  know  what  they  are  giving  their  money 
for,  —  whether  sickness,  burial,  strikes,  or  any  thing  else,  —  tiiere  is  no  oppor- 
tunity for  practising  fraud  ;  and  they  probably  do  know,  both  by  personal 
incjuiry  and  by  experience,  how  unions  employ  their  funils.  Mr.  Morrier  is. 
hardly  fair  in  saying  they  are  raised  for  purposes  of  peace,  but  are  applicable 
to  the  purposes  of  war.  It  is  known  before  they  are  given  for  what  purposes 
they  may  be  used.  No  deception  is  necessary,  nor  is  it  practised,  in  raising 
funds  for  these  so^'cties. 

Whenever  a  society  unites  both  purposes,  it  is  evident  that  a  separation  of 
funds  for  any  particular  object  is  quite  impracticable.  The  cry  is  heard  every 
now  and  then  that  a  division  of  die  resources  for  friendly  and  trade  objects 
ought  to  be  made.  It  comes  from  some  one  who  eitlier  does  not  understand 
the  nature  of  the  organization,  or  is  so  keen  as  to  see,  that,  by  providing 
several  funds,  collision  would  oftener  arise  among  the  members  respecting 
their  ai)propriation,  ending,  perhaps,  in  disimion.  'I'his  will  appear  clearly 
when  the  nature  of  the  organization  is  more  fully  explained. 

Its  income   is  derived    from   members,  who   pay  a  certain   sum   weekly, 
monthly,  or  annually,  according   to    its   rules.      This   sum,  as  remarked,    is 
devoted  to  several  purposes.     One   purpose  is  to  provide  some-   j^^^^ 
thing  for  sick  members   during  their  illness ;    another  is    termed   deriving  and 
an  accident-benefit,  which  consists  of  a  sum  given  to  those  who   sp':"'''"^ 

"  income. 

lose  their  tools ;    while  a  third  is  a  burial-fund.      Resides  these, 

some  of  the  richer  unions  have  additional  funds  for  reading-rooms,  libraries, 

donations,  and  charitable  subscriptions. 


M- 


f'4 


8S6 


IND  US  TRIA  L    HIS  TOR  Y 


First  trade- 
union  in 
United 
States. 


The  !)enef>ts  conf'irred  often  extend  much  farther.  One  of  the  most  fre 
quent  and  costly  objects  of  donation  is  to  members  out  of  work.  Thi;,  is 
occasionally  so  large  as  to  maintain  all  the  workmen  of  a  trade  during  a  period 
of  disaster.  During  the  year  1867  the  engineeni  of  Great  Britain  spent  almost 
three  hundred  thousand  dollars  in  this  manner,  and  the  iron-founders  nearly 
two-thirds  of  that  sum.  The  great  service  thus  rendered  in  keeping  a  large 
number  of  working-men  and  their  families  from  the  cold  field  of  pauper'sm 
no  one  will  question. 

The  ea/liest  germ  of  a  trade-union  in  the  United  States  appeared  in  I'hila 
delphia  soon  after  the  beginning  of  this  century.  In  1806  a  remarl-.able  trial 
aro.'-e  from  the  efforts  of  several  mem1>ers  of  such  an  association 
to  prevent,  by  violent  and  unlawful  methods,  others  from  working. 
Eight  persons  were  indicted ;  and  in  the  indictment  they  were 
charged  for  not  being  content  to  work  at  the  usual  prices,  but 
for  contriving  to  increase  and  augment  them,  and  endeavoring  to  prevent,  by 
threats,  menaces,  and  other  unlawful  means,  other  artificers  from  vvorking  at 
t.ie  usual  rate,  and  uniting  into  a  club  or  combination  tO  make  and  ordain 
unlawful  and  arbitrary  rules  to  govern  those  engaged  in  their  trade,  and 
unjustly  exact  great  3ums  of  money  by  means  thereof.  Eminent  counsel  were 
engaged  on  both  sides.  The  account  of  the  trial  here  given  is  taken  from 
"  Lippincott's  Magazine,"  '  which  says  that  the  evidence  showed  in  the  clea'-est 
manner  that  a  system  of  frightful  thraldom  had  been  put  in  force.  A  witness 
named  Harrison  stated,  that,  when  he  reached  the  United  States  in  1 794,  lie 
found  this  system  of  terrorism  prevalent.  He  went  to  .vork  for  a  Mr.  Bedford, 
and  presently  got  a  hint,  that,  if  he  did  not  join  the  association  of  journeynicn 
shoemakers,  he  was  liable  to  be  "scabbed  ;"  which  meant  that  men  would  not 
work  in  the  same  shop  no-  l;)oard  or  lodge  in  the  same  hor.:,e  with  him,  nor  would 
they  work  tor  the  same  e'lij^luyer.  The  case  of  this  man  seemed  exceptionally 
hard.  He  made  shoes  exclusively ;  and,  when  "  a  turn-out  canie  to  raise  the 
wages  on  boots,"  he  remonstrated,  pleading  that  shoes  did  not  enter  into  the 
question,  and  urging  that  he  had  a  sick  wife  and  a  large  family.  But  it  wa^  all 
to  no  purpose.  He  then  resolved  that  he  would  turn  a  ''  scab,"  unknown  to 
the  association,  and  continue  his  work.  But,  having  a  neighbor  whom  it  was 
impossible  for  him  to  deceive,  he  went  to  him,  and  said  that  he  knew  his  cir- 
cumstances, and  that  his  family  must  perish,  or  go  to  "the  bettei'ing-house," 
unless  he  continued  to  work.  This  neighbor,  Swain,  replied  that  he  knew  his 
condition  was  desperate,  but  that  a  man  had  better  make  any  sacrifice  thai;  turn 
a  "scab"  at  that  time.  He  presently  informed  against  him,  and  Mr.  BedfDid 
(his  employer)  was  warned  that  he  must  discharge  his  "scabs."  He  refiisid. 
saying,  that,  "let  the  consequence  be  what  it  might,  we  should  sink  or  swini 
together."  However,  one  Saturday  night,  when  all  but  Harrison  i.nd  a  nun 
named  Logan  had  left  him,  Bedford's  resolution  gave  way ;  and  he  exclainiciJ, 

'  March  number,  1876. 


"I  don't 
I  wish  yo 
to  set  th 
Bedford's 
must    ha\ 
removed 
had  Mr. 
might  ha\ 
gave  him 
to  his  per 
V/niia 
of  this  dc 
ened,  an( 
more  of  ( 
the  foregc 
In  th 
artificial 
the  mater 
but  depei 
the  operf 
exposes  i 
welfare, 
are  in  ind 
here  on  c 
dieted  frc 
the  measi 
tion  tend 
are  preve 
their  wiv< 
The  , 
wages ; " 
costs  of  : 
After 
experime 
probably 
conditioi 
much  as 
prices, 
very  diff( 
earlier  pi 
ism  in  tl" 
and  pov 
obtain  h 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


887 


"  I  don't  know  what  the  devil  I  am  to  do  !  They  will  ruin  me  in  tlie  end. 
I  wish  you  would  go  to  the  body  and  pay  a  fine,  if  not  very  large,  in  order 
to  set  the  shop  free  once  more."  The  fine  offered  was  refused,  and  Mr. 
Bedford's  shop  remained  "  under  scab  "  for  a  year.  Still  Mr.  Bedford,  who 
must  have  been  a  very  plucky  fellow,  would  not  give  Harrison  up,  but 
removed  in  1802  to  Trenton.  Harrison  stated,  that  although  he  could  not, 
iiad  Mr.  Bedford  given  him  up,  have  got  work  anywhere  else,  and  Ihat  he 
might  have  ground  him  down  to  any  terms,  yet  he  (Bedford)  very  nobly  always 
gave  him  full  price.  At  length,  by  paying  a  fine,  Harrison  became  reconciled 
to  his  persecutors,  and  Bedford's  shop  was  once  more  free. 

V.^'lliam  Forgrave  said  that  "  the  name  of  a  '  scab  '  is  \  .-.y  dangerous  :  men 
of  this  description  have  been  hurt  when  out  at  night.  '  He  had  been  threat- 
ened, and  joined  the  association  from  fear  of  personal  injury.  A  vast  deal 
more  of  evidence  was  given,  and  eloquent  speeches  delivered  by  counsel ;  but 
tlie  foregoing  gives  the  sum  and  substance  of  the  case. 

In  the  course  of  the  summing-up,  Recorder  Levy  said,  "  To  make  an 
artificial  regulation  is  not  to  regard  the  excellence  of  the  work  or  quality  of 
the  material,  but  to  fix  a  positive  and  arbitrary  price,  governed  by  no  standard, 
but  dependent  on  the  will  of  the  few  who  are  interested.  .  .  .  What,  then,  is 
the  operation  of  this  kind  of  conduct  upon  the  commerce  of  the  city?  It 
exposes  it  to  inconveniences,  if  not  to  ruin :  therefore  it  is  against  the  public 
welfare.  How  does  it  operate  upon  the  defendants?  We  see  that  those  who 
are  in  indigent  circumstances,  and  who  have  families  to  maintain,  have  declared 
here  on  oath  that  it  was  impossible  for  them  to  hold  out.  They  were  inter- 
dicted from  all  employment  in  future  if  they  did  not  cont-  lue  to  persevere  in 
the  measures  taken  by  the  journeymen  shoemakers.  Does  not  such  a  regula- 
tion tend  to  involve  necessitous  men  in  the  commission  of  crimes?  If  they 
are  prevented  working  for  six  weeks,  it  might  lead  them  to  procure  support  for 
their  wives  and  children  by  burglary,  larceny,  or  highway  robber)  " 

The  jury  found  the  defendants  "guilty  of  a  combination  to  -aise  their 
wages ;"  and  the  court  sentenced  them  to  pay  a  fine  of  eight  dollars  -.ach,  with 
costs  of  suit,  and  to  stand  committed  till  paid. 

After  this  early  attempt  at  rnionism,  nothing  more  was  heard  of  any  similar 
experiment  for  fifty  years ;  though  this  long  period  of  repose  vas  not  due 
probably  so  much  to  the  result  of  this  early  venture  as  to  other 
conditions.  There  was  no  need  of  creating  trade-unions,  inas- 
much as  every  person  found  instant  employment  at  favorable 
prices.  Across  the  ocean  the  conciiiion  of  the  working-man  was 
very  different,  and  he  sought  to  combine  with  his  fellows  at  a  much 
earlier  period  in  order  to  secure  higher  wages  and  other  advantages.  Union- 
ism in  this  country  attracted  no  attention  until  after  i860,  when  its  presence 
and  power  were  first  felt  in  the  mining  regions.  Workmen  there  sought  to 
obtain  higher  wages  ;  and,  in  order  to  succeed  in  this  end,  they  formed  them- 


Later  his- 
tory of  trade- 
uni:>.is  in 
United 
States. 


Ill 


JMI^ 


888 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


selves  into  unions,  believing  that  they  would  be  more  likely  to  achieve  success 
than  if  they  dealt  with  their  masters  single-handed.  As  wages  rapidly  ad- 
vanced, the  miners  naturally  ascribed  the  result  tc  the  power  of  unionism ;  and 
forthwith  other  unions  were  formed  of  men  engaged  in  a  great  variety  of 
pursuits.  Generally  speaking,  wages  were  advanced  in  every  trade ;  and  the 
members  of  these  associations  were  swift  to  conclude,  that,  as  the  wages  of 
miners  had  rapidly  risen,  it  was  due  to  the  resistless  power  of  their  associa- 
tions. They  never  stopped  to  think  that  the  pay  of  thousands  of  men  wlio 
were  not  members  of  any  sort  of  a  union  was  also  increased;  that  the  wai^ci 
of  household  servants  went  up  to  a  high  figure,  although  no  combination 
existed  among  them  for  this  purpose.  The  day-laborers — whether  employed 
~iXi  the  farm,  or  engaged  in  working  upon  the  streets,  or  working  here  and 
tiiere  as  they  could  find  employment  —  all  reaped  higher  rewards  for  their 
toil,  although  combinations  amongst  them  were  never  dreamed  of,  and  were 
indeed  impossible. 

Whether  we  are  right  in  our  deductions  or  not,  trade-unions  rose  as  I)y 
magic,  and  sorcad  themselves  over  every  part  of  the  country.  In  the  larger 
Rapid  r'lies,  like    New   York,  Philadelphia,  Boston,  and   Chicago,  they 

growth.  made  their  power  most  potently  felt,  and  held  numerous  meetings, 

at  which  their  principles  and  beliefs  generally  received  an  enthusiastic  airing. 
Communism  found  many  an  advocate  among  them  ;  and,  next  to  their  belief  in 
unionism  in  general,  this  doctrine  has  struck  the  deepest  root  in  the  mind  of 
the  average  working-man.  It  is  not  indigenous,  but  purely  a  foreign  importa- 
tion :  yet  the  plant  has  been  carefully  nursed  ;  and,  however  unwelco.ne  it  may 
be  to  many,  communism  has  here  found  a  iruitful  soil. 

Besides  holding  meetings,  public  as  well  as  private,  and  discussing  their 
situation,  and,  to  some  extent,  their  principles  and  beliefs,  it  cannot  be  said 
that  unionism,  accomplished  very  much  in  the  way  of  securing 
higher  wages  during  the  first  stage  of  its  existence,  if  the  advance 
ir  wages  to  which  we  have  referred  were  due  to  other  causes  than 
combinations  among  workmen.  It  is  fair  to  say,  however,  that  workmen  tlieni- 
selvcs  ascribed  the  rise  of  wages  which  occurred  about  the  time  of  the  forma- 
tion of  their  luv'ons,  or  soon  after,  to  their  existence.  These  two  facts,  how- 
ever, none  will  deny,  —  that  many  unions  were  formed  between  i860  and  1865  ; 
and,  during  that  period,  wages  rapidly  rose.  This  created  the  impression  among 
the  working-men  that  their  unions  were  the  cause  of  their  success ;  and  they 
were  led  to  embark  in  a  new  experiment,  a  brief  history  of  which  we  will  lay 
before  the  reader  in  the  next  chapter. 


Success  of 
trade- 
unions. 


IT  was  a 
the  en 
Their  reasc 
ture  and 
ment ;  anc 
ed  conside 
many  regai 
one  thougl 
contracts  f 
the  measuri 
pay  for  eigl 
sponding  w 
would  occi! 
The  lav 
and  the  eff( 
reduced  th 
employ  al  1 
formity  wit 
which  was 
the  matter, 
tion  of  tw( 
cxperience( 
nay,  desiro 
the  men  d 
this  demar 
workb-  of  I 
inanufactur 
wh.en  work 


)unng 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


88g 


w 


\ 


i2f  their 


I 


CHAPTER   II. 

EIGHT-HOUR  MOVEMENT. 

IT  was  about  1867  when  the  agitation  began  among  the  working-classes  for 
the  enactment  of  laws  prescribing  eight  hours  as  a  legal  day  of  labor. 
Their  reason  for  this  law  was,  that  more  time  was  needed  for  cul-  object  of  the 
tiire  and  pleasure  than  they  enjoyed  under  the  former  arrange-  '*^' 
ment ;  and  the  request  to  them  seemed  not  only  reasonable,  but  they  manifest- 
ed considerable  surprise  if  any  one  differed  from  them.  On  the  other  hand, 
many  regarded  the  measure  of  no  importance  from  any  point  of  view,  as  no 
one  thought  of  making  the  law  compulsory,  so  as  to  prevent  the  making  of 
contracts  for  a  longer  or  shorter  period  of  service.  The  chief  opponents  to 
the  measure  were  those  who  feared  the  working-men  would  demand  ten  hours' 
pay  for  eight  hours'  work ;  and  that,  if  a  reduction  in  pay  were  made  corre- 
sponding with  the  reduction  in  service,  strikes  and  other  untoward  difficulties 
would  occur. 

The  law  was  enacted  in  most  of  the  States  and  by  the  Federal  Government, 
and  the  effect  thereof  soon  began  to  appear.  At  first  the  Federal  Government 
reduced  the  number  of  hours  during  which  the  workmen  in  its  Law  every- 
employ  al  the  navy-yards  and  other  places  were  engaged  in  con-  where 
formity  with  the  law,  yet  continued  to  pay  them  the  old  rates ;  ^^^''^  ' 
which  was  a  great  victory  for  the  laborers.  But  there  was  no  uniformity  about 
the  matter.  In  some  trades  the  day  w;.s  reduced  to  eight  hours,  and  a  reduc- 
tion of  twenty  per  cent  was  made  in  their  wages.  Whene\'er  tliis  result  was 
experienced  from  the  working  r>f  the  law,  workmen  were  generally  willing, 
nay,  desirous,  of  returning  to  the  former  terms  of  employment.  In  some  cases 
tlie  men  demanded  a  reduction  of  hours  without  a  reduc:tion  of  pay ;  and 
tliis  demand  resulted  in  strikes,  the  most  important  of  which  occurred  at  the 
work^  of  Messrs.  Brewster  &  Company  of  New  York,  the  fomous  carriage- 
manufacturers.  Four-fifths  of  the  men  struck,  and  remained  idle  two  weeks, 
wlien  work  was  resumed  without  any  concession  on  the  part  of  the  em- 
ployers. 

During  the  year  1872  the  movement  reached  its  height ;  and  in  all  the  large 


l^« 


890 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


cities  and  important  centres  of  industry  there  were  frequent  meetings  among 
Movement  the  working-men,  at  whicli  the  subjected  was  agitated,  and  strikes, 
■tits  height,  and  prosecutions  for  violating  the  law,  were  threatened.  In  most 
of  such  gatherings  it  appeared  clearly  enough  that  the  chief  aim  of  the  friends 
of  the  law  was  to  get  the  same  pay  for  eight  hours'  work  as  for  ten ;  which,  of 
course,  was  an  addition  of  twenty  per  cent  to  the  cost  of  labor,  —  an  advance 
which  employers  very  generally  were  unwilling  to  pay.  The  clouds  of  tlv,' 
impending  panic  were  beginning  to  form  :  some  trades  had  already  experienced 
a  slackened  demand,  and  this  large  advance  was  not  regarded  as  warranted  by 
the  future  prospects  of  business  anywhere.  In  some  cases  employers  were 
unwilling  to  have  their  laborers  do  less  than  ten  hours'  work  per  day,  whatever 
might  be  the  amount  of  wages  paid  them.  Said  a  member  of  the  firm  of 
Steinway  &  Company,  the  famous  piano-forte  manufacturers,  in  reply  to  the 
question,  "Would  you  agree  to  the  eight-hour  system,  provided  the  men  did 


not  ask  for  ten  hours' 


pay 


■p  1)  (( 


No  :  we  would  not  agree  to  any  thing  less 


than  ten  hours,  whether  they  wanted  eight  hours'  pay  or  not."  Many  other 
employers  similarly  situated,  or  who  were  unwilling  to  reduce  their  production, 
entertained  a  similar  opinion.  Thus  opposition  between  employer  and  em- 
ployed increased :  the  meetings  of  the  latter  class  multiplied,  at  which  the 
denunciation  of  employers  became  more  frequent  and  violent.  Everywhere 
strikes  were  threatened,  and  many  actually  broke  out.  In  1873  a  panic  swept 
Collapse  of  over  the  land.  Many  factories,  furnaces,  and  shops  were  closed, 
movement,  j^j^j  thousands  were  thrown  out  of  employment.  The  strife  soon 
was  to  get  work  upon  the  best  terms  possible,  and  the  cry  for  eight  hours  for  a 
day's  work  ceased  almost  as  suddenly  as  the  cry  was  raised. 


was  ascrib( 
would  hav( 
these  instil 
hour  movei 
zations  am 
with  greatc 
them ;  anc 
strikes :  ne 
ill  many  ca 
been  forme 
its  cause. 

Strikes, 
Jacquerie  1 
get  an  ad\ 
struck  to  r 
lirassey,  "  1 
strike  in  18 
in  1865,  an 
tile  United 
a  cotton-m 
struck  to  r£ 
struck  on 
One  thous 
struck  agai 
N.J.,  were 
ih-ed  and  f 
more  to  th( 
cordwainer 


ft- 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


89  X 


js  p.rnong 
d  strikes, 

In  most 
le  friends 
which,  of 
1  advance 
:1s  of  th'j 
perienccd 
ranted  by 
yers  were 
,  whatever 
e  firm  of 
•ly  to  the 

men  did 
thing  less 
;any  other 
roduction, 

and  eni- 
kvhich  the 
vcrywhere 
inic  swept 
re  closed, 
strife  soon 
lOurs  for  a 


§ 

t 


f' 


i: 


CHAPTER    III. 

LATER    HISTORY    OF    TRADE-UNIONS. 

WE  now  pass  on  to  the  third  stage  in  the  history  of  trade-unions  and 
of  employment  of  labor  in  this  country.    The  eight-hour  movement 
was  ascribed  to  the  influence  of  these  unions ;   yet  it  i)robably  ^^j^j  ^^ 
would  have  taken  place,  just  the  same  as  strikes  would,  even  if  oftrade- 
these  institutions  had   never  been  created.     Perhaps  the  eight-   ""'°"'- 
hour  movement  rose  more  speedily  in  consequence  of  the  existence  of  organi- 
zations among  the  laboring-men,  and  it  may  be  that  measure^  were  pushed 
with  greater  force  and  confidence  by  reason  of  the  solidarity  existing  among 
them ;   and  the  same  thing  may  be  said  of  the  working-men  in  respect  to 
strikes :  nevertheless,  these  have  occurred  where  no  unions  were  known  ;  and 
in  many  cases,  as  we  shall  show  before  concluding  this  chapter,  unions  have 
been  formed  on  the  edge  of  a  strike,  and  as  a  consequence  of  it,  ratiier  than  as 
its  cause. 

Strikes,  which  in  the  fourteenth  century  had  their  counterpart  in  the 
Jacquerie  riots,  are  the  last  argument  to  which  working-men  resort  in  order  to 
get  an  advance  of  wages.  In  England,  workmen  have  oftener  Result  of 
struck  to  resist  a  fall  than  to  secure  a  rise  of  wages.  Says  Mr.  strikes. 
Brassey,  "  Resistance  to  a  proposed  reduction  was  the  cause  of  the  engineers' 
strike  in  1852,  of  the  strike  at  Preston  in  1853,  of  the  strike  in  the  iron-tr^de 
in  1865,  and  of  the  strike  of  the  colliers  at  Wigen  in  1868."  The  strikes  in 
the  United  States  have  generally  sprung  from  a  similar  cause.  The  weavers  at 
a  cotton-mill  in  New  York,  having  had  their  wages  reduced  three  cents  a  yard, 
struck  to  regain  the  old  price.  The  sounding-board  makers  in  a  piano-factory 
struck  on  account  of  a  threatened  reduction  of  ten  per  cent  in  their  wages. 
One  thousand  operatives  employed  in  a  carpet-manufactory  in.  New  York 
struck  against  a  similar  proposed  reduction.  The  potterymen  of  Trenton, 
N.J.,  were  on  a  strike  which  lasted  several  months,  causing  a  loss  of  three  hun- 
dred and  fifty  thousand  dollars  to  the  employers  and  of  fifty  thousand  dollars 
more  to  themselves,  determined  to  accept  no  reduction  for  their  labor.  The 
cordwainers  of  New  York  struck  for  a  period  of  nine  months  against  a  pro- 


892 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


posed  reduction  of  twenty  per  cent ;  and  other  instances  might  be  noted.  What 
Mr.  Brassey  has  observed  concerning  ICnglisli  strikes  apphes  to  all  those  men- 
tioned :  "  Masters  had  found  it  necessary,  in  consequence  of  the  depressed 
state  of  trade,  to  reduce  the  rate  of  wages;  but  the  men,  ignoring  the  circum- 
stances of  the  trade,  and  looking  only  to  what  they  believed  to  be  a  der'rada- 
tion  of  their  position  as  workmen,  refused  to  accept  the  reduction."  This 
remark  is  emphatically  true  of  the  strikes  which  have  occurred  in  the  United 
States  since  the  panic  of  1873,  Profits  have  greatly  declined  ;  prices  in  gen- 
eral have  been  heavily  shrinking ;  and  a  reduction  of  wages  in  most  cases  was 
regarded  as  absolutely  necessary.  The  reduction  of  wages,  however,  has  been 
followed  by  strikes  everywhere  of  varying  degrees  of  duration,  loss,  anil  vio- 
lence. During  the  period  when  strikes  were  ordered  to  secure  an  advance 
of  wages,  victory  crowned  the  measure  ;  but  the  strikes  of  later  years  to  resist 
a  fall  of  wages  have  rarely  met  'vith  success. 

It  would  require  altogether  too  much  space  to  recount  the  story  of  the 
more  recent  strikes  which  have  occurred  in  the  United  States;  and  we  shall, 
Recent  therefore,  allude  to  only  a  few  of  them.     Two  very  notable  strikes 

strikes.  arose  among  the  operatives  of  the  cotton-mills  at  Fall  River  to 

resist  reductions  in  wages,  in  which  several  thousands  of  employees  partici- 
pated. The  factories  had  been  losing  money  in  the  manufacture  and  sale  of 
goods,  and  a  reduction  of  wages  was  absolutely  necessary  in  order  to  continue 
the  business.  The  operatives  deemed  the  reductions  too  large ;  and,  while 
they  were  willing  to  work  for  less,  they  thought  the  employers  demanded  x 
larger  reduction  than  was  necessary  to  secure  them  against  loss  in  the  manu- 
facture of  their  goods.  When  the  first  reduction  was  ordered,  it  was  hoped 
that  it  would  be  the  last :  but,  as  the  prices  of  manufactured  goods  continued 
to  decline,  a  second  reduction  soon  became  necessary ;  and  it  was  this  which 
gave  rise  to  the  chief  opposition  among  the  operatives.  All  their  efforts,  how- 
ever, to  prevent  a  reduction,  were  unavailirig  ;  and,  what  was  still  worse  for  them 
in  the  end,  the  most  active  opponents  to  ihe  reduction  were  prohibited  from 
working  in  the  factories.  A  list  of  them  was  prepared,  and  circulated  among 
the  mills  ;  and  the  regulation  was  rigidly  enforced.  Not  long  after,  a  strike 
occurred  in  the  Wamsutta  Mills  at  New  Bedford  on  account  of  a  reduction 
of  wages,  which  ended  in  the  same  way  as  the  previous  strikes  at  Fall  Ri\  cr. 
As  wages  were  rapidly  reduced  in  almost  all  trades,  strikes  broke  out  almost 
daily  in  all  parts  of  the  country.  Even  the  rice-fields  of  the  South  were  swept 
with  the  wave  of  discontent;  and  the  strikes  of  the  worknig-men  threatened. 
at  one  time,  the  ruin  of  the  crop. 

Thus  one  strike  succeeded  another,  until  a  climax  was  readied  in  the  sum- 
mer of  1877,  when  the  workmen  employed  by  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  Railroad 
Railroad-  struck  for  the  retention  of  the  wages  they  were  at  that  time  rccoiv- 
strikes.  i,-,g^  |j^,(-  which  the  company  had  proposed  to  reduce.     The  com- 

pany announced,  that,  on  the  \  6th  of  July,  their  resolution  would  go  into  effect ; 


and,  for  s 
heard  amo 
who  were 
broke  forth 
not  only  in 
a  total  sus 
other  men 
mined  not 
engines  an 
lion  to  resi 
l)lied  with 
lawlessness 
mobs  form 
The  goveri 
unable  to 
to  the  Pre 
aid  in  resi 
(lays  the  tr 
struck,  an( 
The  attem 
and  by  the 
the  strike, 
stock  anil 
freight  witl 
company  1 
out ;  thouj 
<;ers  had  a 
Gen.  I 
his  troops 
(iuard  wa 
2ist,  the 
(Ired   and 
two  GaUii 
De'pot  in 
to  open  t 
guns,  the 
cars.     Fo 
column    I 
crowd,  th 
hill.     The 
side  of  tb 
so  formec 
An  at 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


893 


ed.     What 
hose  nicii- 

dcprossc'd 
:ic  circtim- 
a  (Ifgrada- 
)n."  This 
:hc  United 

es  in  gcii- 
;  cases  was 
,  has  been 
i,  anil  vio- 
n  advance  ' 
rs  to  resist 

ary  of  the     >■ 
I  wc  shall,     k 
)le  strikes     f 
River  to     £ 
:s  partici-     | 
nd  sale  of     t 
3  contniue     ' 
and,  while 
manded  a 
the  manu- 
kas hoped 
continued      ^ 
this  which 
orts,  now-     ■.^ 
e  for  them     « 
)ited  from 
ed  among 
r,  a  strike 
reduction 
''all  River. 
lut  almost 
'ere  swept 
ireatened. 

the  sum- 

Railroail 
le  receiv- 
rhe  corn- 
to  effect  j 


and,  for  several  days  previous  to  the  event,  muttcrings  of  discontent  were 
heard  among  the  conductors,  brakenien,  and  firemen,  especially  among  those 
who  were  employed  in  running  freight-trains.  On  the  day  fixed  the  slurni 
broke  forth.  The  employees  who  conducted  the  freight-trains  refiised  to  work, 
not  only  in  Baltimore,  but  throughout  the  line  of  the  road.  There  was  at  once 
a  total  suspension  of  transportation.  The  company  endeavored  to  i)rocure 
other  men  to  run  the  trains  :  but  it  was  sc  on  found  that  the  strikers  were  deter- 
mined not  to  allow  them  to  move ;  aid  they  dragged  the  crews  from  the 
engines  and  cars,  extinguished  the  fires,  .-^nd  openly  avowed  their  determina- 
tion to  resist  by  force  the  passage  of  freight-trains  until  the  company  had  com- 
plied with  their  demand  lor  rescinding  the  order  reducing  their  wages.  The 
lawlessness  and  violence  of  the  strikers  rapidly  increased,  while  sympathetic 
mobs  formed  at  the  various  points  where  the  strikers  were  the  most  numerous. 
The  governor  soon  found  that  the  State  militia  which  had  been  calletl  out  were 
unable  to  cope  with  so  formidable  an  insurrection  :  so  application  was  made 
to  the  President,  who  immediately  responded  to  the  call,  and  sent  troops  to 
aid  in  restoring  order.  'I'he  wave  rapidly  swept  northward ;  and  within  two 
(lays  the  train-hands  of  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad  at  Pittsburg  also  Pittsburgh 
struck,  and  stopped  the  movement  of  all  trains  cast  and  west.  '■'°*- 
The  attempts  of  the  municipal  and  county  authorities  to  restore  traffic  failed ; 
and  by  the  evening  of  the  20th  of  July,  three  days  after  the-  commencement  of 
the  strike,  a  large  number  of  trains,  containing  thousrinds  of  head  of  live- 
stock and  merchandise,  were  massed  at  Pittsburgh,  iwery  effort  to  move 
freight  with  the  aid  of  the  workmen  who  remained  in  the  faithfiil  employ  of  the 
company  proved  unavailing.  In  the  mean  time,  the  State  troops  were  ordered 
out ;  though,  three  days  after  the  riot  began,  only  six  hundred  men  and  offi- 
cers had  assembled  for  duty. 

Gen.  Pearson,  who  commanded  at  Pittsburgh,  fearing  that  the  majority  of 
his  troops  were  in  sympathy  with  the  strikers,  the  first  division  of  the  National 
(iuard  was  ordered  to  join  him.  At  two  o'clock  in  the  afternoon  of  the 
2ist,  the  first  detachment  of  the  Philadelphia  division,  numbering  six  hun- 
dred and  fifty  men,  under  command  of  Gen.  Brinton,  bringing  with  'it 
two  Gatling  guns  and  a  large  quantity  of  ammunition,  arrived  at  the  Union 
Depot  in  Pittsburgh.  After  a  short  delay,  to  feed  the  soldiers,  the  movement 
to  open  the  road  began.  Preceded  b\  the  sheriff,  and  carrying  the  Gatling 
guns,  the  troops  were  marched  down  the  tracks,  between  the  lines  of  freight- 
cars.  For  some  distance  the  road  was  comparatively  clear ;  but,  as  the 
column  approached  Twenty-eighth  Street,  it  met  a  constantly-increasing 
crowd,  through  which  it  forced  its  way  into  the  dense  mass  at  the  foot  of  the 
hill.  The  lines  pressed  the  crowd  slowly  and  with  difficulty  back  on  either 
side  of  the  road,  until  that  portion  of  the  tracks  enclosed  by  tlie  hollow  square 
so  formed  was  clear. 

An  attenijjt  of  the  sheriff  to  arrest  some  ringleaders  who  had  been  prom- 


'-■'■m 


894 


/JVn  as  TKIA  L    HIS  TOR  y 


m 


inent  in  the  previous  outrages  raised  a  commotion,  during  which  stones  were 
thrown  by  the  mob.  The  troops  were  ordered  to  charge  bayonets,  and,  in 
doing  so,  came  in  immediate  contact  witii  the  pressing  and  excited  mass. 
Several  pistol-sho>..,  were  fired,  and  a  volley  of  stones  thrown  from  the  crowd. 
from  those  on  the  hillside,  as  well  as  others;  and  violent  attempts  were  made 
t(j  wrest  the  muskets  from  the  soldiers.  Having  been  wedged  in  anion"-  a 
surging  body  of  rioters  growing  more  and  more  aggressive,  many  of  whom 
were  attempting  to  crowd  the  soldiers  from  the  ranks  or  wrench  the  muskots 
from  their  hands,  and  as  a  few  moments  more  would  have  broken  the  ranks, 
and  involved  the  individual  soldiers  in  irextricabL'  and  helpless  confusion 
among  their  foes,  the  soldiers  fi.ed.  Under  the  circmnstances,  they  did  riLrlu 
to  resist  the  atten\pt  to  disarm  or  overpower  them.  A  soldier  is  stationed  or 
commanded  to  move  as  a  soldier,  and  has  the  undoubted  right,  in  the  excdi- 
tion  of  his  order,  to  prevent  himself  from  being  forced  from  hi?  post,  or  dis- 
armed. As  soon  as  relieved  of  the  pressure,  the  commands  of  i..  e  officers  at 
once  stopped  the  firing.  From  proximity  to  the  crowd,  the  firing  was  wild 
and  high  a.s  well  as  desultory,  and  ^nok  effect  principally  upon  the  hill. 
Panic-stricken,  the  crowd  upon  die  hillside  and  adjacent  streets,  and  imme- 
diately surrounding  the  soldier.-;,  scattered  in  all  directions,  carrying  with  it 
many  of  the  Pittsburgh  soldiers ;  and  the  main  body  of  the  rioters  fell  bac  k 
along  the  track.  In  the  M/'/i'e  fifteen  or  twenty  soldiers  were  wounded,  the 
majority  with  pistol-balls,  and  a  nimiber  of  the  mob  killed  and  wounded. 

At  this  time  the  troops  were  imdoubtedly  masters  of  the  situation ;  and  .1 
determined  advance  in  all  directions,  and  co-operation  of  the  civil  autiiorities, 
would  have  driven  away  every  vestige  of  the  mob,  and,  by  activity  and  care, 
might  have  prevented  it  from  re-assembling.  As  it  was,  though  unskilfully 
executed,  the  movement  produced  the  result  intended  ;  but,  though  offered 
a  guard  for  each  one,  the  railway  officials  were  unable  to  move  their  trams, 
from  the  impossibility  of  finding  engineers  and  crews  who  were  willing  to  man 
them  at  that  tmi-^.  The  troops  held  their  ground  an  hour  or  two,  during 
M'hich  time  the  rioters  gradually  returned,  and  collected  about  in  scjuads. 
Abc.it  six  o'clock  the  troops  were  withdrawn,  and  place  1  wholly  within  th 
round-houses  and  adjacent  buildings.  Mo  pickets  or  guards  were  left  o.itside. 
From  this  time  on  the  troons  M'cre  kept  on  the  defensive,  which  cave  tiic  mol-. 
a  great  and  fatal  advantage.  The  mob,  ra])idly  increasing  in  numbers  ami 
boldness  after  dark,  broke  into  various  gun-stores  and  armor'cs,  armin"'  them- 
selves ;  and  a  desultory  firing  was  kept  up  during  d)e  night,  without  e.Vect  upon 
the  soldiers,  and  with  considerable  loss  to  the  rioters.  From  that  time  on- 
ward, fo"  several  days,  the  rioters  were  master.,  of  the  situation.  The  military 
were  tojally  inadequate  to  quell  them  :  indeed,  he  next  day  they  felt  obliged 
to  withdraw  into  the  open  country.  As  no  engineers  could  be  found  to  run 
trains,  u  enforcements  could  proceed  only  at  a  slow  rate  •  so  the  insurrection 
gained  strong  headwav.      Mnalh-.  disregarding  all    law,  and   consideration  lor 


private  pro 

cars,  engin( 

I'ennsylvan 

in  suppress 

these  rendi 

manifested 

serve  at  a 

showed  an 

had  spent 

centring  at 

all  parts  of 

In  the 

I'hiladelph 

by  the  gre 

burgh,   thr 

Dauphin  C 

of  the  citi; 

(listurbanc 

road-bridg 

freight-trai 

tion,  Gen. 

National  C 

street- fight 

injured  m( 

above  fifty 

subsequen 

drawn  ;  b 

United-St: 

In  the 

ing  excite 

the  roads 

a  large  bo 

and  facto 

which  coi 

and  a  nv 

rapidly  gr 

and  detei 

ortlered  t 

of  Angus 

of  troop; 

Novenibt 

drawn. 

easily  suj 


tones  wen- 
t^,  and,  ill 
iti-'d   iiiasx 
the  crowd, 
were  111,1(1,  ■ 
1  anionj,'  a 
r  of  whom 
ic  miiskcis 
the  ranks, 
<-onfiisi()ii 
y  (h(I  rin;ht 
ationcd  or 
tlie  exc(  II- 
'Ost,  or  dis- 
offirors  at 
was  wild 
n   the  hill. 
:iik1  imiiip- 
inpf  with  it 
s  fell  back 
[unded,  the 
ided. 

ion ;  and  i 
authorities, 
'  and  care, 
unskilfully 
gh  offered 
heir  trains, 
ng  to  man 


t>*'  TI/E    UN /TED    STATES. 


895 


private  property,  the  rioters  began  the  wholesale  destruction  of  property  — 
cars,  engnics,  freight,  and  buildings  —  belonging  to  or  in  the  possession  of  the 
I'ennsylvania  Railroad  Company.  The  government  was  called  upon  to  aid 
ill  suppressing  the  insurrection  ;  but  only  a  few  troops  were  in  the  East,  though 
these  rendered  x'ery  effective  service.  While  several  of  the  State  organizations 
manifested  much  sympathy  with  the  strikers,  and  in  many  cases  refused  to 
serve  at  all,  the  national  troops  came  promptly  to  the  rescue,  and  never 
-iiowed  any  signs  of  wavering.  In  a  few  days,  however,  the  riot  at  Pittsburgh. 
iiad  spent  its  force ;  and  on  Monday,  the  30th  of  July,  the  railroad  companies 
( entring  at  that  point  resumed  business,  and  communication  was  opened  with 
all  parts  of  the  country. 

In  the  mean  time  the  disturbances  spread  rapidly  over  the  State.  In 
Philadelphia,  by  the  courage  and  activity  of  the  mayor  and  police,  supported 
by  the  great  body  of  the  citizens  and  the  press,  and  in  Harris- 
burgh,  through  the  coolness  and  promptness  of  the  sheriff  of  riot"to  other 
Dauphin  County  and  the  mayor  of  the  city,  and  the  public  spirit  places  in  and 
of  the  citizens,  who  responded  to  the  call  of  the  authorities,  the  °^^  °^  '^^ 
disturbances  were  speedily  quelled.  In  Reading  the  costly  rail- 
road-bridge over  the  Schuylkill  was  burned  on  the  evening  of  the  2  2d,  and 
freight-trains  stopped.  The  Sheriff  of  Berks  County  proving  unequal  to  the  situa- 
tion, Gen.  Reeder,  with  two  hundred  and  fifteen  muskets  of  the  Fourth  Infiintry, 
National  (iuard  of  Pennsylvania,  was  sent  there  by  (len.  Bolton  ;  and  in  a  severe 
street-fight  after  dark,  on  the  23d,  —  in  which  many  of  his  command  were 
injured  more  or  less  severely  with  stones,  and  eleven  of  the  crowd  killed,  and 
above  fifty  wounded,  —  the  rioters  were  dispersed.  These  troops,  having  been 
subsequently  demoralized  by  the  action  of  the  Sixteenth  Regiment,  were  with- 
drawn ;  but  the  next  day  (the  24th),  upon  the  arrival  of  a  detachment  of 
Tnited-States  troops  under  Col.  Hamilton,  the  road  was  re-opened. 

In  the  middle  coal-field  of  Luzerne  County,  the  miners,  under  the  prevail- 
ing excitement,  struck  on  the  25th  of  July,  and  all  trains  were  stopped  upon 
the  roads  runnhig  through  that  region.  At  Scranton,  on  the  ist  of  August, 
a  large  body  of  men,  endeavoring  to  drive  the  workmen  from  the  railroad-shops 
and  factories,  were  courageously  dispersed  by  the  mayor  and  his  posse,  m 
which  conflict  that  officer  was  severely  injured,  and  three  of  the  rioters  killed 
and  a  number  wounded.  As  the  trouble  was  serious  and  threatening,  aiul 
rapidly  growing  beyond  the  control  of  the  mayor  and  his  small  force,  brave 
and  determined  as  they  were,  the  first  division,  under  Gen.  Brinton,  was 
ordered  to  that  region,  followed  immediately  with  other  forces ;  and  on  the  31! 
of  August  the  railroads  were  once  more  put  into  regular  operation.  A  body 
of  troops,  regular  and  militia,  were  stationed  Miere  until  the  early  part  of 
November,  when,  all  fears  of  any  disturbances  bei.ig  removed,  they  were  with- 
drawn. Slight  outbreaks  which  had  occurred  in  various  other  places  had  been 
easily  suppressed  eitlier  by  the  local  authorities  or  the  presence  of  the  United- 


i . 


k 


I  til 


I, 

1-;  ■(( 


i 


896 


IND  US  TRIA  L    /IIS  TOR  Y 


States  or  State  troops;  and  before  the  micklle  of  August  all  the  railroads 
throughout  the  State  were  running  on  schedule  time,  and  by  the  early  part  of 
November  all  manifestations  of  lawlessness  hail  disap|)eared. 

It  was  in  Pennsylvania,  and  csi)ecially  at  Pittsburgh,  that  the  riot  rose  to 
its  greatest  height,  was  the  most  destructive,  and  was  least  easily  (juelled.  On 
the  2ist  of  July  the  wave  rolled  into  tlie  State  of  New  York,  and  was  first  felt 
along  the  line  of  the  New-York  and  l'>ie  Railroad.  Shortly  after,  trains  were 
stopped  on  the  New-York  Central  Road,  and  large  and  excited  crowds  of  mk". 
gathered  at  Albany,  Syracuse,  Buffalo,  Hornellsvillc,  Corning,  lOlmira  ;  while  llu 
peace  of  the  city  of  New  York  even  was  seriously  threatened.  The  governor 
ordered  the  entire  force  of  the  National  Guard  to  hold  itself  ready  to  move  ;u 
a  moment's  notice,  and  several  regiments  were  ortlered  to  various  parts  of  the 
State.  The  prompt  action  of  the  governor,  and  the  discipline  and  efficiency 
manifested  by  the  troops,  had  the  good  effect  of  speedily  subduing  the  disturb 
ance ;  and,  within  a  week,  order  was  restored  throughout  the  State. 

But  little  commotion  was  experienced  in  New  lOngland,  and  no  trains  wen- 
interrupted  by  rioters.  In  the  West,  however,  serious  delays  occurred,  thuuyh 
nowhere  was  such  violence  practised  as  in  Maryland  and  Pennsylvania.  Man)' 
trains  were  stopped.  In  some  cases,  the  reduction  of  wages  which  had  been 
pro[)osed  did  not  take  place ;  and  overtures  of  one  sort  and  another  were 
made  satisflxctory  to  the  railroad  employees,  and  thus  their  anger  was  appeased. 
Having  originated  among  this  class  of  working-men  for  the  most  part,  the 
rioting  extended  no  farther ;  though,  in  Pittsburgh,  others,  to  some  extent, 
participated.  They  were  aggrieved  over  the  reduction  of  their  wages,  ami 
thought  that  various  changes  in  the  arrangement  of  the  railroads  ought  to  be 
made  before  calling  upon  them  to  accept  any  lower  compensation  for  their 
services.  Their  reipiests  having  been  refused,  and  their  reason  becoming 
dethroned,  they  j  ursuetl  a  wild  course,  which  proved,  perhaps,  more  in- 
jurious to  them  than  to  any  other  class  of  people.  It  was  one  of  those  wild, 
thoughtless  movements  which  every  now  and  then  break  out  when  least  ex- 
pected, and  which  give  a  great  jar  to  society ;  out  this  last  blaze  went  tlown  as 
suddenly  as  it  arose,  because  it  did  not  spring  from  any  fuel  which  could  burn 
long.  It  was  only  a  flash,  terrible  for  the  moment,  blinding,  bewildering,  and 
frightening  many,  yet  leaving  no  dangerous  residuum.  There  are  persons  who 
tremble  over  the  possible  recurrence  of  these  scenes;  yet  the  public  is  so 
alive  to  the  danger,  on  the  one  hand,  and  those  who  indulged  in  them  must  W 
so  convinced  of  their  folly,  on  the  other,  that  the  repetition  of  this  singular 
outbreak  is  not  likely  soon  to  occur. 

The  consequences  of  striking  ofttimes  have  not  been  very  carefully  <  011 
Effects  of        sidered  before  engaging  in  them,  otherwise  many  of  these  occar- 
strikes  upon    rcnces  nevcr  would  have  happened.     In  Antwerp  there  were  ai 
business.         ^^^  ^^^^^^  nearly  fifty  establishments  devoted  to  the  manufacture  of 
cigars,  and  employing  about  ten  thousand  workmen  and  apprentices.     During 


\he  summ 

fictting  a 
(tiring  a  ( 
so  that  tl 
restmied 
It  had  rec 
had  been 
where  wlu 
Ww  years 
<lisastrous 
Cornish  n 
<luction  o 
crable  sav 
mining : 
men    of 
loss  of  th 
fifty  thous 
it  has  noi 
])roprietor 
jietilion  n 
shock ;   ai 
([uences  n 
are  only  a 
Terrib 
unions, 
the  trtith  1 
space  be  i 
Unions  Ci 
lish  strike: 
rc])orts  is 
does  not  ; 
on  the  pa 
frctiuency 
is,  indeed 
societies 
and  to  gi 
constant  ( 

This 
Admitted 
'>r  strikes 
ofL^^anizati 
the  wage 
greatest  1 


OF    rilE    UNITED    STATES. 


.S(;7 


I 


.'  railroads 
irly  pan  of 

iot  rose  to 
cllcd.  On 
as  first  fell 
trains  wcro 

'ds  of  IIK". 

;  while  tin- 
e  governor 

0  move  at 
arts  of  the 

cfificicncy 
he  disturl)- 

trains  were 
ed, though 
ia.     Many 

had  been 
other  were 

appeased. 
t  jjart,  the 
me  extent, 
vages,  and 
ight  to  be 

1  for  their 
Ijeconiinj,' 
more   in- 

those  wild, 
1  least  ex- 
it down  as 
oidd  bnrn 
lering,  and 
arsons  will) 
iblic  is  so 
m  mnst  In- 
is  singular 

efully  coii- 
ese  occur- 
•e  were  at 
ifactnre  of 
I.     During 


the  summer  of  187 1  all  the  operatives  instituted  a  strike  for  the  purpose  of 
{letting  a  reduction  of  working  hours,  though  not  of  wages ;  and  also  of  pro- 
curing a  discharge  of  the  apprentices.  Means  were  furnished  to  the  operatives  ; 
so  that  the  strike  was  prolonged  for  four  months  and  a  half,  when  work  was 
resinned.  In  the  mean  time,  what  had  happened  to  the  Antwerp  cigar-trade? 
It  had  received  a  serious  blow  from  which  it  has  never  recovered.  Those  who 
had  been  accustomed  to  obtain  a  supply  of  cigars  from  this  (juarter  went  else- 
where when  their  demamis  could  not  be  fulfilled,  and  have  never  returned.  A 
few  years  ago  a  strike  occurred  in  the  State  of  Nevada,  which  led  to  tin'  same 
disastrous  conclusion.  In  the  silver-mines  of  Grass  Valley,  three  hundred 
("ornish  miners  who  were  receiving  four  dollars  a  day  struck  upon  the  intro- 
duction of  a  new  kind  of  blasting-powder  which  was  found  to  effect  a  consid- 
erable saving  of  labor.  They  insisted  upon  following  the  Cornish  system  of 
mining :  the  result  was,  that  the  mines  were  closed  forever.  'I'he  pottery- 
men  of  Trenton,  N.J.,  by  indulging  in  a  strike  which  entailed  a  direct 
loss  of  three  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  dollars  upon  their  employers,  and 
fifty  thousand  dollars  upon  themselves,  crippled  the  business  so  severely,  that 
it  has  not  yet  recovered  ;  and,  while  the  loss  has  been  keenly  felt  by  the 
proprietors,  the  workmen  have  been  the  greatest  losers.  With  the  sharp  com- 
petition now  raging  in  every  kind  of  business,  it  is  sensitive  even  to  the  slightest 
shock ;  and,  when  so  violent  an  interruption  occurs  as  a  strike,  the  conse- 
(piences  not  infreipiently  are  severe  and  lasting.  The  foregoing  illustrations 
are  only  a  few  of  the  many  which  may  be  given. 

Terrible  as  strikes  often  are,  they  cannot  always  be  laid  at  the  door  of  trade- 
unions.     Many  entertain  tlie  opposite  opinion ;   and  it  is  desirable  to  present 
the  truth  upon  this  jjoint  as  clearly  as  possible,  even  if  considerable 
space  be  rccpiired  for  the  purpose.     All  the  members  of  the  Trade-   unj'onJnoj 
Unions  Commission  were  in  accord  on  this  point  concerning  lOng-   always  re- 
lish strikes,  and  the  language  used  in  the  leading  and  dissenting  sp°"^'  '^  f*"" 

>  o      o  o  o     strikes. 

reports  is  almost  the  same.  To  quote  from  the  chief  one  :  '•'  It 
dues  not  appear  to  be  borne  out  by  the  evidence  that  the  disposition  to  strike 
on  the  part  of  the  workmen  is  in  itself  the  creation  of  unionism,  or  that  the 
frequency  of  strikes  increases  in  proportion  to  the  strength  of  the  union.  It 
is,  indeed,  affirmed  by  the  leaders  of  unions,  that  the  effect  of  the  established 
societies  is  to  diminish  the  frequency,  and  certainly  the  disorder,  of  strikes, 
ami  to  guarantee  a  regularity  of  wages  and  hours,  rather  than  to  engage  in 
constant  endeavors  to  improve  them." 

This    evitlcnce    throws   into   bold   relief  a  good   feature   of  trade-unions. 
Admitted  ui)on  the  best  authority  that  they  are  not  the  authors 

r  ■!  1  1  ,  Richest 

of  strikes,  the   strongest,   richest,    and    most   extcndid   of  these   ur.ionshave 
organizations   hp.ve   had    the   fewest    strikes   nn'i    disputes ;    while   fcwc;;t 
the  wages  of  their  members  and  their  hours  of  labor  show  the 
greatest  permanence.     Tlie  Society  of  l^ngineers,  of  which  Mr.  Allan  is  sccre- 


1. 1  ■' 


'i 


r 


\ 


•^!;.v 


89S 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


tary,  is  very  numerous,  embracing  the  prin(;ii)al  portion  of  the  workmen 
engaged  in  that  business  in  (Ireat  Britain.  At  one  time  the  society  had  ;i 
reserve-l'imd  of  seven  lum(h-ed  and  fifty  thousand  dollai-s.  So  great  is  their 
power,  that  Mr.  15eyer,  a  partner  in  one  of  the  largest  iron-fotmderies  iu 
lOnglanil,  represented  liimseh'  as  wholly  in  the  control  of  the  union.  I5iit 
their  wages,  notwithstanding  their  power,  have  been  scarcely  raised  for  twenty- 
five  years,  except  by  the  voluntary  act  of  their  masters. 

'I'he  feeblest  unions  —  those  just  struggling  into  existence  perhaps,  or  \vhi(  h 
have  the  least  control  over  their  members  —  oftenest  indulge  in  strikes.  Not 
_    . ,  infreciuently  unions  are  formed  when  the  spirit  for  strikincr  is  rifi- ; 

unions  btrikc  and,  conseciueully,  they  are  charged  with  instituting  strikes  wlii(h 
most  fre-        wouKl  havc  happened  whether  unions  existed  or  not.     When  men 

qucntly. 

are  dissatisfied  with  their  wages,  they  can  easily  subscribe  a  suiall 
fund  for  the  purpose  of  striking,  and  create  a  union  which  is  not  intended  to 
exist  beyond  the  occasion  giving  it  birth.  The  proceedings  of  such  bodies 
ought  not  in  justice  to  be  charged  to  the  regularly-constituted  union.  It  is 
said  of  the  ICnglish  tailors'  r.nd  iron-workers'  unions,  that  they  "  never  possessed 
the  power  or  the  i)ermancnt  character  of  such  societies  as  the  Amalgamated 
Engineers  and  Amalgamated  Carpenters  ;  "  and  these  are  the  trades  in  whi(  h 
the  loudest  complaints  are  heard  of  the  frequency  of  strikes.  Numerous 
strikes  and  lockouts  have  occurred  in  the  coal-mining  districts  of  \Vales  and 
Derbyshire;  but  no  unions  have  flourished  in  those  regions.  Tn  the  United 
States  most  of  the  unions  are  young,  hardly  in  working-order,  having  no  accu- 
mulated funds,  the  discipline  exercised  being  exceedingly  lax  ;  the  machine  in 
every  way  bearing  evidence  of  hasty  and  rude  construction.  While  they  ha\e 
wrought  mischiefs  which  cannot  be  excuscil,  yet  wc  may,  in  a  spirit  of  fairness, 
believe  that  many  of  these  wouUl  not  have  arisen  had  the  unions  been  in  longer 
and  more  perfect  ojicration. 

During  the  years  1875  and  1S76  many  unions  were  created  in  the  United 
States  during  strikes,  or  with  special  reference  to  them.  The  societies  grew 
out  of  a  striking  disposition,  but  not  the  strikes  from  the  creation  of  the 
unions.  Nevertiieless,  the  hated  trade-unions  arc  unjustly  accused  of  originat- 
ing grave  evils  which  would  have  happened  in  any  event,  As  these  organiza- 
tions grow  older  and  more  stable,  and  select  more  capable  leaders,  they  will 
be  managed  with  greater  wisdom,  and  capital  will  havc  less  cause  to  fear  iIkih, 

It  is  (luestioned  whether  the  diminished  frequency  of  strikes  among  jiower- 
ful  unions  arises  less  from  want  of  disposition  to  strike  on  the  part  of  the  nieni- 
Dostroirrcr  '^^'""^  \\\'^\\  from  the  fact  that  their  organization  is  so  powerful,  as.  iu 
unions  abuse  most  cascs,  to  obtain  the  concession  demanded  without  recourse 
their  power  ?  ^^  ^|^j^  mcasurc.  Perhaps  this  is  so  ;  but  surely  it  will  not  be  denied 
that  the  Trade-Unions  Commission,  who  raised  this  query,  did  not  glean  a 
scintilla  of  evidence  upon  the  point  in  their  most  thorough  and  in  every  way 
credital)lc  investigation.     We  can  comprehend  what  influence  these  poucrtui 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES, 


«99 


better 
gufiied. 


or'^ani/alions  could  exert  if  they  cliosc,  and  liow  masters  had  better  submit 
ID  itu'ir  demands,  tiu)U','l»  declaiin;^'  tliein  wrong,  tiiaii  go  tliroiigli  tiie  painful 
lUKAMtainty  of  a  strike.  [\\  srveral  instances,  masters  liave  conR-ssed  iIrmh- 
sclves  wiliiiii  tiie  power  of  trade-uuions  :  if  tiiis  he  true,  tiiey  could  ol)tain  new 
concessions  widioiit  a  conflict  of  any  kind.  Possibly,  if  several  of  the  socie- 
ties were  lesa  strong,  they  might  not  have  received  sonje  of  the  benefits  which 
have  come  to  them  i)eaceably,  and  perhaps  none  at  all.  Let  us  not  forget, 
though,  that  there  is  no  evideiu  e  ou  ihe  subject;  and  in  the  absence  of 
this  the  question  is  purely  s[)eculative,  and  cannot  receive  a  definitive 
answer. 

'I'he  reason  why  the  richer  and  more  powerful  unions  moderate  the  dispo- 
sition f(jr  strikes  is  not  merely  to  conserve  their  funds,  nor  Ix'cause  they  oi)taiu 
concessions  by  reason  of  their  power,  bi;'  because  they  are  more   ^ 

•'  '  '  •'  Stronger 

wisely  conducted  than  the  newer  and  smaller  organizations.  The  unions  are 
government  of  each  branch  f)f  the  union  is  vested  in  a  committee 
and  local  secretary  elected  from  time  to  time  by  the  membc.s; 
while  the  government  of  the  whole  society  is  commonly  vested  in  a  general  or 
executive  council  elected  by  the  branches,  and  a  general  secretary  elected 
by  universal  suffrage  of  the  entire  organization.  Uolh  the  executive  council 
and  the  committee  of  the  several  branches  are  re([uired  to  govern  them- 
selves according  to  established  rules;  and,  when  these  do  not  exist,  they 
must  rely  upon  their  judgment,  subject  to  an  apj)eal  to  the  general  body. 
Instituting  and  conducting  strikes  is  the  most  important  function  of  every 
well-organized  union's  council.  It  is  ihesc  councils  which  have  toned 
down  the  disposition  of  workmen  so  much  in  regard  to  strikes;  for,  gener- 
ally, the  best  men  are  selected  for  these  places,  —  men  of  the  most  intelli- 
gence, and  who  are  tiie  best  ca[)able  of  ascertaining  the  condition  and 
profits  of  the  business  in  wliich  workmen  are  LMupiojed.  These  leaders,  from 
their  superior  knowledge  and  capability  to  [\\v{  out  the  true  condition  of  busi- 
ness, can  judge  better  than  the  members;  and  henci;  it  is  that  strikes  among 
the  larger  and  more  wisely-conductetl  unions  are  diminishing.  And  this  we 
regard  as  a  very  hopeful  feature  of  trade- unions.  One  thing  tlie  toiling  c:lasses 
need  is  correct  information  concerning  tlie  business  in  wliicji  tiiey  are  engaged, 
Tliey  imagine  tlieir  em[)loyers  are  getting  very  ricli  oftentimes,  when  they  are 
running  at  a  lois,  though  keeping  the  fact  concealed.  'ihe  strikes  wliich 
occurreil  in  tlie  cotton-mills  of  New  ICnglaiul  during  1875  arc  unanswerable 
proof  of  this  remark.  Most  of  them  had  earned  no  profits  for  several  months; 
yet  the  operatives  in  several  cases  unwisely  demanded  an  increase  of  wages. 
Had  they  kno\-'i  any  thing  about  the  condition  of  trade,  they  would  have 
comprehended  t!:C  folly  of  asking  for  an  advance  when  employers  were 
keeping  them  l)usy  at  a  loss.  *  Personal  knowledge  or  wise  leadership  would 
have  saved  them  from  a  contest  with  their  employers  which  was  sure  to  end  in 
the   laborers'   defeat.     They  were   the   dupes  of   ignorant  and   wild  leaders. 


i 


900 


IND  US  TRIA  L    HIS  TOR  Y 


instead  of  wise  and  temperate  ones  ;  and  behold  the  result !  Every  one  wha 
knew  any  thing  about  the  condition  of  the  cotton-trade  was  certain  the  .strilic.-i 
would  end  in  failure  ;  for,  in  fact,  the  owners  were  (luite  as  willing  to  have  the 
men  unemployed  as  not.  PrejudicL-  and  ill  feeling  between  employed  and 
employer  help  kindle  the  laboring-man's  imagination  respecting  the  profits 
accruing  l/om  his  labor.  Now  the  leaders  of  vmions  are  in  a  situation  to 
learn  more  perfectly  the  exact  nature  of  things,  and  this  is  vdiy  they  advise- 
more  peaceful  measures. 

Here  a  streak  of  light  issues  from  these  organizations,  especially  since  tlie 
establishment  of  boards  of  arbitration  and  conciliation  for  the  settlement  of 
How  unions  differences  between  men  and  masters.  Members  having  coiifi- 
aid  concilia-  dencc  in  their  councils  are  able  to  submit  questions  to  third  parties 
for  settlement.  They  could  do  what  would  be  impossible  v.ero 
they  unorganized.  Should  all  the  men  in  a  shop  strike,  and  the  attci^iiJt 
be  made  to  leave  the  differences  between  them  and  their  masters  to  sunie 
person  for  arbitration,  ii.e  diffi'.ulty  would  be  in  organizing  the  workmen  for 
consultation ;  and  even  were  a  temporary  organization  formed,  and  rei)rcsc'i- 
tatives  selected  from  it  to  confer  Viith  their  employer,  they  would  not  commnnd 
such  confidence  as  those  vlio  were  recognized  as  leaders,  and  thoroughly 
knowing  the  condition  of  business. 

It  is  asserted  that  these  very  councils  foment  strikes  when  they  ought  not. 
Being  paid  officers,  they  regard  it  as  part  of  their  duty,  it  is  said,  to  ad\  ise 
Do  councils     Striking  occasionally.      This  is  thought  to    be   dieir  occupation 
foment  They  are  chosen   to  wage  war,  not  to  maintain  peace,     'i'iicse 

notions  are  erroneous.  Only  a  very  few  persons  connected  wiili 
trade-unions  receive  any  pecuniary  reward  ;  nor  do  they  constantly  agitate  for 
higher  wages  and  other  benefits.  This  we  suppose  they  do,  in  some  cases ; 
yet  it  is  quite  clear,  that,  in  general,  the  tendency  of  their  advice  and  counsel  is 
to  moderate  the  striking  disposition  of  those  under  their  direction  and  control. 
Strikes  began  long  before  trade-unions  were  ever  thought  of:  they  are  inci- 
dentul  to  coUeclin'.;  men  in  masses  as  they  have  been  collected  l)y  the  ercctic^n 
of  foctories.  The  union  doer,  give  an  increased  power  of  striking:  it  can  deal 
a  hauler  blow ;  but,  instead  of  giving  it,  an  increased  sense  of  order,  suhonli- 
nation,  and  reflection,  is  exhibited.  Does  any  one  <loubt  the  truth  of  lliis? 
Listen  to  what  tlie  General  Secretary  of  tlie  .Amalgamated  Society  of  Carpen- 
ters and  Joiners  says  in  his  last  report :  '•  Our  demands  on  our  employers  for 
wages  and  reduced  working-hours,  which  have  been  moderate  in  their  cliaiae- 
tcr,  and  which  have  been  a  consc(]ucnce,  not  a  cause,  of  the  enhanced  cost  ot 
tne  necessaries  of  life,  have  generally  been  courteously  conceded  ;  and  tlir.^ 
our  disputes  have  been  few  and  unimportant.  I  sincerely  trust  that  an  ami 
cable  reladonsliip  between  emi)Ioyers  and  employed  may  be  pernianeiilly 
maintained.  Although  we  may  be  told,  that,  in  accordance  with  the  law  ul 
supply  and  dem-^.nd,  we  are  justified  in  jjiessing  for  all  the  advantages  we  <   ii 


(^  . 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


901 


possibly  obtain  in  busy  times,  and  that  we  should  accept  whatever  may  be 
offered  to  us  wlien  trade  is  depressed,  I  hold  that  such  a  policy  is  advan- 
tageous neither  to  employer  nor  employed,  and  cannot  benefit  the  general 
public.  Wherever  our  employer,;,  are  disposed  to  meet  us  in  a  fair  and  concili- 
atory spirit,  our  members  will  do  well  to  meet  them  with  equal  cordiality,  to 
carefully  consider  any  arguments  that  may  be  advanced,  and  thoroughly 
examine  both  sides  of  the  (juestion  at  issue.  If  employers  and  workmen  are 
determined  to  act  fliirly  by  their  opponents,  as  well  as  to  secure  justice  to 
ihemselvcs,  matters  of  detail  may  be  arranged,  differences  amicably  settled, 
and  results  secured  wiiich  would  be  for  more  satisfactory  to  all  parties  than  any 
thing  which  could  be  obtained  by  a  strike  or  lockout."  Who  can  find  fault 
with  this  advice,  or  maintain  that  working-men  are  not  better  off  under  such 
leadership  than  they  would  be  each  one  struggling  for  himself  ?  Do 
not  these  words  give  i)romise  of  restored  harmony  between  capital  and 
labor?  Surely  trade-unions  thus  directed  ought  to  be  encouraged,  not  con- 
demned. 

We  have  reserved  for  the  jlose  a  word  or  two  in  the  way  of  contrasting 
the  trade-unions  of  the  United  States  with  those  existing  in  European  coun- 
tries.   In  those,  the  ranks  of  l.'.bor  for  centuries  have  been  fall ;  the   contrast  of 
power  of  capital  has  bcMi  cnormour, :   and  fairness  requires  us  to   working-men 
say  that  the  working-man  there  needed  far  more  protection  than   states  with 
was  given  him  by  law ;    far  more  tiian  he,  updcr  the  most  favor-   those  in 
able    circumstances,   received.     Harsh    and   unjusiifi able   as   are      "'■°p^- 
some  of  llic  rules  and  methods  of  trade-unions  there,  they  are  grounded  in 
the  most  solid  reason;, ;  but  in  the  United  States  the  case  is  very  different. 
Even  if  employers  be  found  selfish  and  too  grasping,  an  enormous  public  do- 
main is  open  for  settlement ;  and  thither  can  the  oppressed  son  of  toil  always 
ily  for  relief.     No  one  has  studied  the  case  of  the  working-men  with  greater 
care  and  devotion  tiian  Thomas  Hughes  of  England ;  for  years  he  has  fought 
their  battle  without  fiinching :    yet,  when  he  visited  this  country  a  few  years 
ago,  he  delivered  a  lecture  to  the  working-men  of  New  York,  in  which  he 
said,  — - 

"  I  have  no  right  to  offer  counsel  to  cither  side,  and  may  possibly  be  even 
regarded  with  suspicion  by  employers  of  labor  over  here,  as  I  have  been  till 
lately  by  those  of  England  ;  but  as  I  have  helped  the  working-men   Thomas 
at  home  to  fight  their  battles,  and  have  liad  the  happiness  of  earn-    Hughes's 
ing  their  confidence,  I  trust  tlieir  brethren  here  will  take  the  few   °P'"'°"- 
words  I  have  to  say  to  them  in  good  part,  and  as  those,  at  any  rate,  of  a  friend. 
Is  it,  then,  the  fact,  that  vou,  the  working-men  of  the  United  States,  are  running 
simply  on  the  old  tracks,  and  are  fiu'bishing  up  the  cjld  weapons  of  trade- 
r.nionisni,  wliicli  have  S3  often  run  into  the  hands  of  those  who  wielded  them? 
y\re  you  really  trying  l)y  your  organizations  to  control  the  free  will  of  those  of 
your  body  who  are  not  unionists ;    to  put  restrictions  and  limitations  on  the 


I 


902 


INDUSTRIAL    HISTORY 


hours  of  labor,  the  admission  of  apprentices,  the  use  of  n-,achinery,  the  rate 
of  wages,  and  to  carry  out  your  ideas  by  the  old  method  of  strikes?  These 
things  have  been  done  often  enough  in  England.  If  not  wise  even  there,  at 
least  they  had  a  justification  which  hero  is  wholly  wanting.  Where  the 
labor-market  is  overstocked,  and  there  are  often  two  men  waiting  for  one 
man's  place,  I  can  understand,  and  have  often  sympathized  with  and  defended, 
rules  and  practices  intended  to  spread  work  evenly,  and  requiring  self-sacrifice 
from  the  ablest  workmen,  that  all  of  fair  capacity  might  earn  a  livelihood. 
Where  all  the  natural  wealth  of  the  country  (if  I  may  use  the  phrase)  is 
already  monopolized,  where  lands,  mines,  waters  —  all  the  raw  material  out  of 
which  wealth  is  created  — arc  in  private  hands,  and  there  is  the  keenest  com- 
petition for  the  use  of  them,  as  tliere  is  with  us,  one  must  not  be  too  critical 
as  to  the  methods  by  which  the  great  body  of  producers  have  endeavored  to 
secure  their  share  of  the  products.  But  here  you  have  we'l-paiil  employment 
waiting  for  every  man  who  is  ready  to  do  an  honest  dry'^  work.  Here  the 
natural  wealth  of  the  country  is,  for  all  practical  purposes,  unappropriated,  and 
lying  around  you  in  almost  unbounded  profusion.  You  have  nothing  to  do 
but  to  exercise  a  little  thrift  and  foresight  for  a  few  short  months,  to  spend  for 
that  time  less  than  you  cam,  and  there  are  the  means  in  the  Iiands  of  every 
one  of  you  of  obtaining  house,  land,  whatever  form  of  wealth  you  are  most 
eager  for,  with  only  too  great  facility. 

"  On  what  possible  plea  of  reason  or  justice  or  necessity,  or  even  of  hand- 
to-mouth  policy,  can  you  undertake  to  control  or  l.i.iit  the  right  to  work  on  his 
own  terms,  in  his  own  way,  of  any  man,  when  there  is  ample  room  for  twenty 
times  your  present  numbers,  and  your  land  is  crying  out  for  all  tlie  work  which 
every  man  among  you  can  put  into  it?  When  the  great  trade-unions  of  Eng- 
land are  becoming  every  day  more  peaceable  and  reasonable  as  they  become 
more  powerful,  and  are  jealous  of  every  expenditure  which  is  not  for  some 
l)rovident  or  benevolent  purpose,  are  the  unions  and  the  working-men  of 
America  going  to  pick  up  the  old  armor,  instead  of  leaving  it  to  rust  where  it 
lies,  and  to  spend  the  earnings  which  belong  to  the  wives  and  children  as 
much  as  to  them  in  a  crusade  for  preaching  the  gospel  of  idleness?  I  cannot 
believe  it ;  for,  if  there  is  one  truth  which  this  nation  has  hitherto  preached 
faithfully  to  the  rest  of  the  world,  it  is  the  gospel  of  work." 

It  is  not  for  us,  in  narrating  the  industrial  movements  in  this  country,  to 
add  any  thing  to  tliem  in  the  way  of  cr.ticism.  Unwelcome  as  trade-unions 
Future  of  '^'^^  ^^  most  employers  of  labor,  and  however  unnecessary  llicy 
trade-  may  be,  their  existence  is  a  flict ;   and,  though  many  a  strike  has 

unions.  ended  disastrously  to  their  members,  with  only  a  few  exce|)tions 

they  have  not  disbanded,  nor  have  they  manifested  the  slightest  intention  of 
so  doing.  There  are  persons  who  have  cherished  the  belief  that  a  {k:\s  severe 
reverses  would  put  an  end  to  the  organization  ;  but  those  who  have  delinlci! 
themselves  with  such  thoughts  have  not  studied  with  sufficient  care  the  natiirc 


r 


til  > 


OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


903 


of  trade-unions.  Very  likely  they  ought  to  disband  ;  perhaps  there  is  no  excuse 
for  llieir  existence  :  but  it  must  be  remembered  that  these  are  not  the  thoughts 
of  unionists  themselves.  They  believe  in  the  necessity  of  organization  in  order 
to  secure  and  preserve  their  rights ;  and  as  long  as  they  do,  thougli  many  more 
u'sasters  may  befall  them,  and  severer  ones  than  those  which  they  have  yet 
experienced,  trade-unions  will  probably  live,  and  perhaps  thrive  even  the 
more  because  of  their  defeats. 


f 


i  \ 


i  .• 


•,  % 


% 


II 


BOOK    VII. 


wfw.tiafcwAiifiimiwiii 


THE   INDUSTRIES   OF   CANADA. 


<*<^ 


IT  is  pi 
to  the 
of  tlic  Ur 
connected 
not  been  i 
nc\vsi).ipji 
ni:in'.i  facta 
of  the  woi 
taken  plac 
lament  th: 
ent   tale, 
occupied 
duces  80, 
over   200, 
of  $250,0 
annually, 
have  bus) 
Her  intlu 
developm 
ployed, 
related  wi 
admiratio 
Dominioi 


At  pn 
to  the  pe 
industry  ' 
easiest  a: 
train  a  v: 
&c.,  who 
blc.     Th 


i 


m^ 

^V;- 


THE   INDUSTRIES   OF   CANADA. 

IT  is  proposed  in  this  book  to  make  a  brief  general  statement  in  regard 
to  the  industries  of  the  nation  wiiich  is  growing  up  on  the  northern  border 
of  the  United  States,  and  with  wliich  tliis  country  is  intimately  importance 
connected  l)y  ties  of  race,  language,  trade,  and  destiny.  It  has  of  Canadian 
not  hccn  unusual  of  late  years  to  observe  laments  in  tlie  Canadian 
newspapers  to  ihe  effect  tiiat  Canada  has  no  industries.  Certain  branches  of 
manufacturing  which  are  carried  on  extensively  in  America  and  in  other  parts 
of  the  work!  ar'>  r.ot  yet  practised  in  ("anada,  and  general  development  has  not 
taken  place  as  rapidly  as  south  of  the  St.  Lawrence.  Noting  tiiis  fact,  writers 
lament  that  Canada  has  no  industries.  The  government  statistics  tell  a  differ- 
ent talc.  Surely  a  land  richly  endowed  by  nature,  and  happy  in  being 
occupied  by  a  free,  intelligent,  and  active-minded  race,  which  already  pro- 
duces 80,000,000  bushels  of  grain  yearly,  15,000,000  gallons  of  ])etroleum, 
over  200,000,000  cul)ic  feet  of  lumber,  800,000  tons  of  coal,  and  a  value 
of  $250,000,000  in  general  manufactures,  whose  fisheries  yield  $12,000,000 
annually,  and  which  exports  in  a  f;xir  year  $89,000,000  worth  of  goods,  must 
have  busy  and  proP.table  industries.  Such  is,  indeed,  the  case  witii  Canada. 
Her  industries  arc  numerous  and  varied,  have  attained  a  most  satisfactory 
development,  and  I're  fully  sufficient  to  keep  her  population  profitably  em- 
ployed. The  story  concerning  th'.'m  is  interesting,  and  will  now  be  succincUy 
related  with  a  pen  which  wiii  not  a'  any  rate  fiiil  in  its  task  from  any  lack  of 
admiration  for  what  has  been  accomplished  by  the  spirited  people  of  the 
Dominion. 

THE    FISHERIES. 

At  present  the  fisheries  constitute  the  greatest  individual  source  of  wealth 
to  the  people  of  Canada.  Not  only  do  they  employ  more  men  in  profitable 
industry  than  any  other  pursuit  except  farming,  and  not  only  do  they  form  the 
easiest  and  least  ex])ensivc  of  occui)ations,  but  they  carry  in  their  Magnitude  of 
train  a  variety  of  other  industries,  like  ship  building,  transportation,  ^^'^  fisheries. 
&r.,  whose  prosperity  they  insure.  T'ley  are,  besides,  practically  inexhausti- 
ble.    The  Gulf  Stream,  flowing  northward  near  tiie  Am.erican  coast,  is  met  in 

907 


■ 


y 


908 


THE   INDUSTRIES    OF    CA^/ADA. 


I'  tall 


\\\>\  vicinity  of  Newfoundlaml  l)y  currents  from  tlic  pohu  basin ;  and  by  ilm 
deposits  which  take  place  at  tlic  meeting  of  the  opposing  waters  are  formed 
vast  submarine  islanils,  or  "  l)anks,"  whose  shallow  waters  are  the  feeding- 
grounds  of  immense  siioals  of  migratory  fish  which  resort  thither  annually. 
The  reproductive  powers  of  some  of  the  varieties,  the  cod  i)articularly,  arc 
very  great ;  and  there  is  a  probable  impossibility  that  these  species  can  ever  be 
destroyed  by  human  means.  'I'hc  wiiole  sea  is  their  breeding-ground.  'I'lu-se 
li^ih  are  not  found  on  tlie  banks  p!ou  - :  they  visit  the  (iulf  of  St.  i.awrctK  , 
and  the  siiores  of  all  the  •■  ".•itimv  .  lovi^  ces  of  Caiiada,  in  'uilimited  nuinl)eis . 
i.nd  tl.e  (luantity  'i  .liem  ;,'•■'!  be  .aken  forages  appears  to  depenil  only 
on  the  efforts  tiiat  will  be  pi'  1   "ii  the  purpose,     'I'his  remark  refers  more 

particularly  to  the  cod,  mack,:  \,  anc'  '  'iring.  Certain  of  the  inshore  varie- 
ties, migratory  and  otherwise,  such  as  uit  salmon,  shad,  smelt,  and  lobster, 
have  shown  a  susceptibilty  to  decrease  with  excessive  fishing;  but  they  still 
exist  in  enormous  numbers,  and  their  capture  engages  the  services  of  thousands 
of  men  annually.  These  latter  fisheries  the  (lovernment  of  the  Dijminion  is 
taking  steps  to  restore  by  breeding  and  by  prolecti\e  laws  ;  and  they  show 
such  a  capability  of  responding  to  fostering  measures,  that  they,  too,  may  he 
termed  practically  inexhaustible,  llesides  the  salt-sea  fisheries,  there  are  others 
in  the  interior,  upon  the  lakes  and  rivers,  which  are  very  profitable  in  their  way, 
and  employ  a  great  many  men. 

The  people  of  the  maritime  provinces  arc  peculiarly  fitted  by  origin  aiul 
training  to  turn  to  account  the  advantages  of  their  geographical  situation. 
Early  de-  '^^"^^  early  French,  Spanish,  and  Portuguese  navigators  of  tliese 
veiopmentof  coasts,  all  discovered  the  plcntiiulness  of  the  fish  in  the  neighbor- 
ustry.  jj^^  ^^^.^^^  ^^^  ^Y^^  unlimited  abundance  of  the  herds  of  walrus  ;iiiil 
seals  which  swarmed  on  the  islands  of  the  (lulf  of  St.  Lawrence.  As  early  as 
the  first  i)art  of  the  fit'teenth  century  they  were  aware  of  the  great  sources  of 
wealth  which  surrounded  these  shores.  The  reports  they  made  to  their  respec- 
tive governments  brought  whole  fleets  of  fishing-vessels  to  their  waters  :  ami 
in  i)rocess  of  time  the  hardy  adventurers,  instead  of  coming  out  in  the  spring 
and  going  back  in  the  fall,  as  they  were  wont  to  do  at  first,  went  ashore,  and 
settled  permanently  on  the  fishing  islands  and  coasts.  This  was  particularly 
the  case  with  the  French,  who  swarmed  to  this  region  from  the  Norman, 
l]as(iue,  and  Breton  seaports  in  great  numbers,  and  became  permnncnt  resi- 
dents of  the  country.  The  most  extensive  fisheries  of  the  early  times  were 
Disappear-  ^'''•-^  walrus,  scal,  and  cod  ;  but,  when  the  former  two  had  nearly 
ance  of  the  disappeared,  the  setUers  fell  back  upon  cod,  herring,  and  mackerel. 
wa  rus.  (^Ji-eat  Ilritain  finally  contributed  her  quota  to  the  population  of 

the  maritime  provinces  from  her  own  fishing-ports ;  and  thus  the  country  was 
taken  possession  of  by  a  body  of  energetic  men,  who,  though  of  diiTcrmt 
nationalities,  were  one  in  their  love  for  the  sea  and  the  past  training  \\lii<  ii 
fitted  them  for  the  cultivation  of  the  rich  fishing-grounds  which  they  had  1  unic 


over  here 
c\en  de  ;>u 
lion  al 
begaii  '■ 
of  all  th(   r 
lUit,  wl-   e 
a    ver;     co 
nevc'lheles 
will  be. 

The  „. 
the  Canadi 
lows  ;  the 
table,  as  1  r 
])endent  of 


y' 

i 

Gaspe     . 
lion.,  .cnturc 
Labrador 

fy-"" 

Magdalen  Is 

Aii'icosti  Isl 

■■^ 

St.  lawrcna 

i' 

Nova  Scoti.-'. 

% 

New  lirunsw 

1 

I'riiicc  luhva 

t; 

Ontario  . 

Manitoba 

■t; 

liritish  Colli 

Total 
Ncwfoundla 

It  is  w 
suits  have 
1873,  the 
net  year  b 
limes  :  on 
and  active 
growing  d 
in  the  rn;i 
powerfiil  ; 
fresh  fish 
in  barrels 


THE    INDUSTRIES    OF   CANADA. 


909 


and 


over  here  to  enjoy.  Agriculture  was  for  a  long  period  neglected,  and,  in  fact, 
even  (ie  j'ised.  'i'he  wIkjU'  populat'jn  was  sustained  by  tli<.'  lisheries  and  naviga- 
tion ;il  .  'I'his  state  of  ihings  clui:.ged  after  a  .vhile  :  ft.rtlic  more  far-sighted 
begaii  ♦■  le  U'  the  land,  and  raise  grain  aiul  cattle,  in  order  to  take  advantage 
of  all  th(  resources  c*"  their  situation;  and  the\  lound  tiieir  profit  in  so  doing. 
Hut,  wl  '.'e  this  hange  has  continued  to  go  on  until  agriculture  has  received 
:i  ver;  considerable  development  in  the  maritime  provinces,  fishing  lias, 
nove'-lheless,  always  b  -'in  1'  .•  main-stay  of  the  people,  and  apparently  always 
uill  he. 

'The  government  report  for  the  year  1S77  shows  die  magnitude  to  which 
the  Canadian  fisheries  have  now  attainetl.     The  figures  are  as  fol-    statistics 
lows  ;  the  statistics  for  Newfcjundland  for  1874  being  added  to  the    '<"" '874- 
table,  as  properly  belonging  tiiere,  although  the  island  is  still  politically  inde- 
pendent of  the  Dominion  :  — 


DISTKICTS. 

BOATS. 

VAI-im  OF 
IIOATS. 

I'lSIIICH.MEN. 

SIIOKEMEN. 

VAi.  r  . 
1'        ";t. 

(laspc      .... 

2,970 

j52i3,ooo 

3.306 

1,674 

%  1 6, 309 

lion.,  .cnture  . 

r.iii 

204,000 

'.455 

247 

-■■-'5 

Labrador 

1,865 

4 1 6,000 

2.795 

1,281 

954,285 

Maj;clalcn  Islands  . 

/67 

252,000 

1,500 

597 

366,170 

Amicosti  Island     . 

375 

29,000 

416 

n7 

'35-352 

St.  lawrcncc  River 

1,840 

2 1 ,000 

3,061 

.  a   •   ■ 

362,314 

Nova  Scoti.a  . 

11,064 

1,504,000 

^S.-'^SQ 

.... 

5.527.'^58 

New  Brunswick 

3.710 

285,000 

8,307 

.... 

2.133.236 

Prince  I'^chvard  Island    . 

1,486 

77,000 

4,285 

.... 

763.035 

Ontario  .... 

1,267 

68,000 

j^^'^n 

.... 

43''i.223 

Manitoba 

.... 

24,023 

British  Columbia   . 

161 
26,616 

1 1 ,000 

444 
55.295 

7-5 
.+  ,661 

S''^3.432 

Total 

53.080,000 

$12,034,952 

Newfoundland        • 

1 2,000 

32,000 



9,000,000 

It  is  worthy  of  remark,  that,  whereas  manufacturing  and  many  other  pur- 
suits have  been  obliged  to  ciulail  production  since  the  fiush  times   prior  to 
1873,  the  fisheries  of  Canada  have  steadily  increased  their  prod-    increase  of 
net  year  by  year.     There  has  been  no  falling-off  owing  to  the  hard    product 
times:  on  the  contrary,  the  market  for  fish  becomes  more  eager   ^'"'■'^ '  '3" 
•md  active   every  year ;    and  the   larger  catch  is    merely  tlie  response  to   a 
growing  demand.     The  completion  of  the  Intercolonial  Railroad    Effect  of 
in  the  maritime  provinces  within   the  last  few  years   has  l)een  a    inteicoionia! 
powerful  auxiliary  to  the  fishermen.     Tlie  difiiculty  of  distributing 
fi-esh  fish  in  former  years  compelled  the  fishing-people  to  salt  down  their  catch 
in  barrels,  or  preserve  it  by  canning,  in   order  to   save  it,  and   get   it  to  a 


'it 


LI 


li 


s 


I  \ 


■^7' ■'31. 


I'l 


910 


THE    /A'DUSTK/ES    OF   CANADA. 


market.  Ry  the  opening  of  the  Intercolonial  Railroad  they  an;  now  enabled 
to  transmit  salmon,  cod,  halibut,  lobsters,  and  (jther  fish,  fresh,  and  paelu.'d  in 
ice,  from  the  shores  of  the  Oulf  of  St.  Lawrence  and  other  fishing-coasts  to 
market  in  a  ^^\s  hours,  and  at  greatly  reduced  prices.  This  has  rendered  ihf 
trade  more  prolitable  by  reducing  the  expense  of  transportation,  and  has  led  to 
its  expansion  by  bringing  th.e  catch  into  the  centres  of  population  in  a  per- 
fectly  fresh  state.  The  same  results  may  be  expected  when  the  parts  of  Canada 
more  distant  from  the  sea-coast  are  better  united  therewith  by  the  future  railroails 
of  the  Dominion.  'I'here  will  be  an  enlargement  of  the  market  for  fisii,  and  a 
consecpient  increased  activity  among  the  i)ursuit  of  the  treasures  of  the  fishin;; 
banks  and  coasts;  there  will  be  less  canning  and  salting,  and  more  packin  ' 
in  ice  (something  of  this  sort  being  already  seen  in  the  abandonment  of  can- 
ning and  salting  establishments  in  New  Brunswick)  ;  and  there  will  be  ni(;rc 
boat-building,  more  freighting  by  rail  and  ship,  more  training  of  hardy  seamen 
for  the  merchant-marine,  and  a  largci  body  of  non-agricultural  people  to  pur- 
chase the  produce  of  the  farms. 

Statistics  The  following  table  will  show  the  character  and  yield  of  the 

for  1877.  different  fisheries  of  the  Dominion  (Newfoundland  being  omitteil), 

the  figures  being  for  the  year  1877  :  — 


FISH. 


Codfish 

Herrings 

Miickcrcl 

Haddock 

Salmon 

Alcwivcs,  Ijbls.        ........ 

SnK'lts,  ll)s 

I,()l)stcrs,  ])rcscrvcd,  lljs. 

Oysters,  l)l)ls 

Fish  .Tnd  clams  for  bait  and  manure,  bljls.     . 

Fish-oils,  galls 

Seal-skins,  pieces 

Pollack,  cwt 

Hake,  cwt 

Halibut  . 

Trout      

Whitc-fisli 

Shad 

Whale-oil,  galls 

Cod-oil,  galls. 

All  other  fish  and  products,  including  fresh  and  salt 
water  varieties,  the  catch  in  each  case  never  exceed- 
ing ;?6o,ooo 


OUANTITIES  CAUGHT. 


'So '3 

2,2G6,:o2 

8,085,569 

29,S6S 

222,379 

466,579 

20,312 

58,7.(6 

77.454 


1.3.7 1  iJ 
225,129 


VAl-LH. 


1,522,091 
i,667,Si5 

475.:-- 

855,687 

67,298 

I35''>7- 
i,2i:,S;5 

f;s,7c., 

195.7-4 
30.3.-713 

4.3.9' 5 
205,61 1 
271,090 

4'^-,  J- 
173-499 
210,(1:5 

£0,250 

6,N5S 

112,514 


79S'4'9 
i5i  2,03-1,95' 


It'. 


At   Ni 
r.ilmon,  1 
the   caicii 
107  vessc 
of  these  vi 
Cod-fi 
provinces 
shore  in  > 
of  St.  Lav 
aS  well  as 
boats  nea 
paratively 
Newfound 
American' 
built  large 
avoided  b 
understan 
along  the 
been  filtir 
of  their  a 
the  whole 
periods  o 
these  varii 
shore  in 
found  eit 
other.     S 
cry-office! 
grounds, 
ciated  b) 
for   the 
abiuulanc 
ble  living 
more  an: 
than  cou 
United  i: 
that  is,  u 
in  the  gii 
market  0 
ture  of  ( 
been  lac 
in  the  bi 
The 
of  bait, 


THE    INDUSTRIES    OF   CANADA. 


911 


VAI.LH. 

i,5:;;,or;i 
i,C67,.St5 

475.r-2 
S55,6S7 

67,29s 

'.)5''>72 

195.7-I 
30,).-7fJ 

co5,(ji  I 

271.090 
1  •-".  -  -<  > 

H'  •,  J- 

'7:.i'i9 

b'o,:-" 

1 1-0'- 1 


Cod-fishing. 


At  Ncwfoiindhiiid  the  principal  fisheries  arc  of  cod,  seal,  herring,  and 
ri-ilmon,  ranl<in'j;   in   iniijortance   in   tlie   order  named.      In    1.S7.1   «  ,    ,    . 

•^  '  '  '    Principal 

the  cateii  of  cod  amonnted  to  1,500,000  (piinlals.  In  1873  nihcricuat 
107  vessels,  with  8,062  men,  were  employed  in  sealing  (twenty  Newfound- 
of  these  vessels  being  steamers),  and  525,000  skins  were  lal'Cen. 

Cod-fishing  is  the  indnstry  upon  which  tlie  inhabitants  of  the  maritime 
provinces  and  Newfonndland  chiefiy  rely  for  a  living.  It  is  jjraciised  along- 
shore in  Nova  Scotia,  New  Drnnswick,  and  the  islands  of  the  (lulf 
of  St.  Lawrence,  and  at  the  banks  two  or  three  miles  from  shore, 
us  well  as  at  the  great  banks  in  the  open  sea.  It  is  mostly  carried  on  in  small 
boats  near  shore.  The  gi'eat  banks  in  the  gulf  and  open  sea  have  been  com- 
paratively neglected.  Only  a  few  years  ago,  the  interest  of  the  people  of 
Newfoundland  in  the  great  banks  was  confined  to  the  sale  of  bait  to  the 
Americans  and  French  who  were  enterprising,  or  who,  having  larger  capital, 
built  large  boats  for  the  industiy,  and  pushed  out  boldly  into  the  stormy  waters 
avoided  by  the  Cunailians.  Newfoundland  and  gulf  fishermen  now,  however, 
imdcrstand  the  advantages  of  docp-sea  fishing.  Cod  being  sometimes  scarce 
along  the  shore,  owing  to  a  lack  of  food  or  other  causes,  they  have  of  late 
been  fitting  out  vessels  for  the  bank-fisheries,  where  cod  never  fail,  by  reason 
of  their  always  finding  there  an  abundance  of  food.  Cod  is  found  in  the  gulf 
the  whole  year  roimd.  Other  specimens  of  fish  fi-equent  the  gulf  at  specific 
])eriods  of  the  year,  and  seals  and  whales  follow  them  in  more  or  less.  But 
these  varieties  retire,  or  disappear ;  whereas  cod,  though  most  abundant  along- 
shore in  the  spring,  when  the  herring  and  caplin  strike  in,  are  nevertheless 
found  cither  alongshore  or  on  the  banks  from  one  end  of  the  year  to  the 
other.  Speaking  of  the  abundance  of  cod  in  the  gulf,  Mr.  N.  Lavoie,  the  fish- 
ery-officer of  the  gulf,  says,  "The  great  extent  of  the  Canadian  fihhing- 
grounds,  and,  above  all,  their  inexhaustible  weaUh,  arc  not  sufficiently  appre- 
ciated by  our  own  people.  Men  of  education  who  visit  ihc  coast  of  Caspe 
for  the  first  time  cannot  sufiiciently  express  their  wonder  at  seeing  such 
abundance,  and  arc  compelled  to  own  that  its  shores  might  afford  a  comforta- 
ble livinG:  to  thousands  of  adventurers,  who  would  find  these  souitcs  of  wealth 
more  aLCCSsil)le  than  the  gold-mines  of  California,  and  secure  more  prosperity 
than  could  afford  wages  paid  for  working  in  unhealthy  manufactories  ot  the 
United  States."  The  reason  why  these  fisheries  have  not  been  appreciated, 
that  is,  utilized,  is,  that,  though  the  richest  fishing-banks  in  the  workl  arc  found 
in  the  gulf  and  about  its  mouth,  the  facilities  for  distributing  their  treasures  to 
market  on  shore  have  been  limited,  and  the  inducement  to  embark  in  the  ca[)- 
ture  of  cod  upon  a  scale  commensurate  with  the  abundance  of  the  fish  has 
been  lacking.  Now  that  railways  are  building,  a  great  change  is  taking  place 
in  the  business. 

The  chief  difficulties  which  beset  the  cod-industry  arise  from  the  scarcity 
of  bait,  from  the  lack  of  large  boats,  and  the  competition  of  the  Americans. 


H  '■ 


II  i 


III 


913 


•nil-:  ixnrsTiiiEs  oi--  caaada. 


TIic  cod  is  remarkable  for  its  voracious  appetite.      It  follows  the  shoals  of 
Dimcuities      '''"'^"  '^^''  '"  ^'^  '1^^'  sliore  in  May  and  June,  in  order  to  feed  upun 
in  cod-fish-     ihciu  ;   ami  even  devours  its  own  young.     It  freciuents  most  tlie 
"^'  banks   where    food    is   abun<lant,  and   migrates  along  the  shores 

according  as  the  means  of  satisfying  its  eager  stomuJi  are  provided  fur  it 
by  the  sea.  A  great  ileal  of  bait  is  consumed  in  catching  it ;  so  much 
indeed,  that  Professor  Hind  estimates  that  the  cost  of  bait  is  one-seventh 
in  the  proiluction  of  all  cod  and  halibut.  In  order  successfully  to  carry  out 
cod-l'ishing,  therefore,  a  large  supply  of  bait  is  necessary.  The  fish  ordinarily 
used  for  this  purpose  are  herring,  caplin,  mackerel,  launce,  scjuid,  sineit, 
trout,  and  clams.  Some  of  these  varieties,  su(  h  as  the  mackerel,  have  now 
grown  scarce  in  certain  localities  from  over-fishing ;  and  the  cod-boats  are 
at  times  very  much  delayed  in  consecpiencc.  The  demands  of  the  United- 
States  schooners  for  bait  at  the  Newfoundland  I'anks  caused  the  trade  in  her- 
ring and  caplin  to  take  such  pro[)ortions,  that  the  (lovernment  of  the  Domin- 
ion has  been  informed  that  the  enactment  of  measures  to  protect  the  small 
fish  from  extinction  would  be  hailed  with  pleasure.  In  1S76  cod  struck  the 
southern  shores  of  the  gulf  in  August ;  and  the  fishermen  supposed  for  a  while 
that  they  would  have  to  forego  reaping  the  rich  harvest  presented  to  them, 
because  they  had  no  bait.  Those  of  the  CV'ispe  coast  were  able  to  avail  them- 
selves of  the  rush  of  cod  only  by  employing  several  boats  during  the  whole 
fisliing-time  in  bringing  clams  taken  on  the  rocks  at  low  tide  from  the  north 
shore,  from  forty-five  to  sixty  miles  distant.  No  less  than  five  thousand 
bushels  of  clams  were  thus  carried  away  for  bait  by  the  Gaspe  fishermen  while 
the  fish  were  rimning ;  but  they  secured  six  thousand  extra  quintals  of  cod  in 
consequence  of  it.  It  is  said  that  about  eighteen  hundred  boats  had  to  lie 
idle  for  three  or  four  weeks  in  the  best  fishing-timc  in  1S77,  on  the  ("ias|)e 
coast  alone,  for  lack  of  bait ;  and  the  same  general  fact  is  true  of  other  fish- 
ing-districts. The  attention  which  has  been  called  10  this  subject  of  late 
will  doubtless  be  followed  by  suitable  action  by  the  liovernment  of  the 
Dominion. 

The  small  size  of  the  Canadian  boats,  growing  out  of  too  great  a  depend- 
ence on  shore-fisheries,  is  another  drawback.  The  migration  of  small  fish, 
Small  size  the  tcmpcraturc  of  the  water  and  air,  and  various  other  ph\>i(  al 
of  boats.  causes,  operate  to  make  the  shore-fisheries  uncertain  ;  and.  when 
the  coil  arc  scarce,  the  fishermen  are  restrained  from  pushing  out  to  the  banks, 
where  they  might  always  load  their  vessels,  by  the  small  size  and  frail  character 
of  their  boats. 

It  is  also  held,  in  some  of  the  iirovinces,  that  great  injury  has  been  done  by 
the  United-States  fishermen  by  their  over-eager  pursuit  of  mackerel,  which  has 
Trawl-  served  at  times  for  bait,  and  by  the  American  practice  of  trawl- 

fishing,  fishing  offshore,  which   secures  to    the    Americans    the    best  and 

largest  cod,  and  otherwise  injures  the  cod-fishery  for  the  C'anadians.     'I'iie 


■^' 


t 


T//K    //^Di'STK/KS    OF    CAAADA. 


9'3 


trawl  or  hiiltow  I'lshinj^  is  carried  on  by  a  Ion;;  ropi-  l)Uoyi'<l  and  anc  liorcil,  to 
which  arc  attaciv.-d  from  seventy  live  to  a  hundred  lines  iiaited.  The  trawl 
being  taken  cul  from  the  schooner,  and  set,  the  men  return  to  the  s(  hooner, 
and  fish  with  hand-lines ;  while  the  trawl,  left  to  itself,  is  doing  its  special  work 
besides.  Sometimes,  when  the  trawl  is  hauled  in,  it  is  found  to  have  fish  on 
every  line.  This  practice,  the  Nova-S»  otians  c  laim.  gives  the  best  ami  largest 
fisii  to  the  .Americans,  bc-ause  of  the  large  extent  to  whi<  h  they  emplo)'  it ;  it 
kills  a  large  numl)er  of  small  and  useless  fish  ;  and  it  keeps  the  fish  offshore  by 
reason  of  the  large  cjuantity  of  bait  used,  and  prevents  them  from  coming 
inshore. 

'riicre  is  nothing  in  these  drawbacks  to  the  Canadian  industry,  however, 
which  enterprise  and  patience  will  not  overcome,  especially  if  the  govermnenl 
takes  judicious  action  in  regard  to  them. 

The  salmon-fishery  is  second  in  interest  among  the  different  branches  of 
this  industry.     The  catch  is  less  in  amount  than  some  of  the  otlurs  ;  but  the 
fishery   excites  greater  enthusiasm  both,  among   ])leasure-hunters   saimon- 
and  fishermen,  and  is  more  eagerly  ])ursue(l.     I'efore  the  confed-    fishing. 
cratit)n  of  the  Provinces,  the  salmon  were  almost  extinguished  in  Canada,  owing 
to   reckless   modes  of  fishing.     The  fish  were  netted  at  the  mouths  of  the 
rivers  as  thev  ran  in  during  the  spring  to  s|)awn,  and   as  the\  ran  out   in   the 
fall.    They  were  taken  in  the  rivers  with  nets,  spears,  and  line  ;  and.  on  Sunday, 
l^oaching  was  carried  on  as  actively  as  during  the  week.     Many  of  the  coast 
counties  had  fishery  acts  ;  but  they  were  almost  a  dead  letter.     .After  the  con- 
federation, laws  to  protect  the  salmon  were  enacted,  and  the  means  created 
for  carrying  them  out.     It  was  difficult  to  enforce  the  law.     Respectal)le  fisher- 
men were  hard  to  convince  that  the  laws  which  interfered  with   Action  of 
them  were   really  in    their  interest,  and   poachers  would   not   be   the  govem- 
rcstraincd  anyway,     'i'he  government  finally  won  the  day.  however  ;    '"^"^^ 
and  the  rivers  are  now  being  allowed  to  restock  themselves.     Artificial  breed- 
ing is  also  going  on  at  several  important  establishments.     Cood  results  are 
already  apparent  at  the  streams  cm])tying   into   the   gulf;    and.   Artificial 
though  there  is  yet  over-fishing  on  the  other  coasts,  there  is  little   breeding, 
doubt  but  that  the  puW' ■  policy  will  ere  long  i)revail  there  also.     Says   Mr. 
Lavoie,  the    fishery-office      "  Had  not  the  government  taken  the    matter  in 
hand,  what  would  at  the  present  time  be  our  humiliation  in  seeing  these  fine 
and  numerous  streams  which  strangers  so  much  admire  left  to  the  discretion 
and  caprice  of  net-fishermen,  who  have  no  other  notion  but  to  destroy,  without 
calculating  the  consequences  !      To  what  irretrievable   loss   and    deprivation 
v.-ould  we  now  be  subjected,  had  not  the  government  spent  time  and  money 
to  protect  and  increase  salmon  in  these  streams  !  "     .An  illustration  of  the  good 
results  of  protection  of  the  salmon  is  presented  by  the  record  of  fly-fishing  on 
the  Ste.  Anne  des  Monts  River  for  the  last  seven  years.     The  catch  by  angling 
was  as  follows  :  — 


914 


THE    INDUSTRIES    OF    CAN  ^  nA. 


M 

1S71 
1872 

1S74 

u 

-i 

1S75 
1S76 
1S77 

NUMBEK   OK 
SALMON. 


AVERAGE 
WEIGHT,  POUNDS. 


Mackerel 


riic  measures  for  the  increase  oi  salmon  include  action  in  regard  to  ])ul- 
tii  ^  sawdust  and  mill-rubbish  into  the  rivers  in  the  lumbering  districts.  This 
discharge  of  rubbish  is  very  large.  The  (juantity  of  sawdust  put  into  the  Ot- 
tawa River  alone  every  year  is  more  than  12,300,000  cubic  feet,  —  a  bulk 
which  is  considerably  increased  by  bark,  slabs,  buttings,  and  other  refuse  of  the 
mill.  This  stuff  greatly  injures  the  streams  into  which  it  is  put.  A  law  has 
been  enacted  against  it,  and  the  government  is  also  agitating  in  favor  of  tlic 
erection  of  furnaces  by  these  mills  for  burniiig  the  rubbish.  The  huv  is 
little  observed  in  any  of  tlij  provinces  ;  but  that  it  will  ultimately  prevaH  the 
officers  are  confident. 

Mackerel  is  caught  chiefly  by  tiie  Nova-Scotians.  The  fish  is  plentiful  at 
times  in  the  gulf;  but  the  catch  there  is  not  so  great  as  on  the  other  coasts. 
The  fisii  is  taken  by  hand-lines,  seines,  and  trap-nets.  The  catch 
of  1877  was  larger  than  that  of  the  year  before,  owing  to  the  larger 
use  of  trap-nets.  This  method  is  becoming  popular  with  Canadians,  and  there 
are  now  numerous  api)!ications  for  licenses  to  use  that  sort  of  net  While  the 
mackerel-catch  is  large,  it  is,  on  the  whole,  smaller  than  it  used  to  be,  owing 
Decrease  in  in  \\xgc  part  to  the  Seining  of  mackerel  on  a  large  scale  by  the 
quantity.  American  schooners  offshore.  The  fish  are  intercepted  before 
they  reach  the  shore,  and  often  do  not  reach  the  three-inile  limit  at  all.  The 
Canadian  authorities  have  given  much  attention  to  liie  mackerel-fishery  of  late, 
owing  to  the  falling-off  in  the  catch.  It  iias  been  claimed  by  the  Americans 
that  ir  ickerel  and  iicrring  come  from  the  waters  of  the  American  coasts,  ami 
that  tiieir  visit  to  the  Canadian  coasts  is  a  migration  or  accidental  fact.  This 
the  Canadian  commissioner  of  fisheries  combated  before  the  Halifiix  com- 
mission. His  observations  convinced  him  that  the  fish  frecjuenting  the  shores 
of  the  maritime  provinces  merely  retired  to  deep  water  when  the  cold  weather 
set  in,  still  remaining  in  the  vicinity  of  the  i)laces  where  they  w  :c.  born.  He 
maintained  this  view  of  the  case  with  great  animation,  and  accounted  for  the 
decrease  of  lish  through  ex(X'ssive  seining  by  means  of  it.  It  is  upon  this 
thcorv  also  that  I'rofesscr  Hind  and  others  believe  that  the  fishery  can  he 
fiilly  lestored  in  time  to  its  forme,'  prosijcrity  by  proper  regulations  and  eiitin- 
prise  on  the  i)art  of  tiie  authorities. 


THK    INDUSTRIES    OF    CANADA. 


9»5 


The  whale,  herring,  trout,  hake,  haddock,  and  other  general  fisheries,  need 
not  be  mentioned  in  detail ;  but  perhaps  the  seal  and  the  lobster  business  may 
be  referred  to,  owing  to  the  inteicst  which  attaches  to  them. 

Sealing  is  practised  in  the  s[)rir.g  and  fall.  The  jroints  from  which  it  is 
carried  on  are  Newfoundland,  Anticosti,  Magdalen  Islands,  Labrador,  and, 
though    on    a    small    scale,  on    the    southern    coast    of  the   gulf 

.  .  .  .  Sealing. 

Sealing   has    enriched   hundreds  of  outfitters ;    and  tiie   industry, 
though  not  unattended  with  uncertainties,  appears  to  be  inexhaustible.    Jietween 
four  hundred  thousand  and  five  hundred  thousand  arc  caught  annually,  the 
number  exceeding  five  iiundred  thousand  in  good  years.     In  addition  to  these, 
about  six  thousand  seals  are  taken  annually  in  lirilish  Columbia  on  the   Pacific 
coast.     The  migrations  of  seals  formerly  took  place  in  such  tleusc  iierds,  that 
the   spectacle   has  been   descriljcd  as  resembling  that   of  the   heads  of  cattle 
crowded  into  a  narrow  lane.     This  used  to  last  for  weeks  in  old  times,  and  the 
shores  of  ihe  islands  of  the  t^ulf  and   the   mainland  surroimding  it  were  fairlv 
alive  widi  barking  swarms  of  animals.     The   migration   lasts  for  only  two  or 
three  days  now  ;  and,  when  the  spectacle  is  over,  the  season's  fishing  is  at  an 
end.     Seals  sometimes  go  very  hioh  up  the  St.  Lawreiue,  having   where 
been  seen  as   far  up  as  the  Saguenay.       In   the  gulf  the  seal  are    f°""''- 
caught  in    several  ways.      They  are    taken   off    the    coast    of    l,abrador  with 
nets,  whi'h  are  set  in  the  water  to  take  them  as  they  are  hugging 

,  ,  .....  ,,,,  ,  1-1       How  caught. 

the  sliore  m  their  migrations.  1  hey  are  also  even  caught  with 
hook  and  line.  The  Newfoundlanders  go  out  and  hunt  them  with  guns  and 
spears  on  the  ice-fields.  The  enthusiasm  with  which  the  Newfoundlanders 
g(j  into  the  l)U>iuess  ha.s  been  already  exhibited  in  the  figures  for  1873.  In 
1877  they  fitted  out  twenty-four  steamers  manned  b\  4,000  men.  and  thirty- 
six  .sailing  vessels  with  2,658  men,  and  despati'hed  them  all  to  the  ice-fields. 
'I'hey  had  great  success,  taking  412,000  seals,  whose  pelts  sold  from  a 
dollar  and  twenty-five  cents  to  a  dollar  and  fifty  cents,  and  whose  oil  sold  for 
forty-five  cents  a  gallon.  They  were  taken  chiefiy  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Newfoundland,  where  the  captains  said  they  saw  thirty  seals  to  one  in  (Green- 
land. The  outfit  for  these  sealing-voyages  is  very  expensi\e.  It  includes 
houses,  stores,  trying  apparatus,  \:c,,  on  the  land  ;  craft  with  nets,  harness,  lead, 
anchors,  guns,  boats,  (!vc.,  and  provisions  for  the  men.  The  cost  of  steamers 
is  greater  than  that  of  sailing-vessels  ;  but  there  is  a  gre  Aer  certainty  of  success, 
because  the  vessel  can  poke  its  way  around  among  the  ice-fioes,  regardless  of 
wind  and  tide.  Half  the  carg<  goes  tvi  the  owners,  the  other  half  to  the  ship's 
crew ;  the  captain  taking  half  of  that  half,  or  a  ([uarter  of  the  whole.  One  of 
the  steamers  sent  out  in  1877  got  a  cargo  worth  i^i 20,000.  The  Newfound- 
land (lovernment  does  not  permit  steamers  to  sail  for  the  ice-fields  before  the 
loth  of  March,  this  rcTulation  l)eing  designed  to  prevent  too  great  a  slaugh- 
ter of  the  seal.  I'rom  the  islands  of  the  gulf  sealing  is  carried  on  from  shore 
by  nets,  bv  a  few  schooners  from  forty  to  eighty  tons'  burden  which  seek 


r|  I. 


i 


916 


TfU'.    INDUSTRIES    OF    CANADA. 


the  floating  ice  in  the  gulf,  and  by  kiUing  the  game  on  the  ice  grounded  ne:u 
shore.  (Ireat  danger  attends  the  latter  practice.  'Die  sight  of  a  field  of  ice 
covered  with  these  valuable  animals,  whose  slaughter  is  so  easily  effected  by  a 
blow  on  the  nose,  and  whose  furs  are  so  precious,  throws  the  fishermen  on 
shore  into  a  fever  of  reckless  excitement ;  and  they  rush  at  the  chance  of  gain, 
forgetful  of  the  fragility  of  the  links  which  h(jld  the  field  of  ice  to  the  shore. 
A  change  of  tide  or  wind  is  apt  to  loosen  the  field,  and  carry  it  off  to  deej) 
water ;  and  the  deatii  of  the  hunter,  who  is  too  far  away  to  regain  the  shore,  is 
almost  an  absolute  certainty.  A  great  many  lives  have  l)een  lost  bv  impru- 
dence in  this  direction.  Five  seals  are  taken  on  the  ice,  however,  to  one 
caught  in  the  nets;  and  the  temptation  to  go  out  n])on  the  fioating  fields  is 
one  which  no  true  (Canadian  ever  neglects. 

Very  little  attention  was  ])aid  to  the  lobslcr-lisjicry  in  Canada  tmtil  llu- 
grounds  where  that  crustacean  is  caught  on  the  American  coast  began  to  be 
Lobster-  exhausted.     The  great  fisheries  took  up  all  the  time  of  the  Cana- 

fishing.  (bans  ;   and  this  rare  and  delicate  shell-fish,  so  highly  ])ri/e(l  in  the 

States,  was  c-aught  by  them  only  to  a  small  extent.  When  the  Maine  and 
Massachusetts  coasts  had  become  almost  depopulated  of  the  lobster,  the  lirnis 
engaged  in  canning  repaired  to  the  adjoining  coast  of  Nova  Scotia,  unwilling 
to  give  up  a  business  which  was  exceedingly  profitable,  and  for  whose  prodin  is 
there  was  a  lively  demand  in  American  families.  l>y  1S76  there  had  been 
Canning-  forty-seven  canning-factories  brought  into  o])eration  in  Nova 
factories.  Scotia  (.American  anfl  Canadian)  between  Cape  vSable  and  Sambro 
alone  ;  and  others  were  in  profitable  o])eration  on  lYince  i'.dward  Island. 
along  the  Hay  of  I'^undy,  and  on  other  fishing-coasts.  l'".xcessive  fishing  soon 
reduced  the  number  and  size  of  the  loltsters,  until  it  required,  on  an  a\erage. 
two  lobsters  and  a  half  to  produce  meat  enough  to  fill  a  pound  can,  the 
crude  fish  weighing  only  from  two  to  four  i)Oun.)s.  About  six  or  se\en  years 
ago  the  packers  thought  of  taking  a  look  at  the  gulf  coasts,  and,  to  their 
delight,  found  certain  ])ortions  of  them  swarming  with  shell-fish.  No  Cana- 
dian had  yet  taken  advantage  of  this  mine  of  wealth,  whic:h  would  yield  such 
large  profits  to  the  first  companies  which  should  undertake  the  business. 
There  was  a  clear  field  for  enterprise  ;  and  an  .Xmerican  firm  opened  a  canning- 
estaolishment  in  1874  at  Carlcton  on  the  Bay  des  ('haleurs,  while  a  Halifax 
concern  started  another  at  the  Magdalen  Islands.  Other  firms  soon  fi)llowe(l. 
and  there  was  a  furore  in  the  business.  The  profits  made  for  die  first  two  or 
three  years  were  dazzling.  The  fish  were  large,  often  weighing  from  ten  to 
fourteen  |)ounds,  —  a  noble  size  compared  with  those  of  the  puny  lobsters  on 
the  American  and  Nova-Scotia  coasts.  Inconsiderate  fishing,  however,  com- 
pletely ruiu'd  the  grounds  at  Carleton,  Maria,  Bonaventure,  New  Richmond, 
and  other  places  ;  and  the  same  thing  followed  which  had  ])reviously  taken 
place  \\\  Nova  Scotia,  —  canning-establishments  had  to  be  abandoned,  and  the 
•firms  had  to  move  to  new  waters. 


1S69 
1870 

1S72 

1873 
1874 

1S75 
1876 
1877 


fc. 


■'■*iittWiti:ffiW*ww«fe?fra''iJ'"'i^ 


THE     INDUSTRIES    OF   CANADA. 


917 


m. 


In  1874  no  less  than  216,432  pounds  of  lobsters  were  canned  at  Carleton 
and  iVIaria;  but  only  9,315  pounds  at  the  latter  place  in  1875,  and  in  1877 
none  at  Carleton.  The  factory  at  the  latter  place  was  completely  given  up. 
At  the  Magdalen  Islands  the  Halifax  concern  opened  establishments  which 
rivalled  in  size  the  largest  anywhere  on  the  North-Atlantic  coasts.  It  caught 
very  large  lobsters  at  first,  and  made  enormous  profits.  The  fish  were  tou 
eagerly  pursued,  however ;  and  the  catch  of  240,000  lobsters  in  Decrease  in 
1876  yielded  only  124,000  pounds  of  meat.  In  1877  the  firm's  quantity, 
three  establishments  caught  692,760  lobsters;  but  the  smaller  size  of  the  fish 
resulted  in  a  product  of  only  227,104  pounds  of  canned  meat;  the  large  catch 
and  the  reduced  size  of  the  lobsters  indicating  a  probal)le  extinction  of  the 
fishery  at  an  early  day,  unl'^ss  measures  are  taken  to  give  the  grounds  a  rest, 
or  protect  the  bpccies  from  incoilsiderate  fishing.  The  eagerness  with  which 
the  lobster  has  been  and  is  fished  in  Canada  is  shown  by  the  yearly  increase 
of  the  catch  after  the  Americans  first  resorted  to  the  Nova-Scotian  coast,  by 
the  decrease  caused  by  excessive  fishing,  and  by  the  revival  of  the  business  after 
the  catch  began  in  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence.     The  figures  are  as  follows  :  — 


1S69 
1870 
1S71 

1872 

,■> 

1874 

•^75 
-  1876 

1877 


rouNus 

(in  cans). 


61,000 

591,500 

1,130,000 

3-565.863 
4,864,998 

S,047.957 
6,514,380 

S.373.o8« 
8,090,569 


#15.275 
92,575 

282,500 

882,633 
1,214,749 
2,011,989 
1,638,659 

795,082 
1,213,085 


There  is  no  doubt  but  that  the  development  of  the  business  of  lobster- 
canning  in  Canada  has  been  due  to  the  ruin  of  the  New-England   Decline  of 
grounds  by  the  Americans  :  but  it  is  easy  to  foresee  a  rapid  decline    '"tJ^stry, 

'-'  •'  '  ^  ,  _       unless  the 

in  the  industry  in  the  early  future,  unless  inconsiderate  fishing  is   government 
restrained  by  the  action  of  the  government.  interferes. 

It  was  formerly  the  custom  to  chronicle  a  yearly  decline  of  the  fisheries 
(jf  the  various    British  ])rovinces   in    America.      Since    1869   the   increase  in 
annals  of  the  business  show  a  yearly  increase  consequent  upon  the   fisheries 
o[jening  of  new  markets  on  shore  vid  the  Intercolonial  Railway,   ^'"'^^  ^ 
and  the  ready  market  which  has  been  found  for  Canadian  fisli  ai)roa(l.     The 
yearly  product  has  nearly  trebled  since  1869,  as  will  be  seen  by  examining  the 
following  \ery  interesting  figures  :  — 


Si  I 


m 


,.i'  'VI 


918  r//E    lA'DUSTK/ES    OF    CA/VAD/l. 

'869 $4,37(^.526 

1S70 6,577,391 

1871 7.S73.I99 

1872 (;,570,ri6 

'«73 10,547,402 

1874 ii,6Si,.SS6 

i«7S 'o,35o.3«S 

1S76 1 1,012,302 

i''<77 1^.034-952 

Tlie  yearly  export  has  grown  very  large.  It  amounted  to  $7,000,402  from 
Canada,  antl  about  the  same  from  Newfoundland.  The  purchasers  were  the 
United  States,  South  America,  the  West  fndies,  and  Europe. 

The  (iovernment  of  the  Dominion  is  taking  intelligent  and  energetic  action 
for  the  ini])rovement  of  die  fresh-water  fisheries  of  Canada,  some  of  which  have 
Action  of  become  nearly  extinct  by  the  unceasing  spoliation  of  many  gen- 
Dominion  erations  of  men.  It  lias  now  seven  public  establishments  for  the 
overnment.  ,^^j.jy^  reproduction  of  fish ;  namely,  at  Newcastle  and  Sandwic  li 
(Ontario),  Tadousac,  Gaspe  Ikisin.  and  Restigouche  ((Quebec),  IJedtbnl  in 
Nova  Scotia,  and  Miramichi  in  New  Brunswick.  These  Iiatching-houses  are 
the  means  of  placing  about  ft)urteen  million  young  salmon,  while-lish,  and 
sea-trout  in  the  rivers  and  lakes  annually.  The  system,  though  well  organized, 
is  in  its  infancy.  The  results  of  its  work  are  already  gratifying  ;  wlial  will  they 
not  be  in  the  future,  when  the  work  of  the  present  produces  its  full  effect,  and 
the  system  is  expanded  and  developed? 


h 


Tiir.  r.inini:K-TKAi)E. 

The  magnificent  forests  of  CanacUi  have  long  been  the  admiration  of  trav- 
ellers and  tiie  pride  of  the  people  of  the  Provinces.  They  originally  clollied 
„  ,  ,      nearly  Uie  whole  surface  of  the  country  ;  and  thouyh  now  cleared 

Extent  and  -'  J   ■  a 

magnificence   away  to  a  great  extent  along  the  Creat  Lakes  and   in  the  more 
of  Canadian     ihiekly-settled  regions  of  the  country,  yet  they  rear  their  heads  in 

forests.  ■'  "  J  '  J  . 

unbroken  majesty  in  the  valleys  of  the  St.  Lawrence  and  Ottawa 
and  in  the  northern  portion  of  the  Pro\ince  of  Ontario,  and  cover  liuiidre  is 
of  thousands  of  S(iuare  miles  of  territory.  Prior  to  1759,  when  Canada,  witl. 
its  litde  population  of  sixty- five  thousand  souls,  was  transferretl  from  the  tlag 
of  Kr-Mice  to  that  of  Kngland,  the  primeval  forests  of  this  region  had  lianllv 
felt  \[v  -"ttle'-'s  a-e.  Fishing,  and  the  piu'suit  of  forest-animals  for  their  furs, 
were  abou  i'.  on!)  1  ccupations  of  the  inhabitants.  Occasionally  a  few  sjiips 
were  built,  i^ii  the  idea  of  felling  the  trees  of  the  forests  so  as  to  clear  up 
the  !n;i  I  a-  vo  ti.ir.s]- in  it  to  dista.it  lands  where  timber  was  scarce,  never 
enii-iid  r'-  "he.ids  o:  t.'.  peo))lt..  The  entire  exportation  o'i  the  country  at 
that  tJi'o  unfimVi'l  ally  to  £1.-415  a  year,  chiefly  in  furs  and  fish.  -After 
the   Ilngl.-'    fi;  .    w-,     unfMrled  over  the  Provinces,  the   infiux  of   population 


1^ 


A 


froni 
iv  thr 


r//E    INDUSTRIES    OF   CANADA. 


919 


caused  some  attention  to  be  paid  to  timber-cutting;  and  after  1800  tl^e 
scarcity  of  timber  in  I'higland  and  in  tlie  West  Indies  led  to  the  loatiing  of 
ships  with  the  nroducts  of  the  forests,  and  the  transportation  Exportation 
of  them  in  considerable  ciuantities  to  those  parts  of  the  earth.  °'  timber. 
The  trade  became  active  in  1809,  1810,  and  18:1,  owing  to  the  duties  levied 
by  England  upon  timber  from  the  countries  of  the  lialtic.  Those  duties  were 
imposed  for  the  benefit  of  the  British  provinces  in  America ;  and  the  jieople 
of  the  latter  took  advantage  of  them,  building  a  great  many  ships  f(jr  the 
purpose,  and  freighting  timber  to  the  mother-country  actively.  The  war  of 
181 2  checked  the  business  temporarily.  The  ships  of  the  Provinces  were  in 
danger  of  capture  by  American  privateers  if  ever  they  put  out  to  i-ea  ;  but, 
after  the  war,  Canada  was  rewarded  for  her  loyalty  to  I'^ngland  by  regulations 
which  permittetl  her  timber,  grain,  and  provisions  to  enjoy  certain  advantages 
in  the  trade  to  the  British  West  Indies  and  the  mother-country  whicii  were  not 


\ 


\ 

•i 
i 

I 


I: 


STEAMSHIP. — ALLAN   LINE. 


accorded  to  those  of  tin'  I'liiled  States.  The  trade  became  active  ;\i;  and 
has  remained  so  ever  sin'c.  die  market  for  Canadian  lumber  widci  _  year 
by  year,  extending  to  South  .\merica  and  elsewhere,  until  the  fore^>l  ■  oi  the 
ProvincL-s  became  one  of  their  principal  sources  of  wealth.  In  1842  ■'  •  duties 
c  timber  in  England  were  changed.  Baltic  timber  had  been  taxei  iluty  of 
fifty-five  shillings  a  load,  and  Canadian  timber  ten  shillings.  Ii  ■  _■.  at  the 
time  England  was  remodelling  her  whole  commefcial  system,  h  duty  on 
Baltic  timber  was  reduced  to  thirty  shillings,  and  thai  on  Canadian  to  one 
shilling.  The  change  alarmed  the  lumbermen  of  Canadj.  who  Effect  of 
feared  the  ruin  of  their  business.  It  turned  out  to  be  a  great  helji  -^wer  duties, 
to  them,  however;  and,  in  place  of  ruining  the  market  for  Canadian  lumber. 
it  stimulaved  the  market  instead.  The  lowering  of  the  duties  cheapened  the 
selling-price  of  lumber,  and  caused  a  greatly-increased  coiisum:'!  )n  ;  and 
the  difference  of  duty  in  fiivor  of  Canada  gave  the  timber  from  that   region 


ll 


.li! 


k 


920 


T//E    IXDUSTRIES    OF    CANADA. 


the  preference  in  the  market.  In  1872-73  the  exportation  had  reached  the 
enormous  figures  of  $28,586,816  in  one  year.  Within  the  last  five  years  the 
sales  of  Canadian  lumber  have  fallen  off  considerably.  This  is  due  chiefly  to 
the  general  stagnation  of  business  tlie  world  over,  but  partly  to  the  abroga- 
tion of  the  reciprocity  treaty.  The  depression  in  the  business  can  be  consid- 
ered only  as  te:nporary.  The  exportation  still  remains  at  the  very  high  figure 
of  $20,000,000  a  year. 

There  is  no  means  for  stating  accurately  the  present  production  of  forestry- 
statistics  of  products  in  Canada ;  but  the  timber  cut  and  sawed  into  lumber 
production,  cannot  be  less  than  320,000,000  cubic  feet  in  quantity.  In  1870, 
according  to  the  census,  the  production  was  as  follows  :  — 


CrniC  KEET 

OK  SQUAKE 

I'lNE. 

CUniC  PEET 

0|-  SQl-AUK 

OAK. 

CUIUC  FEET 

OF 
TAMARACK. 

Nl'MDER  OF 
I'lNE  LOGS. 

NUMBER  OF 
OTHER 
I.OOS. 

CrniC  FEET  OF 

MISCELLANEOUS 

TIMBER. 

Ontario    . 
Quebec    . 
New  Brunswick 
Nova  Scotia    . 

16,315,901 

9.223.575 

391.059 

260,658 

3.144.554 

53.635 

7.360 

96,494 

1,223,444 

3,994,878 

360,825 

116,816 

5,713.204 
5.01  1.532 
1,214,485 

477,187 

1,255,090 
3,628,72c 

3.533.'52 
897,595 

10,590,943 

10,414,710 

2,192,608 

3,088,003 

Total 

26,191,193 

3.302,043 

5.695.963 

12,416,408 

9.314.557     26,290,264 

hi' 


To  which  are  to  be  added  1,939,000  cubic  feet  of  maple,  and  1,832,000  of 
elm.  The  standard  log  is  twelve  feet  long  and  twenty-one  inches  in  diameter. 
The  above  figures  would  make  the  product  for  1870  about  412,945,903  feet. 
The  production  was  one-third  larger  in  1873;  but  it  has  since  fallen  slightly 
below  the  figures  for  1870. 

The  principal  trees  are  the  magnificent  white-pine  (which  often  grows  to  a 
height  of  two  hundred  feet,  and  affords  a  square  log  sixty  feet  long  and  twenty 
Varieties  of  inches  in  diameter),  the  red-pine,  the  white-oak,  tamarack,  elm, 
timber.  bcach,  walnut,  cedar,  maple,  bird's-eye  and  curled  maple,  and  ash. 

The  sugar-maple  is  a  prominent  feature  of  Canadian  woodlands  ;  but  it  is  too 
valuable  a  tree  for  its  sugar  to  be  felled  for  its  timber.  A  cluster  of  sugar- 
maples  is  a  valuable  addition  to  a  farm ;  and  so  much  is  this  tree  prized  and 
utilized  in  Canada,  that  the  product  of  sugar  from  it  in  Canada  in  1871 
amounted  to  17,267,000  pounds.  A  single  tree  yields  two  or  three  pounds  in 
a  spring ;  and  a  single  farmer  will  often  make  2,000  pounds  of  it,  worth  ten  to 
thirteen  cents  a  pound.  The  timber- districts  are  all  owned  by  the  government. 
How.ightto  '-^he  nii.nufacturers  obtain  the  right  to  cut  timber  by  purchasing  a 
cut  timber  is  "  berth,"  or  "  limit,"  at  public  auction,  getting  possession  in  this 
manner  of  a  tract  of  land  at  a  cost  of  a  dollar  to  a  dollar  and  fifty 
cents  per  square  mile.  He  becomes  the  tenant  of  the  government  at  a  fixed 
rate,  and,  in  addition,  pays  a  slight  duty  per  cubic  foot  of  squared  timber  cut, 


V' 


3.t 


and  on  eif 
square ;    ; 
brush,  or 

Tuml)^ 
St.  LawreJ 
large  lumll 
difere,  sevj 
lumber  in  I 
The  Ciatiij 
employ  i,| 
000,000 
great  ex])d 
to  the  pr 
accumulat 
Hay  is  pu 
a  long  (lis 
at  a  very 
peas  for  s 
it  is  of  th 
take  noth 
to  the  car 
ble  of  cc 
through  tl 
To  comp( 
left  in  tht 
.iides  of 
importani 
ratus.      l 
kettles  ar 
In  this  c 
leisure  h 
spin  lonj 
(.iod-feai 
accumul 
into,  ant 
up  from 
The 
posed, 
who  wai 
clears  tl 
worthies 
ers.     T 
the  for( 


r    "1  ' 

\\  J 


V4:-T*: 


THE    INDUSTRIES    OF    CANADA. 


931 


and  on  each  standard  log.  About  twenty-five  j)er  cent  of  the  timber  cut  is 
square  ;  about  forty  per  cent  is  in  logs  ;  and  thirty-five  per  cent  is  under- 
brush, or  useless  or  damaged  wood. 

Lumbering  is  carried  on  at  present  chiefly  in  the  valleys  of  the  Ottawa  and 
St.  Lawrence,  the  operations  being  on  the  largest  scale  in  the  former.     The 
large  lumber-factories  of  the  Ottawa,  especially  those  of  the  Chau-   Lumber- 
difere,  severally  get  out  from  25,000,000  to   40,000,000   feet   of  factories, 
lumber  in  a  year,  and  employ  800  men  and  300  teams  throughout  the  year. 
'I'he  (iatineau  Mills  at  Chelsea  have  "  li'-^its  "  covering  1,700  stjuare  miles,  and 
employ  1,000  men  in  winter  and  500  1,,  summer,  i)roducing  35,-   oatineau 
000,000  feet  of  lumber  annually.     The  business  is  carried  on  at   ^iiis. 
great  expense.     Men,  horses,  and  oxen  have  to  be  transported  into  the  forest 
to  the  proper  point  tor  operations,  and  camps  built  for  them,  and  material 
accumulated  for  their  support  during  the  long  season  of  felling  and  hauling. 
Hay  is  purchased  as  near  to  the  camps  as  possible ;  but,  as  it  has  to  be  hauled 
a  long  distance  into  the  forest  to  reach  the  camps,  it  is  never  obtained  except 
at  a  very  costly  rate.     The  supplies  for  the  men  consist  of  salt  pork  and  beef, 
peas  for  soup,  tea,  flour,  potatoes,  beans,  and  onions.     The  fare  is  simple ;  but 
it  is  of  the  best  (juality,  because  the  men  are  fastidious,  and  will   ^^^^  ^^^ 
take  nothing  that  is  inferior.     Spirits  are  seldom  if  ever  introduce  I     imps  of 
to  the  camps.     The  camps  consist  of  log  and  board  shanties  ca^  \-   ' '  '  ^'■"""• 
ble  of  containing  from  twenty-five  to  fifty  men  apiece.     The  only  opening 
through  the  walls  is  the  doorway.     There  are  no  windows,  and  no  chimney. 
To  compensate  for  the  lack  of  these  architectural  features,  a  large  opening  is 
left  in  the  roof,  which  is  chimney,  window,  and  ventilator  all  in  one.     Three 
sides  of  the  shanty  are  occupied  b)  sleeping-berths,  and  the  fourth  by  that 
miportant  and  much-respected  personage  the  cook,  with  his  tables  and  appa- 
ratus.    The  fire  is  built  in  the  middle  of  the  floor,  a  la  mode  Alaskan ;  and  the 
kettles  are  susi)ended  over  it  from  the  iron  crane  in  the  opening  in  the  roof. 
In  this  airy  and  healthy  style  of  house  the  hardy  wood-choppers  pass  their 
leisure  hours  between  the  inter\als  of  work.     They  smoke,  reatl,  play  cards, 
spin  long  yarns,  and  comport  themselves  in  the  most  rational,  law-abiding,  and 
(.jod-fearing  manner  possible.     When  the  camps  have  been  pre[)are(l,  the  stores 
accumulated,  the  roads  cut  down  to  the  river  or  some  stream  emptying  there- 
into, anil  all  made  ready  for  work,  the  regiments  of  wood-choppers  are  brought 
up  from  the  settlements,  and  work  begins. 

The  land  is  not  cleared  entirely  of  timber,  as  is  popularly  sup-   oniy  the  best 
posed.     There  is  no  object  in  doing  that.     It  is  only  the  farmer,   trees  are 
who  wants  a  field  devoid  of  shade  and  of  roots,  who  completely 
clears  the  soil.    The  choppers  select  only  the  best  trees.    The  small  ones  are  as 
worthless  to  them  for  timber  as  freshly-hatched  goslings  for  feath-    Renewal  of 
ers.     They  pass  the  small  trees  by;  and  the  ^:^n^■equence  is,  that   forests, 
the  forests  renew  themselves  every  fifteen  years.     The  danger  of  an  exhatis- 


I. 


31 


'.<        J 


11! 


922 


THE    IMHSTRIES    01-    CAAA/)A. 


tion  of  the  timbcr-stipply  is  not.  therefore,  so  great  as  is  supposed.  'Die  de- 
structive  fires  which  sweep  tlirough  these  jirimeval  groves  in  dry  seasons 
threaten  the  tinil)er-supply  to  a  i'ar  greater  extent  than  does  wood-chopping. 

When  the  trees  are  felled,  the  logs  are  marked  with  a  brand,  or  sla>li, 
peculiar  to  tiie  manufacturer  who  is  working  the  "  limit."  They  are  thru 
hauled  down  to  the  river,  and  set  afloat.  They  float  down  stream 
(if  in  the  Ottawa)  to  the  Chaudiere.  where  they  are  caught  hy  ,i 
hooni  stretched  across  the  river,  and  guided  into  ways  leading  to  the  saw-mill- 
of  their  respective  owners.  A  common  sight  in  the  lumber-regions  is  to  sec 
a  huge  raft  of  logs  securely  bound  together,  sometin:es  containing  a  hundred 
an!  fifty  thousand  <iil)i<'  feet  of  timber,  coming  down  stream  in  ( ompix  t  arriv. 
It  is  organized  like  a  brigade  of  troops,  the  logs  Ivjing  joined  togetluT  in 
"draws,"  or  sections,  e.ach  one  in  charge  of  its  special  gang  of  men,  and  thi'sc 
sections,  in  turn  united  into  a  great  raft.  .\t  every  considerable  rapid  the  raft 
is  dispersed  into  its  component  draws,  whi(  li  are  t;iken  ilown  tlic  r.ipidN  siiiLjly. 
At  the  foot  of  the  fill  thcx  are  again  joined,  and  tlu'  raft  glides  on  gracefullv 
down  stream,  fluttering  with  banners  atid  coNered  with  s'nanlies.  and  with 
camp-fires  burning  brightlv  on  earthen  hearths.  Sometime>.  the  logs  are  sent 
down  in  confused  rafts,  or  drives,  being  carried  d(jwn  iVom  die  heart  ot'  tlic 
v-o^-ls  by  the  sjiring  freshet,  which  follows  tiie  melting  of  the  snow.  In  the>e 
iiisLjices  the  logs  come  down  stream  in  terrific  fashion,  tliousands  upon  tlmn 
sands  at  a  time,  tumbling  and  turning  upon  one  another  at  the  rapids,  getting 
jammed  here  and  there  into  tremendous  masses,  reiiuiring  the  des])erate 
efforts  of  the  m(?!i  to  lil)erate  them  again  with  their  iron-shod  poles,  and  then 
shooting  down  st".  'mi  again  with  the  roar  and  rush  of  a  cavalry  charge,  until 
they  reach  some  i  'oad,  calm  sheet  of  water,  where  they  sla(  ken  their  ])a(e, 
and  submit  to  be  caught  by  a  boom,  and  directed  peacefiilly  here  and  there  io 
die  respective  saw-mills  to  which  they  belong. 

These  great  tbrests,  which  were  formerly  esteemed  only  as  the  haunts  of 
game  which  were  jn-ized  for  their  fiir,  and  were  threaded  onl)'  by  <laring  acKcii- 
«       ,.  turers   in   pursuit  of  these   animals,  are    now  justlv  regarded  as  a 

Canadian  '  j         .        r^ 

forests  a  mine  of  wealth  to  the  people  of  Canada.     They  exercise  a  great 

influence  on  the  general  prosperitv  of  the  country.  They  eniploy 
ii.ooo  men  every  year  in  wood-(iioj)piiig,  and  the  sawmills 
employ  40,000  more.  They  yield  hundreds  of  thousands  of  dollars'  wortli  of 
produce  annually  in  the  (brm  of  ashes  and  bark,  the  gathering  of  which  em- 
ploys another  large  body  of  mui  in  prolitable  industry.  The  distribution  of 
the  enormous  ([uantity  of  $20,000,000  to  .S.?S, 000,000  worth  of  timber  to 
foreign  lands  annually  engages  the  services  of  hundreds  of  ships  with  their 
A  source  of  crews  of  mariners,  and  contributes  largely  to  traffic  of  importan, 
revenue  to  lines  of  railroad.  The  go\  ernment  derives  a  revenue  from  the 
governmen  .  |j,jj.jj^gj5g^  .^,.|(]  fanners  adjacent  to  the  lumber-districts  find  a  ni"-i 
profitable  market  for  their  produce  in  supplying  the  camps  and  village^  with 


mine  of 
wealtli. 


needed  stc 
i^ilds  every 
the  future, 
following  \ 
|)un,  \\"\m 
up  the  bus 
nation's  wi 
dreamed  o 
lias  aci'essi 
land,  now 
trees  stoo* 
lumbering- 
witli  pine-l 
waste  of  y 
sion.  .No 
\early  gaii 
wliat  appe 


A  larg 
resources, 
shores  of 
erals.     N\ 
immense 
limestone 
Rocky  M( 
C'olunibia 
lasting  for 
f.ieless,  ti- 
the preset 
of  miner: 
It  is  not  ( 
and  hill  e 
ments  of 
bring  to  1 
the  suppl 
Oueb 
in  the  m 
Cohmibi; 
in   \ova 
period  ; 
to  781.11 


w 


r 


r//E    INDUSTRIES    OF    CAAADA. 


!  i 


9-^3 


needed  stores.  The  l)usiness  quickc.is  twenty  other  trades,  ami.  like  the  sun, 
i^ilds  every  interest  which  comes  witliin  the  reach  of  its  rays.  With  rcj^ard  to 
the  future,  notliin.Lj  can  be  said  on  the  sul)j('ct  which  would  be  better  than  the 
following  words  from  a  statement  by  the  Mercantile  Agency  of  puture  of 
hun,  W'iman,  i.\:  C'omi)any,  printed  in  January,  1877,  summing  this  indus- 
iip  tlie  business-outlook  in  Canada:  "This  particular  asset  in  the  ^^^' 
nation's  wealth  "  [the  timber-region]  "is  gaining  in  value  with  a  rapidity  hardly 
dreamed  of,  and  the  realization  of  which  is  only  a  (juestion  of  time.  So  scarce 
has  accessible  and  marketable  lumber  become,  that  it  is  alleged  that  plots  of 
lanil,  now  cleared  farms,  with  all  ai)pliances,  are  really  less  valuable  than  if  the 
trees  stood  in  undisturbed  majesty  thereon.  Even  certain  towns  in  former 
hnnbering-districts  would  bring  less  than  if  the  land  they  occupy  were  covered 
with  pine-forests.  ()\er-produclion  has  cheapeneil  this  great  stajile,  and  the 
waste  of  years  may  well  be  atoned  for  by  a  few  years  of  cessation  and  dejjres- 
sion.  Xothing  will  eventually  be  lost  by  this  delay  in  realization  :  indeed,  tlu' 
yearly  gain  in  value  of  this  valuable  jjroducl  will  more  than  compensate  for 
what  appears  to  be  loss  and  disaster  at  the  present  moment." 

MINING. 


I'  1: 


A  large  part  of  the  territory  of  Canada  is  valuable  only  for  its  mineral 
resources,  this  being  more  esix'ciallv  the  case  with  the  region  Ivins^  along  the 
shores  of  l.ake  Suijcrior.     The  Ottawa  \'allev  is  also  rich  in  min-    _.  , 

1  ■  R;chness  of 

erals.      New  ]!runswick  and   Nova  Scotia  have    iron   and   coai  in    country  in 
immense  (luantilies,  in  close  proximilv  to  each  other  and  to  the    ■^'"^'■3' 

'  '■  '  wealth. 

limestone  re(iuired  in  the  process  of  iron-smelting  for  flux.  The 
Rocky  Moimtains  are  full  of  t!ie  most  important  commercial  ores,  and  british 
Columbia  has  an  endowment  in  this  direction  which  would  make  the  ever- 
lasting fortune  cM"  any  country  with  plenty  of  population  and  capital.  Xever- 
I'.ieless,  the  mining-industr)'  in  Canada  is  more  a  matter  of  the  future  than  of 
the  present.  Scarce  any  thing  has  been  done  toward  utilizing  the  vast  st(jres 
of  mineral  wealth  which  lie  Ijuried  in  the  rocks  and  mountains  of  the  country. 
It  is  not  even  \  et  accurately  known  what  that  mineral  wealth  is  in  its  character 
and  full  extent,  except  in  a  general  way.  It  is  only  known  that  the  endow- 
ments of  the  country  by  natiux'  are  such,  that  at  a  future  day  Canada  will 
bring  to  liear  a  heavy  ( umpetition  against  the  United  States  and  I-'ngland  tor 
the  su]iply  of  the  world's  market  with  iron  and  the  other  conmicrcial  metals. 

(^)uebec  and  Ontario  have  no  coal  ;  but  there  are  rich  deposits  of  this  fuel 
in  the  maritime  provinces,  in  Manitoba,  the  North-west  Territory,  and  British 
Columbia.     Tlic  ])rip.v  i])al  mining  of  coal  takes  place  at  present    coai-mines 
in   Nova  Scotia.     'He  mines  there  have  been  worked  I'or  a  long   of  Nova 

,  ,     ,  .         .  ,  ..^'  •  o  Scotia. 

period  :  and  the  production  is  now  very  large,  amounting  in   1875 

to  781.165  tons,  and  in  1S77  to  757.496  tons.    .About  oiu'-tliird  of  the  product 


if) 


934 


THE    INDUSTKIES    OF    CANADA. 


\  ■  u 


Iron. 


is  exported  to  foreign  countries.  In  British  C!oliimi)ia,  154,052  tons  of  <  nal 
Export  of  were  mined  in  1.S77.  Tiie  mines  are  on  Vancouver's  Islainl  , 
product.  .j,^,i  (i^j^  mineral  is  in  very  high  esteem  on  the  Pacific  coast  lor 

gas,  factory,  and  household  purposes.  Its  principal  market  c*"  sale  is  the  (  ity 
of  San  Francisco. 

Iron  is  mined  chiefly  in  the  Ottawa  VaIIey>  in  Nova  Scotia,  and  in  tlu' 
vicinity  of  Lake  Superior.  In  the  first-mentioned  region,  magnetic  ore  fif  ilu 
best  (juality  is  found  in  all  the  mountains  on  the  north  sitle  of 
the  river.  The  proportion  of  magnetic  oxide  in  the  ore  is  aboui 
ninety-three  per  cent,  and  the  yiel<l  averages  sixty-nine  per  cent  of  mctallii 
iron.  It  is  said  that  this  valley  produces  a  car-wheel  iron  which  has  no 
superior  in  .Xmerica.  The  metal  has  been  used  for  tiiat  purpose  at  'I'oroiiio, 
and  Cleveland,  ().,  and  is  valued  for  its  tenacity  and  durability.  'J'he  region 
Extent  and  '^  ^'^  ovcrgrowu  with  (orests,  that  the  Aill  extent  of  the  uum  . 
superiority  is  not  kuowu  ;  but  that  the  (|uantity  of  iron  which  can  be  taken 
°'""  out   is   enormous    is   ai)|)arent    from   the   i)ro(ligal    abundance    in 

which  it  has  ])een  fountl  wherever  sought  lor.  In  places  it  lies  upon  the 
ground  in  blocks  large  and  small,  and  the  strata  of  the  mountains  wherever 
openeil  are  seen  to  l)e  full  of  valuable  veins.  A  fire  which  l)uiiie(l  off 
the  woods  in  1S71  disclosed  the  existence  of  a  hundred  million  tons  of  iron 
ore  in  one  hill.  The  only  mines  which  are  being  worked  at  preseiU  are 
in  the  township  of  Hull,  at  the  village  Ironsides.  The  situation  is  somewhat 
remote  from  the  principal  markets  ;  but  it  is  \ery  fa\orable  for  manufacturing. 
Labor  is  cheai),  water-power  is  abundant,  and  fitel  costs  scarce  a  song.  This 
region  is  known  to  contain  i)luml)ago,  kaoline,  lead,  and  pyrites,  as  well  as  iron  ; 
but  these  minerals  remain  undisturbed  in  the  beds  where  they  were  dei)o>ited 
by  the  volcanic  forces  of  the  early  ages  of  the  world.  In  Nova  Scotia  the 
Production  production  of  iron  ore  is  from  fifteen  thousand  to  twenty  thousand 
of  iron  ore  in  tons  yearly,  it  being  consumed  almost  entirely  in  the  blast-fiirnaces 
ova  Scotia,  ^j-  ^y^^^  ^^^^^  ^^^^  '-xk^kA  company  at  Londonderry.  Notwithstanding 
the  great  resources  of  Canada  in  res[)ect  to  iron,  the  manufacturers  still  con- 
tinue to  import  a  large  part  of  their  i)ig-iron,  rather  than  make  it  at  home. 
The  whole  iron-industry,  in  flu.t,  is  only  in  the  very  first  stages  of  development. 
About  twenty  blast-fiirnaces,  a  few  forges,  two  rolling-mills,  and  two  steel-works, 
substantially  comprise  the  iron-enterprises  of  Canada;  and  in  1S77  only  halt 
of  these  establislunents  were  in  operation.  Recently  mining-operations  have 
The  Snow-  been  begun  energetically  at  the  Snowdon  mine,  in  Ontario  ;  the 
don  mine.  intention  of  the  proprietor,  Mr.  Myles  of  Ontario,  being  to  take 
out  thirty  thousand  tons  in  1878,  and  smelt  the  ore  at  Port  Hope.  He  has  a 
t  ontract  with  an  American  firm  for  the  purpose. 

Silver  ores  are  found  in  the  Province  of  Quebec,  and  have  l)een 
worked  for  many  years.     Recently,  still  richer  ores  have  been  fouml 
in    the    Lake-Superior   region,      'i'hey   have  yielded   wonderfiil   res'     ^       The 


Silver. 


region  is  1 
rtilh  a  view 
was  found 
eied  ye.irly 
now  known 
nor.  uliicli 
ureat  war  o 
and  gold  . 
I  111-  rebellii 
iie    repoiU 


<tn 


jnilcs  loiv 

1  ,  greater 

the  line  o 

K^{  tliese. 

( i()l(l-l)ca 

copper-rc 

await  the 

Amoi 

inangane 

liable   CO 


ml 


f 


\ 


THE    LSDCSTNIES    OI<    C  AX  ADA. 


1^  of  coal 
>  Isliiiid  , 
'■oast  lor 
s  Ihc  (  ity 

1(1   in  the 

IV    of    111,. 

h  sick'  oi 
is  about 
iiK-tallic 
lias    111  > 
roronlo, 
!<-'  iv^'ion 
U'    mini  . 
l)f  taki'M 
laiicL-    in 
ipon  the 
ulicrcvcr 
incd  off 
s  of  injii 
p.sc'iU  arc 
(inicwhal 
"actiirinir, 
g.     'I'ln\ 
as  iron  ; 

It'pOMtcd 

;otia  the 

housaiiil 
furna(  cs 
.standing 
till  con- 
t   homo, 
opmcnt. 
■1- works, 
nly  half 
ns  have 
io  ;  the 
to  take 
.'  has  a 


925 


region  is  now  being  carefully  surveyed  by  the  officers  of  the  government, 
with  a  view  to  ascertain  more  fully  it>  capabilities..  ( ".old,  which,  up  to  1.S70, 
was  found  almost  exclusiveh  in  Nova  Scotia  (the  few  oimces  gath 

Gold. 

ered  yearly  in  Ontario  and  (Quebec  hardly  deserving  mention),  is 
now  known  to  exist  in  large  ([uantities  in  this  same  region  n  irth  of  Lake  Supe- 
rior, which  is  so  rich  in  all  the  metals,  that  il  would  almost  seem  as  if.  in  some 
L;ieal  war  of  the  Titans  against  heaven,  the  gods  iiad  rained  mounta  ns  of  iron 
.md  gold  and  silver  and  copper  upon  this  region  in  the  effort  to  >  stenninate 
111'-  rebellious  giants  who  inhabited  it,  I'Ateiisive  tracts  of  gold-bearing  (iiuirt/ 
ire    reported.     Within    T'c    ba^in    of  the    Nipigon.   a  .  hundred    and    r.e\enly 


ci)iiHl'i;.\'i|.:i)  i;oi.i)-i,)iAiir/,  w.wi  ki  i.y. 


miles  long  and  eiglitv  miles  broad,  the  upper  copper-bearing   series   obtains 


II-.  greatest  develo])meii 


t.      Distinct  belts  of  the  nxk  extend  aloiiL 


the  line  of  the  lake  to  Thunder  l]av  and  I'oikI  du  l-ac  :  and  in  oiu 


Copper. 


( 


these,  called  the   Lake-Shebandowan  band,  the  gold-bearing  ro(  k  is  found, 
re  re])oited  at  Cross  Lake,  on  the  Red-i\.i\er  route.     Rich 


hearmLr  \eins  a 


co])per-regions  are  re])orteil  sti 
await  the  pick  and  gunpowder. 


artlier 


to  ihi. 


west. 


Th 


ese  mines  nearlv  a 


11 


Amonu'  the  other  mineral  resources  of  Canada  are  zinc,  cobalt,    z 


inc  and 


inaiiLianese.  yvpsuni.  granite,  sandstone,   marbles  of  e\ery   imagi-    other  metals. 
and   i)ciroleuin.      A   magnilicent   tlisi)lay   of  specimens  of 


liable  colcjr,  si 


^^5i^ 


IMAGE  EVALUATION 
TEST  TARGET  (MT-3) 


1.0 


I.I 


■^  1^    12.2 


!■■ 


s  I 

u 

CJui. 


■^  iy£ 


11-25  i  1.4 


I 


1.8 


1.6 


V] 


^ 


/A 


O 


^P. 


'^m  J>  ^^ 


/ 


/A 


W 


w 


Photographic 

Sdences 
Corporation 


^ 


23  WEST  MAIN  STREET 

WEBSTER,  N.Y.  MStO 

(716)  873-4503 


926 


THE    INDUSTRIES    OF   CANADA. 


these  and  all  other  metals  and  minerals  of  Canada  was  made  at  the  Philadel- 
statitticsof  phia  Kxhil)ition  in  1876.  The  following  is  a  statement,  from  the 
production,  census  of  1871,  of  the  iuw  mineral  product  of  Canada  for  the  year. 
the  principal  items  alone  being  given  :  — 


IRON 
ORE, 
THUS. 

30,726 

y2,ooi 

3,070 
3.566 

COPPER 
ORE, 
TONS. 

COAL, 
TONS. 

PEAT, 
TONS. 

COLD, 
OZ. 

SILVER, 
OZ. 

PYRITES, 
TONS. 

MAN- 
GANESE, 
TONS. 

CVPSl'M, 
TONS. 

PETRO- 
LEUM, 
GALLS. 

STONK   FOR 
DKKSSINC, 
CUmc   FT. 

<  >nt.irio    . 
(Quebec     . 
N.  Urims- 
wick  .  . 
N.  Scolia, 

1.934 

11,3:6 
50 

'3.50J 

657,506 



M.597 

160 
•5 

199 

34' 
•9.33« 

69,197 

SOO 
2,300 

475 

160 

4.230 

13.659 
96,544 

".969.435 


2,093.7" 

i,674.:.''J 

810,552 
628,171 

Total    . 

129,363 

«3.3»o 

671,008 

14.772 

22,941 

69,197 

2,800 

635 

"4.433 

•2.969.435 

5."if'.7'/' 

What  a  pity  that  by  the  side  of  this  modest  statement  cannot  be  j)]a<  (.(1 

the  figures  of  the  mineral  product  jf  Canada  a  hundred  years  hence,  when  the 

mining-industry  of  the  region  will  have  grown  from  the  scjuads  ot" 

Future  de-  ,  ...  ,  ... 

veiopments  the  sccttcrcd  recruiting-sergeants  to  a  grand  army  plaiitint;  it^ 
of  mineral  banners  on  all  the  fortresses  of  trade,  and  by  its  achievements  win 
ning  the  applause  and  respect  of  the  whole  world  !  Of  course,  the 
figures  for  1877  ^"^^  somewhat  better  for  all  the  classes  of  product  mentioneil. 
except  petroleum  ;  but  they  do  not  change  the  embryonic  character  of  the 
intlustry,  and  would  not  make  a  comparison  with  the  product  of  a  hundred 
years  hence  any  less  interesting.  With  reference  to  petroleum,  it  may  be  said 
that  the  product  is  falling  off,  owing  to  the  exhaustion  of  the  wells.  The 
manufacture  in  the  fiscal  year  of  1872-73  was  still  12,168,406  gallons  :  but  in 
1874-75  it  was  only  4,009,663  ;  and  in  1875-76,  4,838,215. 


FARMING. 

Trie  vast  territories  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada,  stretching  nortliward  from 
the  United  States,  and  comprising  an  area  larger  than  that  of  the  United 
Extent  of  States  leaving  out  Alaska,  and  not  much  smaller  than  that  ot' 
territory.  Europc,  is  popularly  regarded,  by  most  people  who  reside  beyond 
their  borders,  as  delivered  over  to  the  austerities  of  a  barren  soil  and  an 
inhospitable  climate.  The  old  stories  that  used  to  circulate  in  Europe  and 
elsewhere  about  the  Canadian  winters  have  turned  millions  of  people,  seekini; 
a  home  in  the  New  World,  away  from  the  regions  north  of  the  lakes  to  the 
broad  and  fertile  States  lying  south  of  them.  The  Canadians,  it  was  supposed, 
would  have  to  dress  in  furs,  and  live  l)y  timber-cutting,  trapping,  ai  d  fishing. 
There  never  was  a  more  idle  fiction.  No  doubt  a  large  part  of  the  territories 
of  the  Dominion  in  the  extreme  north  are  characterized  by  long  and  dread- 
ful winters,  short  summers,  and  imfniitful  soils  :  but,  on  the  other  hand,  the 


THE    IXDUSTRIES    OF    CANADA. 


927 


fac  has  been  repeatedly  rerogni/ed  in  debates  in  the  American  Congress, 
th-  Canada  is,  in  tliat  rc-)|)ct  t,  no  worse  off  than  the  L'nited  States,  whose  dry 
ad  burning  plains  in  the  Far  West  appear  almost  beyond  the  power  of  man  to 
eclaim ;  whereas  these  same  plains,  upon  passing  into  Canada,  change  their 
character.      The  Rocky  Mountains,  being  less  elevated,  and  having  a  narrower 
base,  admit  the  passage  of  ( louds  fnjm  the   Pacific  Ocean  ;  and  the  fertilizing 
showers  descend  upon  that  happy  region  which  are  withheld  from  the  plains 
in  America.     At   the  same  tune,  the   isothermal   line  of  60°   for  summer  — 
which,  in   the  eastern   provinces,  is   no  farther  north  than   about   the   forty- 
eighth  parallel  —  rises  on  the  Canadian  plains  to  the  ^)ixty-flrst  parallel.     The 


ASADIAN    KOKSn. 


soil  is  rich  ;  and  thus,  for  a  distance  of  twelve  hundred  miles  northward  from 
the  boundary  of  the  United  States,  there  stretch  vast  ])lains,  upon  wiiicb  wheat, 
barley,  the  grasses,  and  many  root-crojis,  will  thrive  bounteously.     Ifi  Ontario, 
Quebec,  and  the  maritime  provinces,  the  land  and  ( limate  are  well   y^^j  ^^^^ 
suited  to  agriculture  ;  and  fiirms  are  seen  in  every  part  of  the  in-   capable  of 
habited  portions  of  the  Provinces,  as  fertile,  thrifty,  and  well  kept 
as  anywhere   on   the  continent.     With   the   exce|)tion   of  Labrador  and  the 
extreme  north,  the  whole  territory  of  Canada  is  equipped  with  rich  lands  and  a 
pleasant  climate.     Its  agricultural  capacity  is  simply  enormous,  and  the  value 
of  the  tmoccupied  regions  is  incakulable. 

Agriculture  began  to  be  practised  in  Can.^/hi  on  a  liberal  scale  about  the 


i 


928 


THR    INDUSTRIES    OF    CANADA. 


time  of  the  war  for  American  independence.     That  war  caused  an  influx  f 
BeginnifiK  of   jjopulation  from  the  States  which  had  formed  the  American  Unioi 
•gricuiture.     ^^j^j^  ,^jj  ),jjg  ^^^,^.^  already  stated,  the  population  of  Canada  wcr 
rewarded  for  their  loyalty  to  the  king,  both  during  that  war  and  the  one  of 
Immigration    r8i2,  b)  special  privileges  in  supplying  the  West  Indies  and  Kng- 
iniBya.  jj^p^j  ^yjti^  grain,  provisions,  and  lumber.      This  was  a  great  en- 

couragement to  farming  both  in  the  maritime   and   upper  provinces.      Afur 


CANADIAN    MOW  IN(.-M  AflllNi;. 


i8i2,  considerable  immigration  to  Canada  took  place.  The  whole  jjopulatinn 
Population  °^  ^''^  region  had  been,  in  1790,  only  about  200,000  ;  but  in  1S25 
what  are  now  the  Provinces  of  (Ontario  and  Quebec  alone  had 
637,000,  The  country  after  that  filled  up  very  fast.  In  1871 
the  population  of  Canada  was  3,602,321,  it  being  di.stributed  as  follows  :  — 


of  country 
in  1790. 


Ontario    . 

Quebec     . 

Nova  Scotia     . 

New  Brunswick 

Manitoba 

British  Columbia 

Prince  Edward  Island 


Total 


1,620,851 

1,191,516 

387,800 

285,594 

".593 

10,586 

94,021 
3,602,321 


Increase  of  A  very  large  proportion  of  the  incomers  to  Ontario  and  Que- 

farmers.  jj^p  \s(t\\\,  immediately  into  farming,  and  agriculture  was  inspired 

with  fresh  life  in  all  of  the  Provinces.  In  1854  occurred  an  event  which  was 
Reciprocity  ^  great  stimulus  to  this  interest.  A  treaty  of  reciprocity  with 
treaty  of  America  was  entered  into,  being  signed  by  the  Earl  of  P'lgin  for 
*  ^'  Canada,  on  the  5th  of  June  of  that  year.     This  opened  to  ('anadiaii 

farmers  a  market  for  their  produce  such  as  they  had  never  known.    A  dc- 


THE    INDUSTRIES    OF    CA.XADA. 


9-9 


mand  for  barley  suddenly  sprang  up,  and  the  cultivation  of  that  grain  spread 

rapidly  throughout  the  grain-growing  counties.     Darley  almost  excluded  wheat 

from  among  the  list  of  Canadian  crops.     'I"he  wheat-crop  of  1856   The  bariey- 

had  been  a  foilure,  and  farmers  were  discouraged  with  the  idea   "^"^"p- 

of  planting  it.     They  raised  barley  instead,  buying  wheat  and  Hour  irom  the 

United  States.     The  war  of  1861  in  the  United  States  then  broke  out,  and  the 

era  of  high  prices  began.     The  treaty  was  abrogated  in  18O6.  Ixit   Abrogution 

the  high  prices  continued;    and  until   1873,  when  the   fmar.c  i  d   of  treaty  in 

crash  took  place,  or,  in  other  words,  for  a  period  of  nearly  twcn'"^" 

years,  Canadian  farmers  had  the  benefit  of  the  most  lucrali\e  market  in  the 

world,  for  the  sale  of  their  barley,  wheat,  dairy-produce,  and  other 

goods.     During   that   period    agricultural    cxiiibitions  were  insti-   farmersfrr" 

tut"d.     Dairy-flirming,  with  its  concomitants  of  butter  and  cheese   twenty  years 

factories,  was  developed.      Ontario  went  largely  into  the  pork-   p^"'=^<^'"8 

packing  business.     So  profitable  did  farming  become,  that  farms 

rose  to  the  value  of  a  himdred  dollars  an  acre.     Since    1873  it  has  been 

found  necessary  to  seek  a  larger  market  for  the  surjjlus  produce  of  Canada  in 

South  America,  luirope,  and  the  Indies.     The  market  has  been   ^^^^^ 

found,  however ;  and  Canada  has  no  more  difficulty  in  disposing  progress 

of  her  grain   and   provisions  than  before,  though  the  prevalent   ^'"'^^  *  ^^' 

depression  of  prices  prevents  her  from  obtaining  the  bounteous  profits  01  the 

era  of  war  and  reciprocicy.     One  of  her  best  customers  is  Mngland. 

It  is  regretted  that  ther?  are  no  later  returns  than  those  of  1871  in  regard 
to  the  total  product  of  this  interest.     The  figures  for  that  year,   statistics 
however,  serve  to  give  a  far  idea  of  what  the  farmers  of  Canada   '^°''  '^^i- 
are  iloing.     They  are  as  ^;llows  :  — 


c  ^ 

a 

22,133,958 
15,116,262 

3.044.134 
2,190,099 

Ji 

£5 

1,804,476 

1,225,646 

344.793 

443.732 

5 

Ontario 

QucIk-'C 

New  I'mnswick  . 

Nova  Scotia 

M>23J>339 

2,038,076 

204,911 

227,497 

16,723,872 

9.461,233 
1,668,208 

'0.547 
296,050 

547,600     585,153 

458,970  1,676,078 

23,792  1,231,091 

33,987     234,157 

\ 
3,148,467 17,138,534 

603,356 18,068,323 

27,658  6,562,355 

23,349;  5,560,973 

6,247,44» 

10,497,418 

380,004 

151,190 

Total    . 

11,406,038 

42,480,453 

1,064,358  3,726,484 

3,802,830 

47,33o,'87 

3,818,641 

•7.276,054. 

A  few  later  figures  are  the  following  :   In  1875  the  splendid  wheat-crop  of 
that  year  made   the    production  for  the  fiscal   year  ending   June   wheat-crop 
30,  1876,  as   much    as    26,834,680   bushels,  of  which  8,600,000   '<"■ '875- 
bushels  were  exported  in  fiour  and  grain.     The  pork-packing   of   1876  was 
244,742  head,  making  about  38,000  barrels  of  jwrk. 

In  regard  to  dairy-produce,  Canada  now  fully  supplies  her  own  market 


930 


THE   nXDUSTRJES    OF    CANADA. 


Townships  on  the  bonkr  of  the  U?  I'ted  States  buy  a  small  quantity  of  Ameri- 
Dairy-prod-  can  biittcT  and  chccsc ;  but  the  whole  quantity  of  bolli  will  not 
«"=«•  exceed  250,000  pounds,  and  is  too  insignificant  almost  for  men- 

tion. On  the  other  hanil,  the  export  of  both  of  these  articles  is  now  very 
large,  showing  how  admirably  the  interest  has  been  developed,  and  what  a 


FAKM-SCENB. 


large  surplus  Canada  produces  beyond  the  demands  of  her  own  consumption. 
The  increase  of  the  ex])()rt  of  cheese  has  been  due  to  the  attention  paid  to 
the  factory-system.     The  exportation  has  been  as  follows  :  — 


YEAR. 


1S69 
1870 
187I 
1S72 

'R73 
1S74 

1875 
1876 


ntTTER 

CHEESE 

(l'(ltNI)S). 

(pounds). 

10,853,268 

4-503.370 

12,259,887 

5,827,782 

I  5,439.266 

8,271,439 

19,068,348 

16,424,025 

15,208,633 

19,483,211 

12,233,046 

24,050,982 

9,268,044 

32,342,030 

12,392,367 

35,024.090 

THE    INDUSTRIES    OF   CANADA. 


931 


The  export  price  of  butter  lias  remained  at  an  average  from  nineteen  to 
twenty-one  cents  anil  a  half;  and  that  of  cheese,  from  eleven  to  twelve 
cents  and  a  (luarter. 

The  principal  development  of  the  factory  system  in  Canada  dates  from 
187 1.  The  success  of  a  few  factories  \vlu(h  iiad  been  tried  led  to  the  rapid 
building  of  a  large  number  of  others.  The  system  everywhere  introduction 
met  with  the  support  and  encouragement  of  farn^ers,  who  soon  of  the  fac- 
came  to  discover,  that  by  clubbing  toirether,  and  building  a  factory  ^""^^  system, 
to  which  the  milk  could  be  sent  ft-  :onversion  into  cheese,  they  could  save 
themselves  the  expenditure  of  much  ue  and  labor,  and  get  in  return,  perhaps, 
a  better  (piality  of  cheese  than  if  they  ul  made  it  themselves.  The  Province 
of  Ontario  has  been  the  most  active  in  the  building  of  factories ;  and  its  yearly 
conventions  of  factory-men,  farmers,  and  scientists,  interested  in  cheese  and 
butter  making,  are  among  the  most  valuable  and  interesting  of  the  meetings 
which  take  place  in  the  province.  Canadian  cheese  has,  by  means  of  the 
attention  paid  to  its  manufacture,  now  attained  a  reputation  in  the  commerce 
of  the  world  which  is  imsurpassed.  .At  the  Philadelphia  lv\hibition  it  made  a 
decidetl  sensation,  and  the  demand  for  it  in  luirope  is  increasing  every  year. 

The  total  exportation  of  farm-products  from  Canada  now,  in-   Farm- 
eluding  live  cattle  and  horses,  meats,  and  wool,  amounts  to  the   P'^o^ucts* 
very  large  sum  of  $30,000,000  to  $35,000,000  annually. 


M.VNUI'ACTURING. 

With  reference  to  general  manuflicturing,  it  may  be  said  that  the  Canadian 
provinces  have  had  essentially  the  same  experience  as  all  agricultural  and 
m.  itime  states  since  the  world  began.  The  i)eople  have  followed  the  pursuits 
which  required  the  least  expenditure  of  toil,  and  those  which  the  natural  re- 
sources of  the  country  suggested  the  most  directly  ;  and  these  were,  in  Canada, 
fishing,  lumbering,  and  iiirming.  Some  parts  of  the  Dominion  are  still  only 
one  stej)  removed  from  this  original  and  natural  condition  of  things,  in  which 
the  large  body  of  the  population  are  sustained  by  open-air  pursuits.  The 
most  extreme  instance  is  the  case  of  Newfoundland,  which  has  no  manufac- 
tures except  those  sim|>le  and  necessary  arts  of  carpentry,  blacksmithing,  &c., 
without  which  the  fishery-business  could  not  be  carried  on.  It  has  no  general 
manufacturing  whatever.  Nova  Scotia  and  New  Brunswick  occupy  the  first 
terrce  above  the  position  of  exclusively  agricultural,  fishing,  mining,  and 
timber-cutting  provinces.  They  are  supplied  with  nearly  all  the  ordinary 
shops  tor  the  manuflicture  of  carriages,  boots  and  shoes,  clothing,  machinery, 
iron-work,  furniture,  and  other  articles  of  general  consumption,  which  the 
Provinces  recpiire ;  and  they  have,  besides,  a  cotton-factory  or  two,  iron  and 
steel  rolling-mills,  large  ship-yards,  and  other  establishments,  the  operation  of 
which  re(iuires  large  capital,  and  great  manual  skill  on  the  part  of  the  working- 


93' 


THE    INDUSTRIES    OF   C.liXADA. 


iTi'-n.     Tlic  two  more  (k'nscly-settlcd  Provinces  of  Ontario  and  Qoebec  ara 
also  well  siii)i)lied  with  the  bhops  neetled  for  the  i)roduction  of 

Province!  of  .  '  '  ^  _  '  • 

Ontario  and     articles  (jf  cuuinion  use.     Tliey  have  in  addition  made  a  consider- 
Quei- ;  ^l,l^.  ad\ ance  into  the  field  of  general   nianufaiuinnL',  and  have 

(arthot 

advanced  in     ""^^'  •^""x  '^''''  l''*-'  foiMulalions  of  that  wliicli  will  become,  following 
manufactur-    the  growth  of  the  country,  a  great  and  thriving  national  industry. 
'"  'Ihey  have  cotton   and  woollen   factories,  chemical-works,  distil- 

leries, machine-sho[)s,  locomotive-works,  great  carriage  and  agricultural-imple- 
ment factories,  and  many  other  of  the  higher 
and    more   important   classes   of   estahlish- 
nients.      They   have   not   factories   enough 
yet  fully  to  supply  their  own  market  with 
cloth,  manufuc  tured  iron  and  steel,  cutlery, 
fiincy-gf)ods,  glassware,  railway-material,  and 
many  other  things  which  their  high  civiliza- 
tion demands  ;  but  neither  has  their  neigh- 
bor the   United   States,  which  is  far  more 
populous,  and  has  far  more  capital.     The 
Canadians  are  ambitious,  and  are  not  con- 
Annuai  im-     tent  with  the  situation,  when  they 
portation.       reflect  that  they  are  obliged  to 
import  about  $70,000,000  of  manufactured 
goods  every  year  t(j  supply  the  deficiencies  of  their  own  production.     They 
are  anxious  for  a  policy  which  shall   bring  about  a  more  rapid 
pe'opieto        building-up  of  their  own  factory-interests.     Their  spirit  in  regard 
promote  do-   to  the  matter  is  that  which  always  moves  a  free,  intelligent,  pro- 
gressive race  ;  yet  it  must  be  said  that  the  development  thus  far 
is  ((jmmendable,  and  will  compare   favorably  with  that  of  any 
other  agricultural  people. 

The  following  table  shows  the  degree  of  development  which  the  industries 
of  Canada  had  obtained  in  1871,  the  year  of  the  census :  — 


TURIUNE-WHEEL. 


incstic  man- 
ufactures. 


CAMTAL. 

liMPLOVEES. 

WAcns. 

RAW  MATERIAL. 

PRODUCT. 

()nt.irio  . 
Quebec  . 
New  ISninswick 
Nov.!  Scotia  . 

537.874,010 

28,071,868 

5.9/6,176 

6,041,966 

87,281 
66,714 
18,352 

'5-595 
187,942 

$21,415,710 

12,389,673 

3,869,360 

3,176,266 

540,851,009 

$65,114,804 

44.555.025 
9,431,760 
5,806,257 

$1  14,706,799 
77,205,182 
17,367,687 
12,338,105 

Tot.-il       . 

577,964,020 

$124,907,846 

$221,617,773 

The  product  increased  considerably  during  the  three  years  following  the 
census. 


THE    INDUSTRIES    OF   CANADA. 


933 


Among  the  larjjeit  items  in  the  list  of  manufactures  in  1871  were  the 
following :  — 


NUMIIEK  OF 
rACTOKIl:S, 


nouts  and  shoes      .        .        .        . 

Furnitiire 

Carriages 

KIdiir 

Machinery  and  castings  . 

Leather 

Ships 

Spirits 

Ale  and  beer 

Woollen  cloth 

Woollen  cloth  (home-made),  about 

Sawed  lumber 

Chemicals 

Engines 

Paper       

Ropes  and  cordage .         .        .        . 
Musical  instruments 
Carding  and  fulling 


4,191 

854 
2,636 

2.2y5 

430 

1,142 

252 

20 

'3/ 
270 

5-54 


650 


KMI-LOVKICS. 


IS.7I9 

4,36() 

4.992 

7/'53 

4.-07 

0,046 

467 

9>S 
4.453 


3S.6SJ 


1,224 


VAi.UK  or 

PKUUUCT. 


J 1 6, 1 33,638 
3,5.So,(;78 
4.S49,234 

39. '3  5.9 '9 

7.3-5.53" 

9,iS4,932 

4,432,262 

4.09-.537 

2,i4i.::29 

5.507.549 

7,ooo,coo 

30,256,247 

816,250 

1,044,000 

1,071,651 

769,000 

622,162 

2.253.794 


The  period  of  active  development  of  general  manuflictiiring  be/jan  in  1855 
with  tiie  reciprocity  treaty  ;  but  was  not  due  to  that  treaty,  however,  except  in 
part.     The  years  of  1 8;:;  and  18156  were  those  in  which  the  Cirand   „    .     . 

'  ■'  ^ -^  -"  Beginning  of 

Trunk  Railway  was  building,  —  a  road  wiiich  it  cost  a  hundred  and   period  of  ac- 
five  million  dollars  to  get  into  complete  operation.    The  enormous  t>ve  develop- 

ment. 

sums  spent  by  the  (Irand  'i'runk  Company  among  the  people,  the 
employment  it  gave  to  all  the  spare  labor  of  Canada,  the  heavy  importation  of 
working-people  from  the  Old  World  to  assist  in  constructing  the  road,  and  the 
shops  built  to  sui)ply  the  road  with  material,  gave  a  tremendous  stimulus  to 
every  business-interest  in  Canada.     In  1859  the  protection  princi-   Tariff  of 
pie  was  infused  into  the  tariff  of  Canada  by  Mr.  (lalt ;  and  after  ''*59' 
1861  the  farmers  of  Canada  became  extremely  prosperous  by  reason  of  the 
large  prices  they  were  obtaining  for  their  produce  in  America  under  the  reci- 
procity treaty,  tlvs  enabling  them  to  become  good  customers  in  the  purchase 
of  manufactured  wares.     These  things  all  assisted  Canadian  industry.     Facto- 
ries sprang  up  throughout  the  Provinces  like  magic  ;  and  the  period  was  one 
of  universal  activity,  bustle,  and  prosperity.     In  1866  the  reciprocity  treaty  was 
abrogated.     This,  in  its  nature,  was  a  blow  at  Canadian  interests.     It  certainly 
was  so  regarded  north  of  the  St.  Lawrence  and  the  lakes.     It  cut  off  the  ready 
and  profitable  market  the  farmers  had  for  so  long  enjoyed,  and  placed  them 


934 


THE    IMiCSTRlES    OF   CANADA. 


CORLISS  BNOINR. 


manufac- 
tures 


under  great  ilisadvantiJgcs  for  the  sale  of  their  proihice.      It  is  well  known 

that   whatever    seriously   affects   the 

LjIl.  /^jM^  farming   eonuniinity   (luickly   rc-a<  ts 
jIl          ^I^IW^  upon  every  other  occupation  in  the 
'  ■    ■'^^^■H^           coii.'itry.     'i'he  ill  effec  t  of  the  aliro- 
* — — ».  :JAi^^^^l^l-       gation  of  the   treaty  was,    however, 

averted   by    prompt    action    on    the 
l)art  of  the  i)eopl'-  of  the  Dominion. 
\\  ith  true  northern  vigor  they  set  on 
foot  ( ompensatory  measures,  and  in- 
dustry and  agriculture  continued  to 
thrive  side  hy  side.      \\  iiat  was  done  is  referred  to  by  Sir  l-'.dward  Thornton, 
in  his  "  Memorandum  of  Commercial  Relations  "  submitted  to  the  govern- 
ment at  Washington  in  April,  18^4,  as  follows  :  — 

"'Hk-  industry  of  Canada  had  been  largely  attracted  to  the  supply  of  the 
American  market  with  commodities  for  home  consumption  as  well  as  for 
foreign  exportation;  and  the  repeal  in  1866  of  the  reciprocity 
piaycu  in "  treaty,  uncler  which  so  vast  a  trade  had  grown  up,  rendered  im- 
buiiding  up  peratively  necessary  prompt  measures  to  open  new  markets  for  tlie 
sale  of  C  anadian  i)roducti  These  measures  were  at  once  taken. 
Under  the  influence  of  the  formal  notice  given  by  the  United 
States,  in  1865,  of  tluir  intention  to  terminate  die  treaty,  confederation  of  the 
Provinces,  then  undei  discussion,  was  hurried  up,  and  became  a  fait  accompli 
within  fifteen  months  after  the  repeal,  'i'he  Intercolonial  Railway  was  at  once 
undertaken,  at  a  cost  of  over  twenty  million  dollars,  at  the  national  expense, 
to  secure  tlirect  communication  to  and  from  the  Atlantic  Ocean  at  Halifax  and 
St.  John  on  Canadian  soil.  Commissioners  were  despatched  to  the  IJritish 
and  other  West-India  islands,  and  to  the  South-.Xmerican  States,  to  promote 
the  extension  of  direct  trade  between  them  and  the  Dominion.  The  enlarge- 
ment of  the  canals,  and  the  improvement  of  the  navigation  of  the  lakes  and 
the  River  St.  Lawrence,  the  construction  of  the  Bay-Vertc  Canal  to  connect 
the  waters  of  the  Bay  of  Fundy  and  the  St.  Lawrence,  the  subsidizing  of 
ocean  and  river  steamship  lines,  and  the  promotion  of  the  great  ship-building 
and  fishery  interests,  all  received  a  new  and  vigorous  impulse." 

The  building  of  the  Intercolonial  Railroad  was  alone,  for  a  time,  a  great 
compensation  for  the  repeal  of  the  reciprocity  treaty.  At  one  time,  in  1871, 
c  nstr  there  were  employed  in  the  construction  of  it  133,694  men  and 

tion  of  11,960    boys,   29,426   horses,   and    324    oxen.      The    huge  sums 

disbursed  in  Canada  for  the  labor  of  creating  this  road  and  its 
l)lant  did  much  to  atone  for  the  loss  of  free  markets  in  America. 
Another  cause  o])erated  concurrendy  with  those  above  mentioned  to  sustain 
Canadian  industry  during  this  period.  The  state  of  affairs  in  America,  imder 
the  influence  of  a  heavy  internal  taxation,  a  protective  tariff,  and  the  specula- 


Intercolonial 
Ra'lroad. 


yy/A    /A/J(  S/A'/ZiS    OF    VAX  A  PA. 


935 


tivc  prices  which  grew  out  of  the  war,  gave  to  Canaila  what  Mr.  Thomas  Wiiitc, 
jun.,  calls  "an  absolute,  c'lilirc,  and  complete  protection  of  all  the  industries 
of  the  country."  In  onler  to  intluce  the  maritime  proviiu  es  to  unite  in  the 
confederation,  the  protective  duties  introduced  by  Mr.  Gait  were  lowered 
almost  to  a  free-trade  basis,  —  to  a  low-tariff  basis,  at  any  rate.  Hut  the  high 
cost  of  labor  and  materials  in  the  United  States  saved  Canada  from  American 
competition  ;  and  so  her  industries  went  on  expanding  and  thriving  in  spile 
of  the  repeal  of  1866,  which  seemed  so  much  against  her. 

Since  1873,  manufacturing  ir.  Canada  has  encountered  the  same  re-action 
as  it  has  in  other  parts  of  the  world.  The  collapse  of  speculation  and  unset- 
tling of  the  markets  have,  however,  been  met  with  the  same  pluck  Manufactur- 
and  energy  which  characterized  the  Canadians  in  previous  crises,  ing  intereau 
Manufacturers  have  reduced  expenses  and  ])r()(lucti()n  to  give  the  •  "*" ' '3' 
markets  a  chance  to  rec  uperate,  and  they  have  been  exceedingly  wide-awake 
in  the  mailer  of  opening  up  new  fields  for  the  sale  of  their  wares.  They  were 
present  at  the  I'hiladelpiiia  I'Lxhibition  in  force,  and  made  a  display  of  goods 
which  attracted  marked  attention.  Their  whole  exhibit  of  agricultural  tools 
was  bought  by  the  .Australian  commissioners  for  transporlalion  to  .Australia. 
This  was  followed  up  by  the  Canadians  sending  a  ship  or  two  to  Sydney 
Sydney  direct,  loadeil  with  goods  for  the  great  Exhibition  there,  Kxhibition. 
and  for  sale.  They  made  a  better  show  in  that  Exhibition  than  the  Americans 
did,  and  they  have  been  active  ever  since  in  working  up  that  market.  They 
have  also  p.-^id  fresh  attention  to  South-Amerit:an  and  Indian  markets,  and  are 
leaving  no  stone  unturned  to  find  a  jjlace  where  Canadian  goods  can  be  intro- 
duced, and  their  sale  made  to  yield  a  profit.  When  business  revives,  they  will 
be  in  a  most  admirable  posi;ion  to  catch  its  first  and  best  fruits. 

One  of  the  most  characteristic  of  Canadian  industries  is  ship-building. 
The  practice  of  the  art  by  that  people  is  historic,  it  having  come  down  from 
the  earliest  times.  The  bulk  of  the  buikling  is  done  in  the  mari-  ship- 
time  provinces  and  on  the  (iulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  where  the  facili-  t>u>'ding. 
ties  for  it  are  better  than  in  any  other  part  of  the  country,  and  where  the 
fisheries  make  constant  demands  upon  the  yards.  In  187 1  the  distribution  of 
the  yards  was  as  f  Hows  :  — 


Ontario    . 
Quebec    . 
New  Brunswick 
:*  Nova  Scotia    . 

Total 


NU.V.IIER  OP 
SHIP-VAKDS. 


'9 

43 
78 

113 


252 


WORKMEN. 


2,164 

>.3C'4 
2,058 

6,046 


VALUE  OP 
PRODUCT. 


$359.2 '2 
i.35'.4i6 
1,086,714 
1,634,920 


$4,432,262 


s.  „. 


9J6 


THE    JM)VSTNll:S    OF    C  AX  AD  A. 


In  1877  the  number  of  vessels  I)iiilt  in  Canada  was  50S,  of  which  365  were 
launched  in  New  Mrunswit  k,  Nova  Scotia,  and  Prince  lulward  Inland.  This 
shipN  built  refers  simply  to  vessels  larf^e  enouj^h  to  l)e  registered.  'I'here  were 
In  «877.  |,niii  ii,  addilioi.  a  large  number  of  small  boats  for  fishing-i)uriK)se!i 

alongshore,  the  prothu  lion  o*"  which  may  have  been  as  many  as  2,000,  there 
being  built  four  of  these  independent  small  boats  on  an  average  to  one  of  the 
registered  craft.  The  figures  for  Newfotmdiand  are  not  at  hand.  Of  the 
508  vc; sets  built  in  1H77,  1 10  were  sold  to  foreigners.  The  Canadian  ships 
are  gi'ncraily  built  of  soft  wood, --that  is,  s|)ruie,  hackmatack,  and  pine,  —  in 
dislin<  lion  from  oak,  the  latter  wood  being  the  more  connnon  wood  in  Ameri- 
can ships.  'I'hey  are  good  sailers,  an<l  last  for  from  twelve  to  fifteen  years. 
The  Canadian  merchant-marine  in  1871  included  5,672  vessels,  399  of  them 
being  steamboats,  and  2,019  barges. 


EUctrotyped  and  Printed  by  Rand,  Avery,  &'  Co.,  Boston 


^y 


'^1^:,, 


4 


■mf- 


